7/25/2019 Circuits lecture http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/circuits-lecture 1/24 Term Roadmap : • Introduction to Signal Processing • Differentiating and Integrating Circuits (OpAmps) • Clipping and Clamping Circuits(Diodes) • Design of analog filters • Sinusoidal Oscillators • Multivibrators • Sampling and Quantization techniques of analog signals • DACs and ADCs • Data Acquisition Systems • Introduction to discrete time transform and DSP • The Z transform • Design of Digital Filters Materials Types 1. INSULATORS • An INSULATOR is any material that inhibits (stops) the flow of electrons (electricity). • An insulator is any material with 5 to 8 free electrons in the outer ring. Because, atoms with 5 to 8 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) tightly to the atom, they CANNOT be easily moved to another atom nor make room for more electrons. • Insulator material includes glass, rubber, and plastic
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• Differentiating and Integrating Circuits (OpAmps)
• Clipping and Clamping Circuits(Diodes)
• Design of analog filters
• Sinusoidal Oscillators
• Multivibrators
• Sampling and Quantization techniques of analog signals
• DACs and ADCs• Data Acquisition Systems
• Introduction to discrete time transform and DSP
• The Z transform
• Design of Digital Filters
Materials Types
1. INSULATORS
• An INSULATOR is any material that inhibits
(stops) the flow of electrons (electricity).
• An insulator is any material with 5 to 8 freeelectrons in the outer ring. Because, atomswith 5 to 8 electrons in the outer ring are held(bound) tightly to the atom, they CANNOT beeasily moved to another atom nor make roomfor more electrons.
• Insulator material includes glass, rubber, andplastic
A CONDUCTOR is any material that easilyallows electrons (electricity) to flow.
• A CONDUCTOR has 1 to 3 free electrons inthe outer ring. Because atoms with 1 to 3electrons in the outer ring are held (bound)loosely to the atom, they can easily move toanother atom or make room for more electrons.
• Conductor material includes copper and gold
Materials Types3. SEMICONDUCTORS
• Any material with exactly 4 free electrons inthe outer orbit are called
SEMICONDUCTORS.
• A semiconductor is neither a conductor or insulator.
• Semiconductor material includes carbon,silicon, and germanium.
• These materials are be used in themanufacturer of diodes, transistors, andintegrated circuit chips.
Semiconductor Diode• Diode is formed by bringing these two material together p- and n-type.• Holes diffuse from the p side to the n side, leaving behind negatively
charged immobile negative ions.• Electrons diffuse from the n side to the p side, leaving behind positively
charged immobile positive ions.• Electrons and holes at joined region will combine, resulting in a lack of
carriers in the region near the junction ( depletion region )
• In the forward region the i- v relationship is closely approximated by…..
• I s …….the reverse saturation current ( scale current)
– K = Boltzmann`s constant = 1.38*10-23 joules / kelvin
– T k = the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + temperature in °C
)1( k T kv
e I i s
The i–v characteristic of a silicon diode.• The Reverse-Bias region:-
• The exponential term becomes negligibly small compared to unity, and the diode current becomes…..
• That is, the current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to I s which tends tozero.
• The Breakdown Region:-
• The breakdown region is entered when the magnitude of the reverse voltage exceeds athreshold value that is specific to the particular diode, called the breakdown voltage .
Figure 3.1 The ideal diode: (a) diode circuit symbol; (b) i – characteristic;(c) equivalent circuit in the reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in theforward direction.
Figure 3.2 The two modes of operation ofideal diodes and the use of an external circuitto limit the forward current (a) and the reversevoltage (b) .
Modeling the diode forward characteristic
The Piecewise-linear Model
Figure 3.12 Approximating the diode forwardcharacteristic with two straight lines: the piecewise-linear model.
Figure 3.13 Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and itsequivalent circuit representation.
Figure 3.14 The circuit ofFig. 3.10 with the diodereplaced with its piecewise-linear model of Fig. 3.13.
Figure 3.15 Development of the constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forwardcharacteristics. A vertical straight line (B) is usedto approximate the fast-rising exponential.Observe that this simple model predicts V D towithin 0.1 V over the current range of 0.1 mA to10 mA.
Figure 3.16 The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forwardcharacteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.
AND/OR Gates AND and OR gates represent basic components of computers thatare used to implement Boolean algebra.
OR-Gate AND-Gate1 2 3
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
1 2 3
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
If logic “ 1” is represented by + 10 (+5 ) V and logic “ 0” isrepresented by 0 V, the OR and the AND gates can berepresented by the following diode combinations;
AND/OR GatesFor the OR gate; – D1 ON – D2 OFF – V0=10V ( logic 1)For the AND gate; – D1 OFF – D2 ON – V0=0V ( logic 0)
• So far, we have considered time invariant signals only (DC).• Now, diode circuit analysis will be extended to include circuits containing time
varying signals (AC).• The simplest diode application that uses AC signals is the HWR signal shown.• To simplify the analysis, we’ll assume that the diodes used are ideal.
• Note that, the DC content of the input waveform is zero, Why?• During time interval t=0 T/2, diode is ON.• Since we are using an ideal diode model, v 0 =v i .• During the time interval t=T/2 T, diode is OFF ; v 0 =0.• Now, what is the value of the DC level in the output waveform? (V dc=0.318V m)
• In case of using the constant voltage drop diode model, during the conduction period diode will be replaced with a constant voltage source V D0.
• Thus, the peak of the output waveform will decrease from V s by V D0.
• In addition, the conduction period of the diode will be slightly less than T/2.
• In this case, the DC content of the output waveform becomes;• Vdc 0.318(V s-VD0) (Note:0.318V s =V s/ ) (Vs i.e Vm , V D0 i.e VT)• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)• Definition: PIV is the value of the maximum reverse voltage that is expected
to apply to the diode in during its operation.• PIV: Peak Inverse Voltage in this case = V s, Thus, PIV rating >V s
• DC level can be improved to 100% of that obtained in HWR, by using the full-waverectifier configuration shown.
• For t=0 T/2, D1 and D2 ON while D3, and D4 OFF.• For t=T/2 T, D3, D4 ON, while D1 and D2 OFF.• As seen form the waveform generated, the DC level for that configuration is twice that of
the HWR.• Vdc(FWR) =2 Vdc(HWR) = 2 0.318V s , ideal diode model.• =2 0.318(V s-2V D0) simplified• PIV| rating >V s
Clippers• Clipper circuits is used to remove one part of the signal without distorting the remaining part.• The orientation of the diode determines the part of the signal that is removed, while the value
of the DC controls the level of clipping.• It is usually consists of , a diode, a resistance and a DC source.• Clippers have two major configurations;
– Series Configuration, where the diode is connected in series with the the source. – Parallel Configuration; where the diode is connected in parallel with the output port.
• Single Side Clippers Double Side Clippers
• Series Clippers
– The output voltage is given by KVL as; – v o= v s-V- V D such that the voltage at the diode input has to be greater than V T for the
diode to conduct. Otherwise, the diode will be off and v o will be zero.
Lec(3-1)
Parallel ClippersUpper Side Clippers:
Lower Side Clipper
Time
0s 100ms 200ms 300ms 400ms 500msV (V :+ ) V (R L: 2)
Clampers• A clamping circuit is the circuit that is used to clamp a signal to a certain
DC level.• It must contain a capacitor, a diode and a resistive element.
• The value of the discharging time constant of the capacitor, dis=RC>>T/2has to be large enough to ensure that the capacitor doesn’t discharge duringthe OFF period of the diode.
• The very small resistance of the diode R D makes the charging time constantch=R DC so small that its can be considered that the diode charges in zero
time.
Clampers• Rules:
– The Direction of the diode’s arrow determines whether the signal isclamped up or down.
– The value of the DC source connected to the diode’s anode determinesthe max or the min of the clamped signal respectively.
• Operation – For t=0 T/2, D is ON
Resistance R1 isshort-circuited by the diode.
– C charges to V m inzero time (theoretically).
– For t=T/2 T,D is OFF. – C discharges through R1 – The Value of the output voltage