Chronological Table - Springer978-1-349-27918-0/1.pdf · Chronological Table 19 16 1917 18 January 26 April ... 9 April Dawes Plan issued ... --,67th Congress, Second Session, Senate

Chronological Table

1916 1917

18 January 26 April 25 May 24 October 16 May 2 November 7 November 8 January 17 February 3 March 5 April 23 June 4 October 30 October 3 November 6 November II November 18 January 14 February 4 March 24 March 28 March 29 March 7 May 28 June

10 September

12 September 12 October 27 November

1920 10 January 2 February

16 March

Japan's 21 Demands on China Allied-Italian Treaty of London Sino-Japanese agreements McMahon Pledge to Sharif Hussein Sykes-Picot agreement on Middle East Balfour Declaration on Palestine Lenin's coup in Russia Wilson's Fourteen Points British forces land in Transcaucasus Russo-German Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Japanese occupy Vladivostok British forces land at Murmansk Germany requests an armistice Turkish unconditional surrender Austro-Hungarian Armistice Pre-Armistice agreement with Germany German Armistice Paris Peace Conference opens League of Nations Covenant approved Comintern founded at Moscow Council of Four begins Hungary invades Slovakia China leaves Peace Conference Versailles Treaty presented to Germany Versailles Treaty signed First Minorities Treaty Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with

Austria D'Annunzio seizes Fiume British evacuate Murmansk Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria Versailles Treaty enters into force Russo-Estonian peace treaty of Tartu

(Dorpat) Allies occupy Constantinople

148 THE ILLUSION OF PEACE

1921

1922

19 March

4 April 18-26 April 25 April 4 June 6 July 12 July 16 July 10 August II August 14 August 14-16 August 7 September 9 October 14 October 28 October 12 November 19 February 3 March 8 March 16 March 18 March 20 March 27 March 5 May 5 June 7 June 25 August 21-25 October 12 November 6 December 6-13 January 6 February

15 March IO April-

19 May 16 April I August 4 October

I I October

Final U.S. Senate defeat of Versailles Treaty

France occupies Frankfurt San Remo Conference Polish offensive against Russia Treaty of Trianon with Hungary Russian offensive against Poland Russo-Lithuanian peace treaty of Moscow Spa Protocol on reparations Treaty of Sevres with Turkey Russo-Latvian peace treaty of Riga Czech-Yugoslav alliance Poles defeat Russians at Warsaw Franco-Belgian military convention Poland seizes Vilna Russo-Finnish peace treaty of Tartu Bessarabian Accord Italo-Yugoslav treaty of Rapallo Franco-Polish alliance Polish-Romanian pact against Russia Entente occupation of Dusseldorf Anglo-Soviet trade agreement Russo-Polish peace treaty of Riga Upper Silesian plebiscite Habsburg coup in Hungary fails London Schedule of Payments Czech-Romanian alliance Yugoslav-Romanian alliance U.S.-German peace treaty of Berlin Habsburg coup in Hungary fails Washington Conference opens Anglo-Irish peace agreement Cannes Conference Five Power Treaty on Naval Limitations Nine Power Treaty on China Four Power Treaty on Pacific Islands Russo-German military agreement Genoa Conference

Russo-German treaty of Rapallo Balfour note on war debts Geneva Protocol for Austrian financial

reconstruction Mudanya armistice ends Chanak crisis

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 149

25 October Japanese evacuate Vladivostok 26 December Reparations Commission declares German

timber default 1923 9 January Reparations Commission declares German

coal default 10 January Lithuania occupies Memel II January Ruhr occupation begins 19 January German passive resistance begins 30 January Greco-Turkish convention on minorities

exchange 24 July Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey 31 August Italy occupies Corfu 12 September Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance 17 September Italy seizes Fiume 26 September German passive resistance ends 20 November German currency stabilised

1924 25 January Franco-Czech alliance 27 January I talo-Yugoslav treaty of Rome I February Britain recognises Soviet government 9 April Dawes Plan issued 18 April League reorganises Hungarian finances 5 July Britain rejects Draft Treaty of Mutual

Assistance 16 July- London Reparations Conference

16 August 2 October Geneva Protocol for Pacific Settlement of

International Disputes 25 October Zinoviev letter published

1925 15 February I.M.C.C. Final Report 10 March Britain rejects Geneva Protocol 27 August Last French troops leave the Ruhr 16 October Locarno treaties initialled 22 October Greece invades Bulgaria I December Locarno treaties signed

1926 31 January First Rhineland zone evacuated 17 March Brazil blocks German League entry 26 March Polish-Romanian guarantee treaty 24 April Russo-German treaty of Berlin 10 June Franco-Romanian friendship treaty 12 June Brazil leaves the League 17 August Greco-Yugoslav friendship treaty 10 September Germany enters the League I I September Spain leaves the League 16 September Italo-Romanian friendship treaty


17 September Thoiry talks 26 September International Steel Agreement 3-6 October First Pan-European Congress, Vienna 27 November Italo-Albanian treaty of Tirana

1927 31 January LM.C.C. abolished 25 February British forces mass at Shanghai 5 April Italo-Hungarian friendship treaty 2-23 May World Economic Conference, Geneva 27 May Britain breaks relations with Russia 20 June- Geneva Naval Conference

4 August II November Franco-Yugoslav treaty of understanding 10 December Polish-Lithuanian state of war ends

1928 27 August Kellogg-Briand Pact 16 September Geneva communique on Rhineland and

reparations 1929 9 February Litvinov Protocol

I I February Lateran Accords 7 June Young Report issued 31 August Hague Conference Proto(:ol on Young Plan 3 October Anglo-Russian relations restored 29 October New York Stock Exchange collapse 13 November Bank for International Settlements estab-

lished 30 November Second Rhineland zone evacuated

1930 3-20 January Second Hague Conference 18 February- Geneva tariff conference

24 March 22 April London Naval Treaty 17 May Young Plan into force

Briand memo on United States of Europe 30 June Last Rhineland zone evacuated 14 September German Reichstag elections (107 Nazis)

1931 20 March Reichstag appropriation for Cruiser B 21 March Austro-German customs union announced II May Austrian Creditanstalt fails 19 May Deutschland launched 20 June Hoover Moratorium proposed II August London Protocol on Hoover Moratorium 5 September P.C.I.]. ruling on Austro-German customs

union 18 September Mukden incident 2 I September Britain abandons Gold Standard II Decemb('r Statute of Westminster

1932 7 January 21 January 22 January 28 January 2 February 5 February 9 March I I March 4 May 16 June-

9 July 21 July-

20 August 25 July 29 November

1933 30 January 16 February 24 February 27 March 31 May !2 June-

27 July 15 July 14 October

1934 26 January 18 September

1935 2 May 16 May

1936 7 March

1937 7 July 5 October

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 151

Stimson note on non-recognition Russo-Finnish non-aggression pact Second Russian five-year plan Sino-Japanese clash at Shanghai Geneva Disarmament Conference opens Russo-Latvian non-aggression pact Manchukuo proclaimed League adopts non-recognition Russo-Estonian non-aggression pact Lausanne reparations conference

Imperial Economic Conference, Ottawa

Russo-Polish non-aggression pact Russo-French non-aggression pact Hitler becomes German Chancellor Little Entente Pact of Organisation League adopts Lytton Report Japan leaves the League Sino-Japanese truce ofT'ang-Ku World Economic Conference, London

Four Power Pact signed at Rome Germany leaves League and Disarmament

Conference German-Polish non-aggression pact Russia enters League Russo-French mutual assistance treaty Russo-Czech mutual assistance treaty Hitler remilitarises Rhineland and de-

nounces Locarno pacts Sino-Japanese war begins Roosevelt's quarantine speech

Bibliography

THE following lists exclude unpublished materials.

I. DOCUMENTS AND OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

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'54 THE ILLUSION OF PEACE

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4. PERIODICALS

(a) Articles Cited GEORGE A. GRUN, 'Locarno, idea and reality', International Affairs

(October, 1955). F. G. STAMBROOK, '''Das Kind" - Lord D'Abernon and the

origins of the Locarno Pact', Central European History (September, 1968).

Le Temps (Paris, 4 May 1922 et seq.). The Times (London, 25 October 1924).

BIBLIOGRAPHY 161

T.R.B. (RICHARD L. STROUT), 'The tarnished age', New Republic (26 October 1974).

(b) Generally Useful Journals. Central European History. French Historical Studies. International Affairs. Journal <if British Studies. Journal <if Central European Affairs. Journal <if Contemporary History. Journal <if Modem History. Mid-America. The Slavonic and East European Review.

(c) Generally Useful Newspapers. The Christian Science Monitor (Boston, Mass., and international

editions). The Manchester Guardian. The New York Herald Tribune. The New York Times (indexed). Le Temps (Paris). The Times (London) (indexed).

Notes and References

ABBREVIATIONS

CAB 2/-, CAB 23/-

Cmd. DBFP

DD

DDB

DIA

FMAE F.0·37 1/-

FRUS

FRUS PPC

Hymam/-

S.D.-

SIA

Cabinet Papers, Public Record Office (P.R.O.), London

Parliamentary Command Papers, London l' oreign Office, Documents on British Foreign Polify,

1919-1939, London Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Documents diplo

matiques, various, Paris Academie Royale de Belgique, Documents diplomatiques

belges, 1920-1940, Brussels Royal Institute of International Affairs, Documents on

International Affairs, London, annual Foreign Ministry files, Quai d'Orsay, Paris Foreign Office files, Public Record Office (P.R.O.),

London Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Rela

tions of the United States, Washington, annual Department of State, The Paris Peace Conference, 1919,

Washington Papers of Paul Hymans, Archives generales du

Royaume, Brussels Department of State, decimal files, National Archives,

Washington Royal Institute of International Affairs, Sunry of

International Affairs, London, annual

I. THE PURSUIT OF PEACE

I. On the Inquiry, see Laurence E. Gdfand, The Inquiry: American Preparations for Peace, 1917-1919 (New Haven, Conn., 1963). In the end most of the experts of the large American delegation came from the Inquiry, not the State Department. A few of them were more influential than some of the plenipotentiaries.

2. On ''\Tilson's vacuity, see Charles Seymour, Letters from the Paris Peace Coriference (New Haven, Conn., 1965) pp. xxx-xxxii, 10, 20-6; and Robert Lansing, The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference (Boston, Mass., 1921) PP·40-2.

3. For details, see J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918-1945 (New York, 1964).

4. The full annotated text of the Fourteen Points and the subsequent Wilsoni#ln pronouncements may be found in Ferdinand Czernin, Versailles, 1919 (New York, 1965 ed.) pp. 10-22.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 163

5. The definitive study of the armistice is Harry Rudin, Armistice, 1918 (New Haven, Conn., 1944).

6. For wartime Czech efforts, see Vera Olivova, The Doomed Democracy: Czechoslovakia in a Disrupted Europe, 1914-1938 (London, 1972).

7. A convenient summary of the secret treaties may be found in H. W. V. Temperley, History 'If the Peace Conference of Paris, 6 vols (London, 1920) I.

8. On the Russian situation, see John Bradley, Allied Intervention in Russia, 1917-1920 (New York, 1968); George F. Kennan, The Decision to Intervene (Princeton, N.J., 1958); Richard Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917-192I, 3 vols (Princeton, N.J., 1961-7); and Arno Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles, 1918-1919 (New York, 1967).

9. See Laurence W. Martin, Peace without Victory (New Haven, Conn., 1958); N. Gordon Levin, Jr, Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (London, 1968); and Harold Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (London, 1933).

10. On the Shantung question, see Russell Fifield, TVoodrow Wilson and the Far East (New York, 1952) ..

I I. See Ann Williams, Britain and France in the Middle East and North Africa, 1914-1967 (London, 1968) and Peter Mansfield, The Ottoman Empire and its Successors (London, 1973).

12. Warren F. Kuehl, Seeking World Order: The United States and International Organization to 1920 (Nashville, Tenn., 1969) p. 199. On wartime efforts toward international organisation, see Kuehl and also Henry R. Winkler, The League 'If Nations }vlovement in Great Britaill, 1914-1919 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1952).

13. The standard work on this subject is Z. A. B. Zeman, The Break-up of the Habsburg Empire, 1914-1918 (London, 1961).

14. See F. L. Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe, 1918-1919 (Berkeley, Cal., 1972), and also Bradley. Despite factual errors, Edmond Taylor, The Fall 'If the Dynasties: The Collapse of the Old Order, 1905-1922 (New York, 1963) is also useful.

15. While literature on the League of Nations from start to finish tends to be skimpy, David Hunter 1-filler's The Drafting of the Covenant, 2 vols (New York, 1928) provides a detailed participant's account ofthe deliberations at Paris.

16. On Hankey's important role, see S. W. Roskill's excellent Hankey: Man of Secrets (London, 1972) II.

17. Christopher Seton-Watson, Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870--1925 (London, 1967) p. 537.

18. A detailed and noticeably sympathetic study of the German delegation may be found in Alma Luckau, The German Delegation at the Paris Peace Conference (New York, 1941).

19. For the full annotated text of the Treaty of Versailles, see FRUS PPC, xm.

20. A lively and subjective summary of the chief battles of the conference may be found in Thomas Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace (New York, 1944). See also Seth P. Tillman's Anglo-American Relations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 (Princeton, N.J., 1961), and Czernin.

2 I. This attitude is most fully explored by Martin and by Levin. 22. The definitive study of the formation of the German frontiers is Harold

Nelson, Land and Power: British and Allied Policy on Germany's Frontiers, 1916-19 (Toronto, 1963).

23. Czernin,p. 31. 24. For the 1839 treaties, see British and Forei,(!n Slate Papers, XXVII, 990-1002.

For Bethmann-Hollweg's statement, see J. H. R. O'Regan The German "Var of 1914 (London, 1915) pp. 49-50.


25. On the impracticality of collective security, see Inis. L. Claude, Jr, Swords into Plowshares, the Problems and Progress of International Organization (New York, 1971 ed.) ch. 12.

26. See, among others, Bailey, pp. 312-14, and Eyck, I 80-5. 27. The classic exposition of this view isJohn Maynard Keynes, The &onomic

Consequences of the Peace (London, 1919). It should be read in conjunction with ttienne Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace, or the &onomic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (Oxford, 1946).

28. FRUS PPC, II 139, XII 12-13, 16-26, 28-g, 33, 82-6. See also Eyck, 1103; Robert Waite, Vanguard of Nazism (Cambridge, Mass., 1952) pp. 6-8; J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, Hindenburg: The Wooden Titan (London, 1936) pp.215-21, 229, 235-8; A. J. Nicholls, Weimar and the Rise of Hitler (London, 1968) pp. 53-61.

29. For texts of all four treaties, see Fred L. Israel, Major Peace Treaties of Modern History, 1648-1967 (New York, 1967) III.

30. On this fear, see Mayer and also Levin. 31. On the Austrian financial collapse and its aftermath, see Charles A.

Gulick, Austria from Habsburg to Hitler, 2 vols (Berkeley, Cal., 1948) I ch. IX

and Stanley Suval, The Anschluss Question in the Weimar Era (Baltimore, Md, 1974) ch. XI.

32. On the negotiation of the Treaty of Trianon, see Francis Deak, Hungary at the Paris Peace Conference (New York, 1942).

33. See Paul C. Helmreich,FromParis to sevres (ColumbU&, Ohio, 1973)· 34. DBFP, First Series, VIII, 9. 35. For all the texts concerned and an Arab analysis of them, see George

Antonius, The Arab Awakening (New York, 1939). For more recent studies, see Ann Williams, Mansfield, and Z. N. Zeine, The Struggle for Arab Independence (Beirut, 1960).

36. On all three questions, see Rene Albrecht-Carrie, Italy at the Paris Peace Conference (New York, 1938). See also Ivo Lederer, Tugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference (New Haven, Conn., 1963).

37. On the Turkish national movement, see Mansfield and also Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, 1968 ed.). A brief account of the negotiation of the Treaty of Lausanne is provided by Roderic H. Davison, 'Turkish Diplomacy from Mudros to Lausanne,' in Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert (eds), The Diplomats, 191!}-1939 (Princeton, N.J., 1953). The negotiations may also be traced in DBFP, First Series, XVIII.

38. For example, Eyck, I 106. 39. For details, see C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her SlJt;ctSsors, 191!}-1937

(London, 1937) and also Macartney and A. W. Palmer, Independent Eastern Europe (London, 1966).

40. The late correspondent and Professor Elizabeth Wiskemann so remarked to the author, London, March 1971.

41. Emile Cammaerts, Albert of Belgium, Defender of Right (London, 1935) p. 347·

42. For text, see Israel, III.

2. THE EFFORT TO ENFORCE THE PEACE

I. Senator Kenneth Wherry of Nebraska in 1940, as quoted by T.R.B. (Richard L. Strout), 'The tarnished age', New Republic (26 Oct 1974) p. 4.

2. Leonard Mosley,Curzon: The EndofanEpoch (London, 19OO) p. 210. 3. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses (New York, 1930, 1957


ed.) P.55. See also his ch. 14, urging both European union and the necessity for European domination of the world.

4. Maj.-Gen. Sir C. E. Call well, Field A{arshal Sir Henry Wilson, His Life and Diaries, 2 vols (London, 1927) II 193.

5. Olivov3. provides a convenient summary of the central-European ramifications of the Russo-Polish conflict.

6. Summary treatments of the Russo-Polish war and settlement may be found in Hans Roos, A History of Modem Poland (New York, 1966), and in Bernadotte E. Schmitt (ed.), Poland (Berkeley, Cal., 1945). For more detail, see Piotr Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, I9I7-I92I (Cambridge, Mass., 1969).

7. FRUS PPC, XIII 8. 8. DBFP, First Series, XVI 864. g. This nervousness is clearly revealed in Committee of Imperial Defence

papers and meetings. See, for example, CAB 2/3, passim. 10. DBFP, First series, XVI 862. I I. Pierre Rain, L' Europe de Versailles (Paris, 1945) p. 141. 12. Sir Robert Vansittart, 'An aspect of International Relations in 1931'

(n.d.) p. 29, F.O. 371/15205. 13. See R. Machray, The Little Entente (London, 1929). For a brief but more

recent and well-researched analysis, see Robert L. Rothstein, Alliances and Small Powers (New York, 1968) ch. 4.

14. The Spa negotiations may be traced in DBFP, First Series, VIII. The Spa Protocol dividing reparations was published as Cmd. 1615 (London, 1922).

15. Gaston A. Furst, De Versailles aux experts (Nancy, 1927) pp. 124-6, 133-4, 346. Also indispensable on any question concerning German reparations is Etienne Weill-Raynall, Les reparations allemandes et la France, 3 vols (Paris, 1947)·

16. The Text of the London Schedule appears in Reparation Commission, Official Documents (London, 1922) I. The London Conference may be traced in DBFP, First Series, xv.

17. For the Franco-Belgian negotiations, see DDB, I. For the eastern alliances, see Piotr Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, I9I!}-I925(Minneapolis, Minn., 1962).

18. The only substantial studies of the Washington Naval Conference are Yamoto Ichihashi, The Washington Conference and After (Palo Alto, Cal., 1928), and Ian Nish, Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations, I90B-I923 (London, 1972). See also the summary account in SIA. 1920-1923. For documents, see Cmd. 1627 (London, 1922); DD, Conjirell<:e de Washington (Paris, 1923); and especially FRUS, 1921, I, and 1922, I. Minutes of meetings may be found in United States, 67th Congress, Second Session, Senate Document No. 126, Conference on the Limitation of Armament (Washington, D.C., 1922).

19. See Georges Suarez, Briand: sa vie, son lEuvre, 6 vols (Paris, 1938-52) v. 20. Frank Owen, Tempestuous Journey: Lloyd George, his Life and Times (New

York, 1955) pp. 598-9. On the Anglo-French negotiations, see also Cmd. 2169 (London, 1924) and DD, Documents relatifs aux negociations concernant les garanties desecuriti .... (Paris, 1924).

21. Jacques Bardoux, Lloyd Georgeet LaFrance (Paris, 1923) pp. 18, 19,30. 22. A thorough study of the Genoa Conference remains to be written. The

Rapallo negotiation is summarised in Eyck, 1 202-8. For the conference itself, documentary material is contained in Cmd. 1667 (London, 1922); DD, Corifirence economique internationale de genes (Paris, 1923); and Jane Degras (ed.), Soviet Documents on Foreign Policy, 3 vols (London, 1951-3) I.

23. For details, see Hans Gatzke, 'Russo-German military collaboration


during the \Veimar Republic', in European Diplomacy between Two Wars, ed. Hans Gatzke (Chicago, 1972). For the memoir of a participant, see Gustav Hilger and Alfred G. Meyer, The Incompatible Allies, German-Soviet Relations, 1918-1941 (New York, 1953), especially chs VI and VII.

24. Le Temps (4 May 1922 et seq.). 25. See Cmd. 1812 (London, 1923), Cmd. 2258 (London, 1924), and DD,

Demande de moratorium du gouvernement allemand . ... (Paris, 1924). 26. F.O. memo (23 Nov. 1922) F.O. 371/7487. 27. Crowe memo (27 Dec. 1922) F.O. 371/7491; Ryan to Lampson (5 Jan

1923), no number, F.O. 371/8626. 28. Commission des Reparations, Rapport sur les Iravaux de la commission des

reparations de 1920 ti 1922,2 vols (Paris, 1923) 1 241-7," 465-88, 430-1. 29. For text, see Cmd. 1812. 30. Godley to War Office (7 Jan. 1923), tel. C.O. 371!7 /1, F.O. 37118703;

Crewe to Curzon (11 Feb. 1923), tel. 173, F.O. 37118712; Cabinet 10 (23) (15 Feb. 1923) CAB 23/45.

31. DD, Demande de moratorium • .• , pp. 93-7; Grahame to Curzon (I Mar. 1923) tel. 39, F.O. 371/8718; Crewe to Curzon (14 July 1923) no. 680, F.O. 371/8643; Phipps to Tyrrell (8 Sept. 1923), Phipps to Crowe (6 Nov. 1923), Phipps papers (London). To this should be added the substantial evidence from French sources in Stephen A. Schuker, The End of French Predominance in Europe (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1976), pp. 20-4, 117, 123, 179.

32. Germany, Akten der Reichskanzlei, Das Kabinett Cuno (Boppard am Rhein, 1968) pp. 158-g.

33. Cole to Wigram (30 Jan. 1923) F.O. 371/8709; Ramsbottom to Bennett (24 Aug. 1923) F.O. 371/8651; Board of Trade memo (25 Aug. 1923) F.O. 37 1/ 865 1 •

34. For details, see Nicholls. 35. Ultimately nearly 900 million gold marks or almost £45 million. FRUS

PPC, XIII, 785. 36. Most published accounts of Rhenish separatism are unreliable. Materials

on the subject may be found in F.O. 371/8682-8691, F.O. 371/977o-g776, and Henri Jaspar papers (Brussels), files 235, 240 and FMAE, Serie Z, Rive Gauche du Rhin, files 30-47.

37. For text, see Reparations Commission, Official Documents, XIV (London 192 7).

38. S.D. 462.00R 296/376. 39. For heavily edited minutes of the technical work of the London Con

ference, see Cmd. 2258 (London, I924) and Cmd. 2270 (London, 1924). There were no minutes kept of political discussions except those with Germany (CAB 29/104). The least inadequate notes were those of Paul Hymans, Belgian Foreign Minister (Hymans/157). Stresemann's exchanges with Berlin are also helpful (German Foreign Ministry microfilm, GFM, 3398/1736 series). For texts of agreements, see Cmd. 2259 (London, 1924).

40. Schuker, pp. 302-18, 349-53.

3. THE REVISION OF THE PEACE

I. The early negotiations may be traced in DBFP, First Series, VIII, XII, ana Degras, Soviet Documents, I.

2. The Times (London, 25 October 1924).


3. On the Comintern, see Julius Braunthal, History of tire International, 2 vols (New York, 1967) II; Jane Degras (ed.), The Communist International, 191!}-1913: Documents, 3 vols (London, 1956-65); and Gunther Nollau, Intemational Communismand World Revolution (New York, 1961).

4. NolIau, p. 62. 5. The definitive study is James Barros, Tire Corfu Incident of 1923: Mussolini

and tire League oJ Nations (Princeton, N.J., 1965). 6. Alan Cassels, Mussolini's Early Diplomacy (Princeton, N.J., 1970) pp.

116-19. 7. League of Nations Covenant, Article 15. 8. Very little has been written about the Draft Treaty. However, some

material may be found in: Bruce Williams, Stote Security and the League of Nations (Baltimore, Md, 1927); Francis P. Walters, A History of the League oj Nations (London, 1952); and J. T. Shotwell and Marina Salvin, Lessons on Security and Disarmament (New York, 1949).

9. There have been no recent scholarly studies of the Geneva Protocol. The leading contemporary accounts are David Hunter Miller, The Geneva Protocol (New York, 1925) and Philip J. Noel-Baker, Tire Geneva Protocol Jor the Pacific Settlement oj International Disputes (London, 1925).

10. I"inal Report, I.M.C.C., 15 Feb. 1925, F.O. 371/10708. I I. For D'Abernon's role, see F. G. Stambrook, , "Das Kind"-Lord D'Aber

non and the origins of the Locarno Pact', Central European History (September 1968).

12. A close textual comparison of Cabinet instructions to Stresemann before Locarno (Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Ministerium fUr Auswartige Angelegenheiten, Locarno-KonJeren::;, 1925: Eine Dokumentensammlung, Berlin, 1962, p. 143), British minutes of meetings (F.O. 371/10742), and Vandervelde's reports to Brussels (DDB, II) with Stresemann's diary accounts (Eric Sutton (ed.), Gustov Stresemann: His Diaries, Letters, and Papers, 3 vols, London, 1937 II, especially pp. 180-201) leads inescapably to this conclusion.

13. For similar assessments based on different evidence, see Annelise Thimme, 'Stresemann and Locarno' in European Diplomacy between Two Wars, ed. Hans Gatzke; and also Godfrey Scheele, Tire Weimar Republic (London, 1956). The best book-length studies of Stresemann in English are Henry A. Turner, Jr, Stresemann and the Politics oJthe Weimar Republic (Princeton, N.J., 1956) and Hans Gatzke, Stresemann and the Rearmament oj Germany (Baltimore, Md, 1954).

14. Unfortunately Suarez, Briand, VI, lacks the detail and documentation of the earlier volumes.

15. A major study of Chamberlain's diplomacy is needed. See Sir Charles Petrie, Tire Lift and Letters of the Right Honourable Sir Austen Chamberlain, 2 vols (London, 1940) II.

16. For Vandervelde's attitude, which expressed the reaction of socialists everywhere to the Matteotti murder, see Pierre van Zuylen, Les Mains libres: politique extirieure de la Belgique, 1914-1940 (Brussels, 1950) pp. 215-16. For the Matteotti murder itself, see Elizabeth Wiskemann, Fascism in Italy (London, 1969).

17. Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick, Mussolini: A Study in Power (New York, 1964) P·249·

18. Ibid. See also Emery Kelen, Peace in their Time (London, 1964) pp. 155-6·

19. Stresemann, Diaries, II 228. 20. The negotiations may be traced in F.O. 371/10726-10744 and FMAE,

Serie Z, Grande-Bretagne, files 72-88.


21. For example, LOC/122/Con, F.O. 371/10744. 22. The only detailed reports of the work of the jurists are to be found in

DDB,1I316-25· 23. For the public aspect of Locarno, see Kelen, pp. 152-61. 24. For text, see DDB, 11345-6. 25. Kelen, pp. 159, 161; van Zuylen, p. 217; Petrie, II, 287-90; Suarez, VI,

129-30. 26. For texts of the Locarno treaties, see Cmd. 2525 (London, 1925). 27. Stresemann, Diaries, II 216-17; van Zuylen note, 8 June 1932, Hy

mans/15 1. 28. See S. Harrison Thomson, 'Foreign Relations', in Schmitt (ed.), Poland,

p. 393, and Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, pp. 361-8. 29. DDB, 1I213· 30. DBFP, Series lA, I 249-51. 31. See George A. Griin, 'Locarno, Idea and Reality', International Affairs

(October, 1955) pp. 477-85· 32. Turner, p. 216. 33. Minutes of the I December 1925 talks are to be found in DBFP, Series

IA,I.

4. THE YEARS OF ILLUSION

I. On this episode, see James Barros, The League of Nations and the Great Powers: The Greek-Bulgarian Incident, 1925 (Oxford, 1970).

2. SIA, 1926, p. 3. 3. Walters, p. 319. 4. See Erik Lonnroth, 'Sweden: the diplomacy of Osten Unden', in Craig

and Gilbert, The Diplomats.' 5. For text, see SIA, 1927. 6. D'Abernon to Foreign Office (II Aug. 1926) tel. 202, F.O. 371/11270;

Cab 33 (26) (19 May 1926) CAB 23/53; Chamberlain to D'Abernon (13 Aug. 1926) tel. 93, FO 371/11270.

7. Suarez, VI 197. 8. Walters, p. 343. 9· Ibid., pp. 342-3· 10. Stephen Bonsai, Unfinished Business (Garden City, N.Y., 1944) p. 26. II. Walters, p. 346. 12. Cf. Stresemann, Diaries, III 17-26, and Suarez, VI 219-27. (See p. 171.) 13. On the Belgian and Polish crises, see Richard H. Meyer, Banker's Dip

lomacy (New York, 1970). On Stresemann's eastern manoeuvres, seeJ. Korbel, Poland between East and West (Princeton, N.J., 1963) p. 198. On the French situation, see Jon Jacobson, Locamo Diplomacy (Princeton, N.J., 1972) pp. 84-90. While inclining habitually to Stresemann's view, Jacobson provides an invaluable study of the period 1926-g.

14. See Ervin Hexner, The International Steel Cartel (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1943). 15. Cassels, P.390. This is the best study of Mussolini's diplomacy in the

1920S.

16. For text, see SIA, 1927. 17. Ibid., 1927. 18. Ibid., 1926. 19. Ibid., 1926. 20. Ibid., 1927. 21. Cassels, p. 313.


22. The negotiations may be traced in DBFP, Series' lA, III. On AngloAmerican naval policy in general and the Geneva conference in particular, see S. W. Roskill, Naval Policy between the Wars (London, 1968) I.

23. R. H. f'errell, The American Secretaries tif State ami their Diplo1tlllCY, XI:

FrankB. Kellogg,HenryL. Stimson (New York, 1963) pp. 171-2. 24. See DIA, 1930, for texts. The negotiations may be traced in DBFP,

Second Series, I. A good account of the London conference may be found in David Carlton, MacDooold versus He7ldeTson (New York, 1970) ch. 6.

25. A summary may be found inSIA, 1929,PP. 101-8. 26. For text, see SIA, 1926. 27. On French-Polish relations in the late twenties, see Roman Debicki,

Foreign PolicytifPolalUi, 191!)-1939 (New York, 1962) ch. III. 28. Korbel, p. 223. 29. Petrie, II 304. 30. For example, D'Abernon to Foreign Office (25 Sept. 1926) no. 664,

F.O. 371/11279; Belgian Army GIS, Study of German Army Budget (25 Feb. 1926) Vicomte Prosper Poullet papers (Brussels), file 232; DBFP, Second Series, II 585-87.

31. DBFP, Series lA, I 381. 32. For text of speech, see DIA, 1928. 33. The negotiations may be traced in Cmd. 3109 (1928) and Cmd. 3153

(1928). For final text, see Cmd. 3410 (1929) or DIA, 1928. The leading study is R. H. Ferrell, Peace in their Time (New Haven, Conn., 1952).

34. DDB, II 528. 35. Stresemann, Diaries, III 383-92; Hymans notes (28 Aug. 1928) Hymansl

159; DDB, II 528-30. 36. For text, see DIA, 1928, or DBFP, Series lA, v 335. 37. The handiest compendium, containing background, text, analysis,

account of subsequent events through the Hague Conferences, and conference documents, is Denys P. Myers, The Reparations Settlement (Boston, 1929). Carlton, MacDonald versus Henderson provides a clear narrative of both the Labour government's response to the Young Plan (ch. 2) and the restoration of relations with Russia (ch. 7).

38. Texts may be found in Myers or DIA, 1929. 39. For details, see Nicholls, pp. 136-g, or K. D. Bracher, The German Dic

tatorship (New York, 1970) pp. 160--62. 40. For texts, see Myers or Cmd. 3484 (1930), Cmd. 3763 (1931), and Cmd.

3766 (193 1) . • p. For text, see DBFP, Second Series, I 487-8. 42. Eyck, II 263-4. 43. DBFP, Second Series, I 486. 44. For text, seeDBFP, Second Series, I 314-24 or DIA, 1930.

5. THE CRUMBLING OF ILLUSION

I. Tyrrell to Henderson (14 Jan. 1931) no. 37 (France, Annual Report, 1930) F.O. 371/15646.

2. Granville to Henderson (16 Feb. 1931) no. 150 (Belgium, Annual Report, 1930) F.O. 371/15632.

3. For texts, see DIA, 1929. 4. Vansittart memo, 'An Aspect of International Relations in 1931' (n.d.)

F.0·371/ 1520 5·


5· For example, Belgian General Staff note (30 July 1930), Comte Charles de Broqueville papers (Brussels), file 650; Belgian Study of German Reichswehr Budget (n.d.) 1931, de Broqueville/648; D'Abernon to Foreign Office (31 March 1926) no. 178, F.O. 371/11279; Tyrrell to Henderson, no. 661, F.O. 371/15187; DBFP, Second Series, II 515-25.

6. Campbell to Vansittart ('25 Aug. 1931) pers., F.O. 371/15195. 7· See William S. Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power (Chicago, 1965) pp. 12,

24,34; Eyck, II 278-79. 8. DBFP, Second Series, I 50'2. 9· See his essay under this title, SIA, 1931. 10. Newton to Foreign Office (I July 1931), tel. 91, F.O. 371/15184. II. F. G. Stambrook, 'The German-Austrian customs union project of

1931', in European Diplomacy between Two Wars, ed. Gatzke, P.98. The best studies of the Customs Union proposal are Stambrook, Suval and Edward W. Bennett, Germany and the Diplomacy of the Financial Crisis, 1931 (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), to which this analysis of the events of 1931 owes much. A simplified account of the Austrian crisis may be found in Carlton, ch. 10. The negotiations over the Customs Union may also be traced in DBFP, Second Series, II.

1'2. Bennett, p. 48. 13. For text, see DIA, 1931. 14. For text, see FRUS, 1931, I 33-5. 15. Tyrrell to Foreign Office (2'2 June 1931) tel.,no number, F.O.371/1518'2. 16. Bennett, p. 177. 17. For text, see DIA, 1931. 18. For the diplomacy of the Manchurian crisis, see Christopher Thorne,

The Limits of Foreign Policy (London, 1972), on which this analysis relies heavily. The diplomatic manoeuvres may be traced in DBFP, Second Series VIII-XI.

19. See, for instance, hvestiia article ('22 Nov. 1931) in Xenia Joukoff Eudin and Robert M. Slusser, Soviet Foreign Policy, 1928-1934, Documents and Materials (University Park, Penna, 1966) I 345-7.

'20. For text, seeFRUS,]apan, 1931-1941, I 76. 21. See the portrait by Henry R. Winkler in Craig and Gilbert, The Dip-

lomats. '22. Toynbee, SIA, 193'2, p. 175. '23. Thorne, p. 306. '24. The standard work on the Disarmament Conference isJ. W. Wheeler

Bennett, The Pipe Dream of Peace (London, 1935). The negotiations may be traced in DBFP, Second Series, III-VI.

'25. Tyrrell to Foreign Office (13Jan. 1932) tel. 19S, F.O. 371/16369. '26. On the Austrian situation, see Gulick, II. 27. For text of report, see DIA, 1931. 28. Memo on German reparations (31 May 1932) F.O. 371/15910. 29. Tyrrell to Simon (16 Jan. 19331 no. 70 (France, Annual Report, 1932)

F.O·37 1/17299· 30. Key documents may be found in DIA, 1932. The negotiations may be

traced in DBFP, Second Series, III. The standard work is J. W. WheelerBennett, The Wreck of Reparations (London, 1933).

31. FRUS PPC, XIII, 4og. 32. The curious may consult the World Almanac, 1974, p. 510. During the

winter war of 1939-40, Finland gained enormous American sympathy as 'the only country to pay its war debts'.


33. Extracts may be found in DIA, 1932. 34. Thorne, pp. 332-3·

6. TilE END OF ALL ILLUSION

I. Gerhard Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Gennany, DiploTTUJtic Revolution in Europe, 1933-36 (Chicago, 1970) p. 14.

2. Edgar B. Nixon (ed.), Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs, 3 vols (Cambridge, Mass., 1969) 1122.

3. On Nazi penetration in Czechoslovakia, see Elizabeth Wiskemann, Czechs and Germans (London, 1967 ed.).

4. Rothstein, pp. 149, 152-5. See also Robert Machray, The Struggle for the Danube and the Little Entente, 1929-38 (London, 1938). Text of the Statute of the Little Entente may be found in DIA, 1933.

5. For final text, see DIA, 1933. The negotiations may be traced in DBFP, Second Series v.

6. For texts, see Poland, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Official Documents concerning Polish-GerTTUJn and Polish-Soviet Relations, 1933-1939. The Polish White Book (London, n.d.) pp. 20-1, and Leonard Shapiro (ed.), Soviet Treaty Series, 2 vols (Washington, DC., 1950) II 55--6. For analysis of the German treaty, see Weinberg, ch. 3. On the Russian pact, see Bohdan B. Budorowycz, PolishSoviet Relations, 1932-1939 (New York, 1963) ch. I.

7. Clerk to Simon, 27 Jan. 1934, no. 57 (Belgium, Annual Report, 1933) F.O. 371/17616; Simon to Bland (10 July 1933), F.O. 371/17282; Sargent to Ovey (31 July 1934) F.O. 371/17630; F.O. Memo (30 May 1934) F.O. 37 1 /17630 •

8. Minutes of meeting at French Ministry of War (10 March 1933) F.O. 371/16668.

9. Ibid. 10. Tyrrell to Foreign Office (31 Jan. 1933) tel. 20S, F.O. 371/17290;

Campbell to Simon (30 Nov. 1934) tel. 130, F.O. 371/17670; Clerk to Eden (13 Nov. 1936) no. 1469, F.O. 371/19860.

I I. Thorne, p. 267. 12. Hitler's intent was eventually demonstrated not only by the disputed

Hossbach memorandum (Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945, Series D, I no. 19) but also by the Blomberg Directive (ibid., VII App. III k).

Addendum to note 12, Chapter 4 (page 168)

It is now established that the French account is inaccurate. (Jacques Bariety, address at Conference on European Security in the Locarno Era, Mars Hill, N.C., 17 Oct. 1975.) It does not necessarily follow, however, that Stresemann's version is reliable.

Index

Aachen 52 Adalia 6 Aegean islands 20, 21 Agent-General for Reparations

53,98 agrarian bloc 93 Albania 6, 56, 59, 81, 86-7, I 10 Albert, King of the Belgians 23 Alexander, King of Yugoslavia

140

Allied and associated powers (Allies) 1-7

Alsace-Lorraine 4, I I, 50, 84 Alto Adige see South Tyrol Ambassadors, Conference of

32-3, 56, 5g-60, 87 America passim; and First World

War I, 26; peace planning 1-3; and Germany I I; and peace structure 24, 32-3; separate peace 24; withdrawal from Europe 24, 32-3; economy and finances 28, 72, 83-4,85, 103,112,117-18,122; and Japan 40-1; Washington Conference 40-2; and Dawes Plan 5 1-4; and League of Nations 76-7; economic relation to Europe 91-2, 98-g, 105, 108, 112, 114, 119; European debts to see war debts; at World Economic Conference 92; isolation 99- I 00, 141; peace movements 100, 141, 142; and Young Committee

102; 1929 stock market crash 112; depression 121-2; and Manchurian crisis 123-7; and Hitler 141

Anatolia 6, 21, 32, 59 Anglo-French alliance 34, 40,

42,60,62,63,69, 71 Anglo-Russian trade treaty (1921)

44,57,58 Annunzio, Gabriele d' 23 n. 'annus terribilis' (193 I ) II 4, 115.

120, 121 Anschluss 18, 66, 101, III, 114,

116 Anti-Pan-Europa 86 Arabs 5. 6, 20, 22, 29 Armenia 20, 58 Armistice 2-3. 7-8, 134 Australia 5 Austria 19, 37, 56, 59, 114, 138 ;

Treaty of Saint-Germain 13, 16, 18, II 6, I 17; reparations 17, 35; Anschluss 18, 66, 101, II I, 114, 116; economy and finances 18, 35, 92, II 6--1 7, 130-1; Geneva Protocol (1922) 18, 116-17; and steel cartel 85; customs union 115-17, II9; Nazis 130; and Hitler 139

Austria-Hungary see Habsburg Empire

Austro-German customs union 115-17, 119

Baldwin, Stanley 58

174 INDEX

Balfour, Arthur James 10 Balfour Declaration 20 Balfour Note (1922) 47, 104 Balkan Locarno 86 Balkans 5, 9, 32, 34, 56, 88, 109 Baltic states 8, 17, 24, 32, 93,

101, 109 Banat 19 Bank for International Settlements

103, 119, 120, 132, 133 Bank of England 103, 122 Bank of France 103, 120 Bank of Italy 103 Banker's Committee 120 Barthou, Louis 139 Basle 103 Bavaria 8, 34, 57 Belgium 30, 40, 45, 57, 62, 64,

97, 103, 130 ; peace settlement 4, II, 12, 13,23; economy and finances 28, 83-4; and peace structure 32-4; and Western Entente 37; and reparations 39,46,48-9; and Ruhr occupation 49-51; and Rhineland 52; and British guarantee 62, 139; and Locarno 66, 67, 69, 70, 7 1; and League of Nations 78, 81; and Locarno tea-parties 8 I; and steel cartel 84; and 1930 German election 108 ; and Hitler 139, I4I; rearmament 141

Benes, Edouard 37, 66-7, 81, 93 Berlin, Treaty of (1926) 79, 93 Bessarabia 56, 57, 87, 88, 93 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von

13 Bolsheviks 4, 8 Bonar Law, Andrew 48,49 Boris, King of Bulgaria 88 Bosnia-Herzegovina 18 boundary commissions 23, 32,

35, 56, 59

Brazil 77-80 Brenner Pass 66, 139 Briand, Aristide 39, 42, 76, 8 I,

87, 96, 121, 129; assessment 64-5; and Locarno 64-74; and German League entry 80; and Thoiry 80, 82-4; and treaty revision 82; and pan-European movement 85; postLocarno policies 97-107; and reparations 99, 102; and Hague Conference 104; and European union 104-5, 106-7, 116

Britain passim; peace planning 1-3; and secret treaties 5; and Poland 10, 12, 34-5, 84, 94; and France I I, 24, 34, 42, 63, 71-2,96-7; and Germany II,

38, 48-9, 96-7; territorial gains 19-20, 26 ; Greco-Turkish policy 20-I, 24, 32, 34, 35; economy and finances 28, 39, 43-4,47,5 1,57,85,108,121-2; and peace structure 32-5; and Western Entente 37-8; and reparations 38-9, 46-9, 103-4, 1I9; at vVashington Conference 40-2; and naval disarmament 41, 89-90; and Russia 44, 57-8, 95, 96, 102, 140; war debts 46-7; and Ruhr occupation 49-54; mandates 76; and Thoiry 83-4; and America 96; depression 120 ; National Government 120, 121; off Gold Standard 12 I -2; and Manchurian crisis 125-7; and collective security 125, 140; disarmament 140; 1935 election 140, 143; and Hitler 140; rearmament 140; peace movements 142

British Commonwealth of Nations 61, 129

British dominions 27,30,61, 100 British Empire 26,34,42,60,61,

72, 95, 96, 127, 129 Briining, Heinrich I I I, 114, 115,

118, 119-20, 121, 128; and customs union 115-16

Bukovina 18 Bulgaria 58, 75, 87-8, 130 ;

TreatyofNeuilly 16-17,19,23 Biilow, Bernhard von 116 Burgenland 18

Canada 40, 60 Cannes Conference (1922) 42 cartels 84,85, 91, 116 Cecil, Lord Robert 60 central banks 103 Central Powers I, 3, 7, 39, 85 Chamberlain, Austen 58, 62, 79,

81, 129; assessment 65; and Locarno 65-74; attitudes 82, 89, 96-7, 98; illness 98, 101; fall 102

Chanak 48 Chiang Kai-shek 109, 123 Chicherin, Georgi 58, 95, 101,

110 China 22, 24, 26, 55, 58, 77, 95,

96, 109, 141; and Shantung 5, 40; civil war 26,32, 109, 123; and Washington Conference 40-1; and Manchuria 123-6, 135-6

Churchill, Winston 140 Clemenceau, Georges 10, I I

Coblenz 52, 102, 105, 113 collective security see League of

Nations Cologne 62-3, 64, 69, 70- 1, 73,

74 colonies 26-8; see also German

colonies, mandates Comintern 57-8 Communism 7, 17, 109

INDEX 175

Communist International 57--8 Concert of Europe 8 I, 82, 138 Conference of Ambassadors see

Ambassadors Conference on the Final Liquida

tion of the War 103 Conferences: San Remo (1920)

20; Locarno (1925) 36, 49, 68--74; Spa (1920) 38-9; London (May 1921) 39; Washington (1921-2) 40-2, 60, 89; Cannes (1922) 42;Genoa 42, 44-5, 56; Paris (1923) 49; London (1924) 53-4; London (1925) 73-4; Geneva Naval (1927) 8g-g0; London Naval (1930) 90; Disarmament (1932) 91, 114, 127-8, 136, 137, 142-3; Geneva Economic ( I 92 7) 92-3 ; Geneva Economic (1930) 93; The Hague (1929) 103-4; The Hague (1930) 105-6; Ottawa (1923) 127, 129; Lausanne (1932) 132; London Economic (1933) 134

Coolidge, Calvin 52, 89, 90 cordon sanitaire 17, 93, 145 Corfu 59-60 Costa Rica 79 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Count

Richard 85 Creditanstalt 116-17 Croatia 19,87, 130 Crowe, Sir Eyre 10, 63 Cruiser B 115, I 17, 119 Cruiser C I 15 Cuno, Wilhelm 5 I Curtius,julius 105, 115, 121 Curzon, G. N. (Marquess Curzon

of Kedleston) 27, 34 customs union 115-17. 119 Cyprus 19 Czech Legion 5

176 INDEX

Czechoslovakia 4, 8, 40, 43, 62, 78, 8 I; and peace settlement I I, 15, 18, 19; minorities 21, 130; and Little Entente 37; and Locarno 66-7,68,69, 71; and steel cartel 85; and France 87; economy 91; and Poland 93 ; depression 130 ; and Hitler 138; Russian alliance 138

D' Abernon, Viscount (Edgar Vin-cent) 62, 63, 65

Dalmatia 6, 18 Danubia 87-8, 91-2, 115, 138 Danzig 12, 55, 95 Dawes bonds 82-4 Dawes, Charles G. 52 Dawes Plan 39, 52-4, 98, 102-3 Denmark I I, 30, 78 depression 112-15, I 17-18,

121-2, 123, 125, 127, 129-30, 131, 134, 135, 141

Deutschland II 5 disarmament 60-1,62-3,69, 71,

72, 89-91, 1I5, 125, 141-2; military 90- I; naval 8g-g0,

91

Disarmament Conference (1932) 91, 114, 127-8, 133, 135-6, 142-3

Dobruja 19 Dodecanese Islands 6 DUsseldorf 39

Ebert, Friedrich 63 economic change 28-g, 42-4;

see also European economy Economic conferences see Con-

ferences Egypt 19,34 EI Salvador 77 England see Britain Entente Cordiale (190 4) 37

Estonia 24 Ethiopia 87, I I I

Eupen II, 70,80,82-3 European Economic Community

103 European economic union 29,

85, 92, 104-5, 106-7, 1 I I; see also European union

European economy 7-8, 91-2, 108, 114, 117, 144, 145

European union 65, 104-5, 116 European world view 26-31

Fabian Society 6 Federal Reserve System 103, 119,

120 Finland 5, 8, 17, 24, 32, 93, 135 First World War I, 50, 97, 108,

122, 135, 144; secret treaties 4-6, effects 26-g

Fiume 19, 20, 23, 32, 35, 56, 59, 60,87

Five-Power Naval Treaty (1922)

41 Four-Power Pact (1933) 138 Four-Power Treaty (1922) 41 Fourteen Points 2, 3, 6, 12, 16 France passim; peace planning

1-2 ; territorial gains 4, I I,

19-20, 26; Anglo-American guarantee I I, 40; and Germany I I, 25, 38, 47-9, 76, 108, 109; and reparations 12, 38, 39, 46-g, 101-4, 118-19, 132-3; and eastern Europe I 7 ; Greco-Turkish policy 20- I ,

24, 34, 35, 48 ; and Britain 24, 40, 42; economy and finances 28, 43, 50, 52, 53, 59, 72, 83-4; and peace structure 32-5; and Poland 32-4, 40, 94; and Little Entente 37, 87-8; and Western Entente 37-8, 40; and Belgium 40, 139; and

Czechoslovakia 40, 87; at Washington Conference 4(}-2; and Versailles Treaty 40, 50, 65; and naval disarmament 41, 89-90, 91, III; at Genoa Conference 42-5; Ruhr occupation 49-55; and Dawes Plan 53-4; and security 61-2, go--I,

97, 99, 107, 128, 139; and steel cartel 84-5; and Italy 87, 89, 90, III ; and Austria I 16-17; and Hoover moratorium 118-19; depression 121; and Manchuria 125-7; and Lausanne Conference 132; and F our-Power Pact 138; and Hitler 139-40; and Russia 140; rearmament 14(}-1

Franco-German commercial treaty 84-5

Franco-Prussian War 101 Franco-Romanian treaty 87-8 Franco-Russian alliance 138,

139 Franco-Yugoslav treaty 86, 87,

88 Frankfurt 38 Francqui, Emile 52

Galicia 18 Gdynia 55 Geneva see League of Nations Geneva communique (1928) 98,

101-2 Geneva Naval Conference (1927)

89-90 Geneva Protocol (1922) 18, 116,

117 Geneva Protocol (1924) 61,63 Genoa Conference 56 'Gentleman's Agreement' 133-4 Germany passim; Armistice

2-3; at Paris Peace Conference I I; colonies I I, 20, 67, 74,

INDEX 177

113; Versailles Treaty provisions 11-12, 35, 144; disarmament 12, 35, 38, 45, 97-8, 128, 131, 137; and Poland 12, 32, 94-6, 101, 137, 138--g; public opinion 16,24,25,38,51, 113, 132-3; reparations 35, 38--g, 42,45-9, 112, 118, 119, 131; at Genoa Conference 43-4; and Russia 43-4,67, 79, 94-6, 98 ; economy and finances 44, 46, 5(}-1, 52, 61-2, 83, 91, 98, 108, 112, 113, 114, 117-18, 119-20, 131, 132; Ruhr occupation 49-54; Dawes Plan 53-4; Upper Silesia 56; military forces 73, III, 114; and France 76, 84-5, 109; paramilitary forces 84; and steel cartel 84-5; and League of Nations 96, 98, 137 ; 1930 election 107, 108, 112-13, 114; revisionism II I, 113, 143, 145; 1932 elections 113, I 28--g; and customs union 115-17, 119; rearmament 117, 13 I , 139-40; depression I 19-20, 12 I ; communism 130 ; and Lausanne Conference 132

Gilbert, S. Parker 53, 98 Gold Standard 121-2, 131 Great Britain see Britain Greece 19,20,56,75,88, 13(}-I;

and Turkey 20-1, 32, 34, 35, 47-8; and Corfu 59--60; Bulgarian War 75-6

Habsburg Empire 4, 7, 18, 22, 106, 144

Habsburg Monarchy 18,37 Hague Agreements 106, 134 Hague Conferences: 1929 103-4;

1930 105-6, 108 Hague Protocol 104

178 INDEX

Hankey, Col. Sir Maurice 9 Hedjaz (Saudi Arabia) 19-20 Henderson, Arthur 102, 104, 127 Herriot, Edouard 53-4, 61, 62,

63, 121, 12g, 135, 137 Hindenburg, Field Marshal Paul

von 63-4, 79, 106, II I, 115 Hider, Adolf 5T, 64, 107, 110,

112, 113, 116, 120, I 28-g, 130, 13 I, 134, 142, 145, 146 ; Ig30 election 113; accession 136, 137-41, 145; foreign policy 137, 138, 139, 143; and Poland 137; and Russia 137; Rhineland remilitarisation 140

Holland 12, 30, 34, 57, 78 holocaust 137 Holy Alliance 8 I Hoover, Herbert go, 118, 121,

BIg, 131 Hoover moratorium I 18- I g,

13 1- 2, 134 Horthy, Adm. Miklos 37 House, Edward M. 2, 3, 10 Hungary 34, 37, 43, 57, 81,

87-9; Treaty of Trianon 13, 16-lg, 22, 24, 25; irredentism 18, 32, 37, 88; economy and finances Ig, g2, 131; minorities 2 I; and Little Entente 37; and steel cartel 85; and Italy 88

Hymans Paul 10,65, 81

I.M.C.C. (Inter-Allied Military Control Commission) 35, 45, 62-3, 73, 74, 79, 82, g6, g8

India 27, 30, 72, 100 Inquiry 2 Intermediate powers 77-g, 93 International Steel Agreement

84 Iraq 20,76 Ireland 32, 34, 100

Istrian Peninsula 6, 18 Italy 2, 34, 35, 37, 48, 56, 81,

103,110-11,114,121,130,143; in First World War 2, 6, 20; and Paris Peace Conference g, 16, Ig, 22; territorial gains 18, 20, 23; and Fiume Ig, 20, 23, 32, 35, 56; economy and finances 28, 131; and peace structure 33, 34; and Western Entente 37; and Yugoslavia 37,86-8; and reparations 39; and naval disarmament 41, 8g, go, II I; and Ruhr occupation 49-50; and Corfu 59; and Locarno 66-8, 70-1 ; post-Locarno policies 86-g; and France 86, 87, 8g, go, I 1 I; and Hungary 88; and Romania 88; and Vatican J 10; and Austria 139

Japan I, 2, 26, 32, 34, 57, 103, 109, I 14; Pacific islands 5, 26; Shantung 5, 40, 55; racial equality 14; westernisation 26, 124; economy and finances 28, 109, 121-3; and America 40-1; and Washington Conference 40-2; and naval disarmament 41, 8g, go, 109; and Locarno tea-parties 81; and depression 12 I ; and Manchuria 123-7, 135-6; leaves League of Nations 136; rearmament 141; invades China 141

jaspar, Henri 65, 104, 105 jehol 136 jews 21, 137

Karl, Austro-Hungarian Kaiser

37 Kellogg, Frank gg-Ioo

Kellogg-Briand Pact 99-101, 109, 123, 144

Kemal, Mustapha 20-1,47 Klagenfurt plebiscite 56 Kuban 8 Kun, Bela 18, 37, 57 Kurdistan 20, 23

Labour Charter Lansing, Robert Lateran Accords Latvia 24, 77

2, 10 110

Lausanne Conference (1932) 132-4

Lausanne Convention 133 Lausanne, Treaty of (1923) 21 League of Nations passim; war-

time efforts towards 6-7 ; Covenant 9, 14, 17, 60 Art. 4 76 Art. 10 123 Art. I I

123 Art. 16 67, 68, 71, 75, 123; and Saar I I ; and Danzig 12; Assembly 14, 60, 68, 77-8, 82, 98, 104, 107; Council 14, 30, 59-60, 67-8, 70, 71, 75-6, 81, 82, 102 composItIon of 76-80, 8 I geographic allocation of seats 79-80 rotation of seats 79-80; limitations 14-15,30-1,59-60, 115, 125-6, 140, 144, 146; Permanent Court of International Justice 14; Secretariat 14; Wilson and 14; mandates 20; European domination of 29-30, 77-82; membership 29-30; collective security 30-1, 125, 138, 140, 144, 146; great powers and 30-1, 144; Latin American bloc 30, 8 I ; small powers and 30, 59, 127, 135, 144; supervision of peace 32; unofficial diplomacy 36, 81-2, see also Locarno tea-parties; and Ger-

INDEX 179

many 57, 67, 70, 76- 80, 96; Russia and 57, 76, 138; and Locarno treaties 67-8, 70, 71; Greco-Bulgarian war 75-6; and America 76; and intermediate powers 77-9; Committee on the Composition of the Council 79-80; Disarmament Preparatory Commission 90-1; World Economic Conference 92; Manchurian crisis 123-7, 135-6; Japan withdraws 136

League of Nations Society 6 League to Enforce Peace 6 Lebanon 6, 20 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 8, 32,

44,57 Libya 19 Liquidation of the Past, Com-

mittee on Lithuania

101

105, 108 12, 24, 35, 55, 94, 95,

Little Entente 37, 81, 87-8, 89, III, 138

Litvinov, l\,laxim 101, 110, 138 Litvinov Protocol 101 Lloyd George, David 57; war

aims 2; at peace conference 5,8, 10; and League of Nations 7; postwar policies 39, 42, 47-8; Genoa Conference 42-5 ; fall 48

Locarno 36,49,59,61,75-6,77, 79, 93, 98, 107, 139, 140, 144; treaty negotiations 63-4, 67--9; jurists' meeting 68; public aspects of conference 68, 69, 73; contents of treaties 69-7 I ;

assessment 70-4; German attitudes 72; signature of treaties 73-4; spirit of 74, 80, 84, 99; tea-parties 78, 80, 81, 82, 95, 98, 101; treaties 81,99; trium-

180 INDEX

virate 82, 102, 129; era 89, 91,96; powers 100

London Conference (May 1921)

39 London Conference (1924) 53-4 London Conference (1925) 73-4 London Naval Conference (1930)

go, 109 London Schedule of Payments

39,45, 51, 134 London, Treaty of (1915) 6, 20 Lorraine see Alsace-Lorraine Luther, Hans 68, 69, 78 Luxemburg g, 84-5 Lytton Commission 126-7, 135-6 Lytton Report 135

MacDonald, J. Ramsay 53-4, 56, 57,58,61,62, go, 102, 120, 129, 133

Macedonians 2 I, 88 Maginot Line 97, 140 Mainz 102, 105, 113 Malmedy I I, 70, 80, 82-3 Manchukuo 126 Manchuria 41, 114-15, 122-7,

135-6, 140 mandates 20, 26, 76 Matteotti, Giacomo 66 Mayrisch, Emil 85 Memel 12,55,95 Mesopotamia 20, 34 Metternich, Prince Klemens von

75,82 minority problems, eastern

Europe 21 minority treaties 17 Mohammed VI, Sultan of Turkey

20--1 Montenegro 12 Morgan, J. P. 54 Morocco 19, 34 Motta, Guiseppe 81 Mukden 123

Mussolini, Benito 48, 56, 58-60, 81, 82, 96, 10g--1 I, 131, 138--9; andLocarno 65-6,68,70,86; attitudes 86, post-Locarno policies 86--g; and Vatican 110; and naval disarmament III

Mutual Assistance, Draft Treaty of 60--1

Nansen, Fridtjof 81 Napoleon III 86 'Napoleonic year' 86, 87, 89 Naval conferences: Washington,

(lg21-2) 40-2,60,89; Geneva (1927) 89-90; London (1930) 90, 109

Nazi party III, 113, II 4, II9, 128, 130, 145

Netherlands see Holland Neuilly, Treaty of (1919) 16-17,

19,23 New Zealand 5 Nine-Power Treaty (1922) 41,

127 Nobel Peace Prize 64,96 non-recognition doctrine 126,

127 Norway 78,81

'Open Door' 41 Orange Blossom, 68-9 Orlando, Vittorio IO

Ottawa Conference (1932) 127, 12g

Ottoman Empire see Turkey Oxford Union 142

Pacific security 41 pacifism 141, 142, 146 Palatinate 52 Palestine 6, 20, 29, 72 Pan-Europa 85 Pan-European Congress 85-6

pan-European movement 85-6, 92, 116

Papal States 110 Papen, Franz von 128 paramilitary formations 84, 97 Paris Conference (1923) 49 Paris Peace Conference (19 I 9-20)

3,4, 7-8,9-1 I, 32, 61; Russian question 8; Big Four (Council of Four) 9; Council of Ten 9; Polish question 10; Saar question I I; lesser treaties 16-20

Paris peace settlement 114, 144; lesser treaties 16-20; assessment 2 1-5, 26, 32, 35, 37; liquidation 101-2, 108, 109

Peace Congress 3, 10 peace, lack of 31-2, 74, 89,

99-100, 107, 108, 143-4 peace structure 32-7, 76 Permanent Court of International

Justice 14, II 7 Persia 77 Pilsudski, Josef 93-6, 129, 13 1,

138 Poincare, Raymond 36, 42 , 97,

101, 102; premier, 1922-4 45, 47, 53; Ruhr occupation 48-53; Rhenish separatism 52 ; premier, 1926-g 83

Poland 4, 5, 8, 23, 24, 25, 32, 35, 62, 81, 101, 115-16; at peace conference 10, 12, 15, 18; and Danzig 12, 55; and Corridor 12, 15,83,95, 13 1-2, 138; and Upper Silesia 12,32, 34, 35, 56; minorities 2 I; and France 32, 34, 40, 94; and Russia 32, 34, 93-5, 10 I, 138-9; and Lithuania 35, 94; eastern frontier 55; and Locarno 66-7, 68, 69, 70, 71; and League of Nations 77-80;

INDEX 181

economy and finances 83--4, 94; frontier revision 84, 94-9, 98, 109, 113; and agrarian bloc 93; and ClIechoslovakia 93; and Germany 93, 94-5, 96, 138-9; post-Locarno policies 93--6; and Romania 93; and steel cartel 85

Polish-German Non-aggression Declaration (1934) 138

Polish-Russian treaty (1932)

Portugal 30

Non-aggression 138

public opinion 70, 74, 99-100, 108, 124, 141-6

Quadruple Alliance 82 Quintuple Alliance 81

Rand 58 Rapallo, Treaty of (1920) 23 Rapallo, Treaty of (1922)

44-5,56,79 Rapidan Agreement 90 Reading, Marquess of (Rufus

Isaacs) 120 rearmament 114, 127, 141, 143 reparations 72, 97, 105 and

passim; Versailles Treaty 12-14; Austrian 13,17,18,35; Hungarian 13, 17, 18, 35; Bulgarian 19, 35; Turkish 19, 21, 35; Anglo-French disagreement 24; German 35, 38-40, 44-9, 51, 54, 55, 61-2, 98-g, 10 I, 106, 134; non-German 35, 49, 55, 106, 134; Dawes Plan 5 I, 54, 82-8; Agent General for 53, 98; 1924 settlement 55, 6 I , 62 ; Young Plan 98,99, 101; commercialisation 83-4, 102, 103; 1930 revision 106

Reparations Commission 32, 33,

182 INDEX

35, 39, 48, 55; declares defaults 48-9; reconstruction of 53-4

Rhine 97 Rhineland 24, 35, 49-50, 69, 70,

72, 86; Versailles Treaty terms I I, 62; High Commission 32; Pact 49, see also Locarno; separatism 52; Cologne zone 62-3, 70, 71, 73, 74; evacuation 63, 64, 82-3, 95-6, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, I I I, I 13; occupation 63, 79, 96-8, 113; demilitarised zone 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 98, 102, 104; troop reductions 74; Coblenz zone 102, 105; Mainz zone 102; remilitarisation 140

Riga, Treaty of (1921) 24 Romania 12, 32, 37, 57, 81,

87-8, 10 I , 131; peace settlement 17, 18, 19; minorities 2 I; and Little Entente 37; Bessarabia 56; and Italy 88; economy 92; and Poland 93

Rome, Treaty of (1924) 23 Roosevelt, Franklin 129, 134,

141 Ruhr 32, 38, 39, 48, 58, 105;

occupation 49-54, 55, 58, 59, 62,63,64; evacuation 71

Rumbold, Sir Horace 106, I 13 Russia 7, 20, 23, 24, 26, 34, 36,

58,114; civil war 4-5,8,17, 32, 43, 56; foreign forces in 5, 32; and Poland 32, 55, 94-5, 101; and Britain 44, 57-8, 95,96, 102, 140; at Genoa conference 44-5; and Germany 44-5, 79, 94-6, I 10, 138; diplomatic recognition 44, 56, 57, 87; Bessarabia 56; economy and finances 56, 57, 85, 110; and League of Nations 76, 95,

I 10, 138; disarmament 90; at World Economic Conference 92; and Kellogg-Briand Pact 100-I, 109; and Asia 109-10 ; and France 110, 138; nonaggression pacts I 10; and depression 121, 130, 131; and Manchuria 125; and Czechoslovakia 138; revisionism 143, 144, 145

Russo-Polish war 32, 34, 37 Ruthenia 19

Saar I I, 23, 33, 50, 82, 83, 84, 98, 103, 105, 106, 113; commission 33

Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Treaty of (1919) 13, 16-18,24, 116, 117

Sakhalin 57 Salonica 56 San Remo Conference (1920) 20 Saudi Arabia see Hedjaz Saxony 58 Scandinavia 56, 93 Schleicher, Gen. Kurt von 128 Schleswig I I, 23 Second International 57, 58 Second World War 108,131,141,

146 secret diplomacy see Locarno tea

parties secret treaties see First World

War Security Pact see Locarno Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom see

Yugoslavia Serbia 12, 17,59 Sevres, Treaty of (1920) 16-17,

19-21 ,35,36,55 Shanghai 27, 96, 125, 126, 127 Shantung 5,24,40 Siam 77, 136 Siberia 32 Silesia see Upper Silesia

Simon, Sir John 120, 12g, 140 Skyrznski, Count Alexandre

66-7, 93 Slavonia Ig Slovakia Ig, 32, 37 Smyrna 6, 20, 21, 48 Snowden, Philip 104 Sonnino, Sidney 10 South Africa 30, 58, 60 South Manchurian Railway 123 South Tyrol 6, 18,86, 138 Soviet Union see Russia Spa Conference and Protocol

38-9, 104 Spain 2g, 77-80, 130 spirit of Locarno see Locarno Stahlhelm 106 Stalin, Josef 57, 110, Ill, 131,

138 Stamp, Sir Josiah 52 steel cartel 84 Stimson, Henry go, 126, 127;

and non-recognition 126 Stinnes, Hugo 51 Stresemann, Gustav 51, 88, 93;

1924 London conference 54; and Locarno 62-74; assessment 64, 81, 105; 'fulfilment' 64; and League entry 77-80; and Thoiry 80, 82-4; and treaty revision 82; and Poland 94-6; post-Locarno policies 96-105; illness 98, 100, 101, 104-5; visit to Paris, 1928 100-1; death 105; and Rhineland evacuation 106

submarines 24, 41, 42, go Sudan 19 Sweden 78,81,93 Switzerland 57,81, 103 Syria 20

Talleyrand, Charles de 81 Tangier 24

INDEX 183

Tardieu, Andre 10 tariffs 93, 121-2, 129-30 Tellini, Gen. Enrico 59 'texte de bateau' 68 Thoiry 80,82-4, 144 Third International see Comin-

tern Thrace 19, 20, 21 Thuringia 58 Tirana, Treaty of 87 Toynbee, Arnold 114 Transjordan 20 Transylvania 19, 81, 88 Trentino 6, 18 Trianon, Treaty of (1920) 13,

16-19, 24, 89 Trieste 6 Tunis 19 Turkey 6, 7, 30, 34, 35, 37, 76,

87; Treaty of Sevres 16-17, 19-20, 24, 25, 35; civil war 20-1, 32 ; and Greece 20-1, 24, 32, 34, 35, 47-8, 56; Treaty of Lausanne 21

Turkish straits 19, 21 Twenty-One Demands (1915) 40

Ukraine 5,8 U nden, ()sten 81 Union of Democratic Control 6 United States of America see

America United States of Europe see

European economic union Upper Silesia 12, 24, 32, 34, 35,

56,83,95 Urals 30

Vandervelde, Emile 57, 65-6, 68-9

Vatican 57, 110 Venizelos, Eleutherios 10 Versailles Treaty (1919) 45, 48,

50,53,67, 6g, 71, 72, 73, 76,84,

184 INDEX

113, 129, 132, 145; drafting 10-11; terms 11-15, 38, 62; assessment 15-16; lack of enforcement 15-16, 35; German attitude towards 16; relationship to other peace treaties 16-17; American rejection 24; ratification 24; dismantling 37-8,55,64,65,72, 101-2, 105, 106; reparations clauses 106, 134; military clauses I I I, 115, 128; and Anschluss 116

Vienna Protocol (1931) 116, I I 7 Vilna 35,55 Voldermaras, Augustinas 94

war debts 3, 7, 28, 33,44,46-7, 55, 99, 102, 103, 104, 118, 119, 121, 131, 132, 133-4, 135

'war guilt' 13, 68 Washington Naval Conference

(1921-2) 4Q-2, 55, 60 Weimar Republic see Germany Western Entente 37-8, 39, 40,

44, 48-g, 62, 64, 67, 68, 70, 73, 76,79,81,96-7,98,99, 102

Westminster, Statute of 61 Wilhelm II, German Kaiser 12,

35 Wilson, Gen. Sir Henry 32 Wilson, T. Woodrow 3, 4, I J ;

Fourteen Points 2, 3; Armistice negotiations 3; European views of 3; and secret treaties 5-6; and League of Nations 7-9; at Paris peace conference 8, 10, 14, 16, 19, 22

World Economic Conference (1927) 92



World Peace Foundation 6 World War see First World War,

Second World War

Young annuities 118 Young, Owen D. 52, 102 Young Plan 102-4, 105, 106,

108, 111-12, 113, 114, 117, 13"2, 133-4

Young Report 102 Yugoslavia 17, 19, 23, 32, 39,

56, 60, 81, 130, 131; creation 17, 18; minorities 21; and Italy 37; and Little Entente 37; and France 86-8

Zaleski, August 93, 94, 95 Zinoviev, Gregory 57-8 Zionist movement 5, 6, 20