Resources 2014, 3, 432-453; doi:10.3390/resources3020432 resources ISSN 2079-9276 www.mdpi.com/journal/resources Article Circular Economy: Questions for Responsible Minerals, Additive Manufacturing and Recycling of Metals Damien Giurco 1, *, Anna Littleboy 2 , Thomas Boyle 1 , Julian Fyfe 1 and Stuart White 1 1 Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), P.O. Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia; E-Mails: [email protected] (T.B.); [email protected] (J.F.); [email protected] (S.W.) 2 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Queensland Centre for Advanced Technologies, P.O. Box 887, Kenmore, QLD 4069, Australia; E-Mail: [email protected]* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-2-9514-4978; Fax: +61-2-9514-4941. Received: 10 December 2013; in revised form: 4 March 2014 / Accepted: 21 March 2014 / Published:6 May 2014 Abstract: The concept of the circular economy proposes new patterns of production, consumption and use, based on circular flows of resources. Under a scenario where there is a global shift towards the circular economy, this paper discusses the advent of two parallel and yet-to-be-connected trends for Australia, namely: (i) responsible minerals supply chains and (ii) additive manufacturing, also known as 3D production systems. Acknowledging the current context for waste management, the paper explores future interlinked questions which arise in the circular economy for responsible supply chains, additive manufacturing, and metals recycling. For example, where do mined and recycled resources fit in responsible supply chains as inputs to responsible production? What is required to ensure 3D production systems are resource efficient? How could more distributed models of production, enabled by additive manufacturing, change the geographical scale at which it is economic or desirable to close the loop? Examples are given to highlight the need for an integrated research agenda to address these questions and to foster Australian opportunities in the circular economy. Keywords: additive manufacturing; megatrends; industrial ecology; circular economy; stewardship; recycling OPEN ACCESS
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Kerbside landfill and recyclables collection contracted or
provided by local or state government.
Mixed recyclables to MRF. General waste
may be treated in AWT before
landfill disposal.
Commercial &
Industrial (C&I)
Fragmented—individually negotiated by businesses
depending on nature and volume of waste stream.
Mixed recyclables to MRF. Only a
fraction of mixed waste treated by AWTs
due to variability in content and volume.
Construction &
Demolition (C&D)
Form of service depends on nature and volume of
waste. Small residential jobs typically use skip bins.
Large demolition sites serviced directly by a C&D
waste processor, or indirectly via a waste collection
services provider.
Source separated may be delivered
directly to re-processing facility.
Otherwise sent to transfer station.
5.3.4. Recovery Rates
Metals are present in all waste streams, municipal, Commercial & Industrial (C&I), Construction &
Demolition. Recycling rates for all metals in 2008–2009 were reported to be 89% as shown in Table 3 [60].
Table 3. Metal waste generated and recovered for each Australian state and territory.
Jurisdiction Generation (kg per capita) Recovered (kg per capita) Recovery rate (%)
NSW 252 227 90 Victoria 218 202 93
Queensland 179 156 87 South Australia 212 192 90
Western Australia 214 168 78 Tasmania 27 2 9
Australian Capital Territory 123 107 87 Northern Territory 45 4 8
National 212 188 89
A review of waste and recycling in the C&I sector produced estimates of national recovery rates in
2010–2011 for steel, aluminium and other non-ferrous metals of 83%, 81% and 88%, respectively [67].
These were considered conservative as they were based on materials separated at the source by
generators when separation can occur further along the waste chain. Transport, postal and warehousing
was found to achieve the highest overall rate of recycling in the sector (86%), but produces only 3% of
the sector’s waste load. Manufacturing was the largest waste producer at 3.9 million tonnes per year
or 32% of total C&I waste, but also the second best recycler at 67% overall recovery and 96%
recovery of waste metals. The sectors achieving low rates of recycling include wholesale trade, retail
trade, education and training, although these sectors produce smaller quantities of waste metals.
Surprisingly, recycling of post-consumer steel cans amounts to around 30%–32% of total steel can
consumption (2007–2008), but has been rising since 2002 [68,69]. Other figures are higher at 57%,
highlighting variability in reliable data, but as shown in Figure 2 this rate is still low internationally. It
also seems low in the context of 93% of households having access to steel can recycling services. It
Resources 2014, 3 446
should also be noted that collection and sorting rates are not equivalent to recycling rates. For example
in New South Wales steel cans recovered from domestic waste are exported and have not been
recycled locally since the production of tinned steel sheeting ceased and with it the capacity to de-tin
steel cans. Aluminium can recycling is more effective at 67.4% in 2010 [69], presumably due to the
high value of the material, the presence of container deposit legislation (CDL) and local reprocessing
and refining facilities (that are soon to close).
Figure 2. World steel can recycling rates (2007). (Reproduced with permission from [70],
original data from [71]. Copyright 2011 Elsevier).
Rates of resource recovery are affected by market demand and commodity prices. Recovery of
metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) tends to be relatively stable as there is strong demand, collection and
processing costs tend to be low enough to keep prices below virgin material prices, and contamination
is relatively low [59]. However, this is not always the case. A drop in scrap prices of 75% between
October 2008 and February 2009, causing Australia’s largest scrap recycler to stop buying and
withdraw services in regional areas [61]. Recycled metals are also at a competitive disadvantage due to
virgin resource extraction and refining activities having economies of scale beyond those currently
possible in the collection and reprocessing of recovered materials, and direct and indirect subsidization
of mining.
5.3.5. Reprocessing Infrastructure
As indicated earlier in the case of steel cans, a significant gap in the materials recovery loop in
Australia is the lack of re-manufacturing infrastructure in the recycling industry, which has made it
more attractive for companies to export recovered recyclables instead of performing value-adding
operations in Australia.
Australia was the world’s leading producer of bauxite and alumina in 2011 and the fifth largest
aluminium producer. Australia’s aluminium industry continues to be a highly integrated sector of
mining, refining, smelting and semi-fabrication and is of major economic importance nationally and
Resources 2014, 3 447
globally. Sims Metal has a dedicated secondary aluminium facility in Melbourne, in addition to
Alcoa’s secondary aluminium smelter which accepts cans. The announced closure of the Yennora
aluminium recycling facility in mid 2014, puts a cloud over the future of aluminum recycling in
Australia. City-based recycling operations for other metals may be considered where technology
development and value opportunities align.
The question in relation to the circular economy is: where is the greatest opportunity to capture
value, either social, economic or even avoided negative environmental value—and then, what
connections would be required, for example, between waste infrastructure, additive manufacturing
possibilities and responsible mineral supply chains to position Australia for success?
6. Concluding Discussion
Recognizing the scale of the shift required and the nature of production, consumption and waste
management in Australia, the discussion begins with a powerful conclusion from Preston [72]:
“The circular economy offers a transformational agenda that aims to redesign global
production and consumption systems. Many of the ideas are decades old, but a
combination of environmental and resource price pressures, technological advancements
and changes in consumer demand is finally building momentum. Both the private sector
and governments increasingly recognize that future competitiveness will depend on
leadership in resource-related innovation.”
What are the implications of the circular economy for recycling metals in Australia? Based on the
current state of waste management legislation and practice in Australia, significant work will be
required to realize circular economy opportunities. For example, container deposit legislation, whilst
operating successfully in South Australia and the Northern Territory is still yet to be introduced in
Australia’s most populous states of New South Wales and Victoria; and even where aluminium cans
are collected, they may now be exported instead of recycled locally due to the closure of a secondary
aluminium smelter in NSW. However, experience is being gained by industry and government in the
operation of the product stewardship legislation nationally for televisions and computers. As this gets
reviewed, attention should also turn to implications of the role of “responsible secondary supply chain
certification” on future rules. Furthermore, the potentially disruptive influence of additive
manufacturing must be considered. As shown in the scenarios described, it has the potential to reduce
material throughput and extend product lifetimes, but without ensuring design for disassembly overall
results may be mixed. Additional foresight work to understand the ramifications from plausible
scenarios, not only for additive manufacturing, but also for the circular economy at different scales is
needed to extend the baseline analysis from this paper.
By way of identifying important future directions, Table 4 outlines a spectrum of future research
questions structured at different scales which would need to be addressed in a way which recognizes
connections and dependencies between scales. Illustrative examples for steel, gold and aluminium are
used to show the diversity of issues present.
Resources 2014, 3 448
Table 4. Connections between future research agendas for the circular economy in Australia.
Theme Australia (at local sites) Australia (at sector/economy level) Implications for Australia as a supplier to global customers
Circular economy
How can existing examples of established industrial ecology precincts (e.g., Gladstone, Kwinana) be used to develop best practices
and global leadership?
What awareness raising is required to adequately address the future significance of the circular economy (for
example given policy level commitments in China and Japan)? What indicators are appropriate?
What is Australia’s niche in terms of primary and secondary supplier and new business models under a
circular economy?
Responsible supply chains
How may local supply chains be affected if 3D printing enables distributed
manufacturing?
What can be learned from the Steel Stewardship Forum and the Responsible Jewellery Council for new
geographies of production and consumption from primary and secondary sources?
Can Australia lead the development of chain of custody standards into
China whilst promoting Brand Australia?
Steel What economic diversification options exist for the Australia steel manufacturing sector?
How will tagging of steel properties in infrastructure applications affect reuse rates?
What will be the effect of recycling in China on iron ore demand from
Australia?
Gold How will e-waste recovery of gold affect Australian supply (the gold content of electronics can determine the economics of recycling)?
Aluminium
How might container deposit and other extended producer legislation for aluminium
or e-waste foster drop off centres, change recycling economics and support city-based
mini-recycling plants?
How may the relative export demand for Australian bauxite shift as the geography of aluminium smelting shifts to lower carbon intensity and lower cost electricity jurisdictions? How might investment in clean energy in place of coal based power affect the economics of aluminium
production in Australia, in light of recent closure of local aluminium smelting capacity?
Manufacturing and design
How could distributed design and additive manufacturing reshape both manufacturing
and recycling in Australia for improved social and environmental outcomes?
What is Australia’s competitive advantage in new global markets for manufacturing and design such as leasing ‘responsibly sourced (or recycled) metals’ to additive manufacturers?
What is required to ensure additive manufacturing is resource efficient?
Waste and recycling context
How can Australia strengthen waste capture rates and promotion of an industry culture compatible with the circular economy?
Resources 2014, 3 449
Overall, these factors influence the scale of closing the loop in terms of economic benefit and
environmental and social value. They require a future research agenda which includes a better
integrated understanding of circular economy business models and implications for Australia’s future
metals management and prosperity.
Acknowledgments
This research was undertaken as part of the Wealth from Waste Research Cluster, a collaborative
program between the Australian Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO);
University of Technology, Sydney; The University of Queensland, Swinburne University of
Technology, Monash University and Yale University. The authors gratefully acknowledge the
contribution each partner and the CSIRO Flagship Collaboration Fund. The Wealth from Waste
Research Cluster is a part of the Minerals Down Under National Research Flagship and is supported
by the Future Manufacturing National Research Flagship. Thanks a lot to Leah Mason and Toby Gray
for valuable discussions and to Sarah King, Artem Golev, Glen Corder and Saleem Ali for comments
on the paper.
Author Contributions
Anna Littleboy contributed to the introduction and the section on circular economy. Damien Giurco
contributed to the introduction, section on circular economy and the Australian context, and wrote the
text on responsible supply chains. The section on trends in additive manufacturing was written by
Thomas Boyle, while the sub-sections relating to waste in the Australian context were written by
Julian Fyfe. The concluding discussion was written by Damien Giurco with input from Stuart White.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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