CHRISTIANITY AND NEPALI SOCIETY John Whelpton SOCIAL SCIENCE BAHA 3/12/2012.

CHRISTIANITY AND NEPALI SOCIETY John Whelpton SOCIAL SCIENCE BAHA 3/12/2012

`Go into the whole world and preach the gospel to all creation; he who has believed and been baptised will be saved and he who has not believed will be condemned’ (Mark 16: 15-16) (Illustration is the frontispiece of Satya Sakshi Parmesvarya Mahima (1740) from Alsop (1996))

JOÃO CABRAL, S.J., 1599-1669

• First European known to have visited Bhutan, Tibet and Nepal

• After stays in Bhutan and Tibet, returned to India via the Nepal Valley in 1628 and recommended the route as superior to the more easterly one through Kooch-Behar he had previously used.

• His visit to Nepal is known only through a letter in the Jesuit archives published by Wessels in 1924, which gives no further details

• English text and a brief discussion available in Nancy M. Gettelman `Letter of the first westerner to visit Bhutan-Tibet-Nepal’ Kailas, vol.9, no. 1, 1982, pp. 97-110

http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/kailash/pdf/kailash_09_01_04.pdf

Kircher’s CHINA ILLUSTRATA (1667)

FRS. GRUEBER AND DORVILLE IN THE KATHMANDU VALLEY, 1662

• …Rex insignem Patribus benevolentiam exhibuit, praesertim ob tubum Opticum, de quo nihil iis unquam innotuerat, aliamque curiosam Matheseos suppelictilem ipsi exhibitam, quibus adeo captus est , ut Patres prorsus apud se retinere constituerit, neque discedere inde passus sit, nisi ubi fide data illuc se reversuros spondissent; quod si facerent, domum inibi in nostrorum usum et exercitum se exstructuram amplissimis redditibus instructam, una cum plena ad Christi Legem in suum Regnum introducendam facultate concessa, pollicitus est.

• ..the King [Pratap Malla of Kathmandu] showed remarkable kindness to the Fathers, especially because of the telescope, of which they had no previous knowledge, and other strange scientific equipment shown to him, by which he was so enthralled that he actually decided to keep the fathers with him and did not let them leave until they had solemnly pledged to return, if they did which, he promised he would construct a house for use by our people and assign a very large revenue to it, as well as giving full permission for the introduction of Christ’s Law into his Kingdom.

IPPOLITO DESIDERI, S.J. (1684-1733), IN NEPAL

• Reaches Lhasa in March 1716• Leaves in April 1721 after Capuchins show him t

he decree of the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide giving them the exclusive right to missionary activity in Tibet.

• Reaches Kuti on Nepal-Tibet border in spring 1721and stays several months

• Travels south through the Kathmandu Valley and crosses the Tarai into India the following winter

CROSSING THE TIBETAN MOUNTAINS

During the journey we crossed the high and difficult mountain called Langur. Everyone suffers from violent headache, oppression of the chest and shortness of breath during the ascent, and often from fever, as happened to me. Although it was nearly the end of May there was deep snow, the cold was intense and the wind so penetrating that, though I was wrapped in woollen rugs, my lungs and heart were so affected that I thought my end was near.

An Account of Tibet, pg.310

THE ROAD TO KATHMANDU

During the journey from Kutti to Kattmandù…. [the] road skirted frightful precipices and we climbed mountains by holes just large enough to put one’s toe into, cut out of the rock like a staircase. At one place a chasm was crossed by a plank only the width or a man’s foot, while the wooden bridges over large rivers flowing in the deep valleys swayed and oscillated most alarmingly.

An Account of Tibet, pg.311

HE WAS NOT EXAGGERATING!

DESIDERI ON THE NEWARS – THE INDIGENOUS POPULATION OF THE KATHMANDU VALLEY

These Neuârs are active, intelligent and very industrious, clever at engraving and melting metal, but unstable, turbulent and traitorous. They are of medium height, dark skinned and generally well made, but nearly all bear deceit written on their faces, so that anyone knowing these countries would pick out a Neuâr from among a thousand Indians. They are cowardly, mean and avaricious, spend little on their food and are dirty in their habits.

An Account of Tibet, p.314

THE CAPUCHIN MISSION, 1715-1769• The missionaries (mostly Italian but also some French) were generally prot

ected by the Kathmandu Valley rulers, particularly by Ranjit Malla of Bhaktapur,,but made few converts.

• They became unpopular during a plague which killed 20,000 in 1717 as they allegedly refused to treat those unwilling to convert.

• They initially enjoyed fairly cordial relations with Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha, whose campaign to conquer the Valley lasted from 1743 to 1769, but the failed British intervention to protect the Newar rulers made him suspicious of all Europeans and the Capuchins were put under so much pressure that they withdrew in April 1769.. The country was to remain closed to missionaries (and almost all Europeans) until 1950.

• Their correspondence, published by Luciano Petech as I missionary italiani nel Tibet e nel Nepal, is an important source for the period. The geral introduction and the letters from Nepal are available in Surendra Dhakal’s Nepali translation as Tibbat ra Nepalma Italian Dharmapracharakharu

DARJEELING – A `HILL STATION’ JUST EAST OF THE NEPAL-INDIA BORDER

THE GROWTH OF DARJEELING• Area originally part of Sikkim but `gifted’ to the British in 1839• Migration from eastern Nepal both because of the availability of work on tea

plantations and because of exactions of Kathmandu government• Large number of `tribals’ and `low castes’ with a stronger tendency to amalg

amation into a single `Nepali’ or `Gorkha’ mainstream than in Nepal-proper• Missionary activity from 1842, with permanent Church of Scotland mission s

tation from 1870. Number of converts small (2000 census shows only 3% of the town’s population as Christians) but converts were particularly likely to switch to Nepali from their own `tribal’ language and missionaries had strong cultural influence.

• Higher levels of literacy than in Nepal – as a result both of missionary and government efforts – and development of an intellectual base for the Nepali nationalism that became the government-sponsored orthodoxy in Nepal itself after 1950-51.

• Currently still part of West Bengal but there is a continuing agitation for the area to be made into a separate state (`Gorkhaland’) within India. Pressure from the area secured the adoption of Nepali as one of India’s constitutionally recognised languages in 1992

• Movement of a number of Darjeeling intellectuals into Nepal, with King Mahendra’s encouragement, after 1951. At this time any Christians you found in Nepal were normally from Darjeeling.

THE RETURN OF MISSIONARIES TO NEPAL

• November 1950: Rana regime invites Fr Moran, S.J., to establish a school at Godavari in the Kathmandu Valley – St. Xavier’s.

• Following the fall of the Rana regime in February 1951, various missionary groups, some of whom had previously been working in settlements just across the Indian border and hoping for such an opportunity, enter the country with a mandate to carry out medical, educational and other forms of social service.

RELIGIOUS ADHERENCE IN NEPAL

1981 1991 2001 2011

• Hinduism 89 86.5 80.6 81.3

• Buddhism 5.3 7.8 10.7 9.0

• Islam 2.7 3.5 4.2 4.4

• Christianity - 0.17 0.4 1.4

• The absolute rise over the last twenty years was from 31,280 to 375,699 (i.e an increase of 1100%).. In view of the reports of large-scale conversion over recent years (e.g. amongst the Tamangs), the real figure may be higher.

FIGURES FROM CHRISTIAN SOURCES(2012 data provided by Chirendra Satyal)

• One third of the population, i.e. now aound 9 million (?!) (Kathmandu taxi driver in about 2006)

• 2.5 million (Ghari Bahadur Gahatraj, secretary of National Christian Federation, 2012)

• 2 million (Catholic Bishop Anthony Sharma, 2012)

• 700, 000 to I million (informal estimates from various Christian interviewees in 2011)

REASONS FOR DISCREPANCIES

• Deliberate distortion/exaggeration.• Impressionistic estimates.• Different methods of counting (e.g. some

churches use attendance at religious services, others number of baptisms).

• Failure by enumerators to visit all households.• Head of household may decide to report all

members as of the same religion, either disregarding (or in ignorance of) actual beliefs of junior members.

`LIES, DAMNED LIES AND STATISTICS’

• The boundary between Hinduism and Buddhism has always been a fuzzy one, though more distinct at higher levels in the status hierarchy – this is seen most clearly in the two-headed structure of Newar society in the Kathmandu Valley: distinctly Buddhist Bajracharyas and Shakyas and Hindu Rajopadhyaya Brahmans at the top and Hindu-Buddhist Jyapu peasantry at the bottom

• The figure for Hindusim (like the figure for those speaking Nepali rather than another mother tongue) was boosted in the past by the religion’s establishment status. Pressure now also the other way as Buddhist activists try to boost their own numbers.

• Christian converts will normally have been told by their mentors that the boundary between Christianity and other religions is NOT a fuzzy one, but it’s possible some not have made a clear-cut decision between different traditions.

SYNCRETISM AT GRASSROOTS LEVEL AS SEEN BY 17th CENTURY FRANCISCANS IN THE

BALKANS

• Fra Cherubino reported disapprovingly after his visit to Kosovo that the Catholics were getting Muslims to act as godfathers for their children, and that they were letting the Muslims use holy chrism on their own children because it would guard them against diseases of the eye. In a village outside Gjakova he and his companion had been welcomed into one house with the words `Come in, Fathers; in our house we have Catholicism, Islam and Orthodoxy‘; in shocked tones, Fra Cherubino reported that `they seemed to glory in the diversity of religions.’ – Noel Malcolm, Kosovo – A Short History. London: Macmillan, 19

98, pg.130

THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK• The Nepalese state from unification onwards legitimised itself in term of Hin

duism, with the king upholding the caste hierarchy and particularly the sacred status of Brahmans.

• This was made explicit in the 1962 constitution and, despite strong demands from some groups for a secular state, retained in the 1990 constitution. The latter implicitly removed a ban on individuals’ changing their own religion but stated there was no right to conduct active proselytisation (dharmaparivartan garaaune). Provisions against proselytisation in the existing criminal code have remained a dead letter, though a proposal to re-activate them in a revised form was made in 2011

• Nepal was declared a secular state in the aftermath of the protest movement which forced King Gyanendra to cede power in 2006 but some traditionalists continue to demand a referendum on the issue and small extremist groups such as the Shiva Sena Nepal have resorted to violent action to press for reversal of the change. Less extreme groups, but representing the Hindu `high castes’, have also recently become more assertive in response to ethnic activism directed against these castes’ traditionally dominance.

THE THREE BLOCKS

• Catholic Church– Education – St Xavier’s and St Mary’s schools– Social work– Academic research (Human Resources Centre)

• Fr Ludwig Stiller (historian)• Fr. John Locke (Buddhologist)

• United Mission to Nepal– Medical services– Butwal Power Company

• The International Nepal Fellowship http://www.inf.org/ – Medical services – Development work in poor communities

FR. MARSHAL MORAN, S.J.,1906-1992, IN HIS `HAM SHACK’

LUDWIG STILLER, S.J.1928 - 2009

Hong Kong delegation on a clandestine visit to a church in a Rai area of eastern Nepal (April 2007)

SUMMER INSTITUTE OF LINGUISTICS

• American based organisation studying undeveloped languages as base for translations of the Bible

• December 1966: Nepal government signs contract for SIL to document Nepalese languages and train Nepalese linguists.

• Output includes Austin Hale & David Watters (eds) Clause, Sentence and Discourse Patterns (Kathmandu: SIL, 1973, 4 vols.) Full list in Alan C. Wores, Bibliography of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1979-1986 (2 vols, supplm.)

• June 1976: Government orders SIL to quit Nepal by September. No reason cited but suspected to be because of proselytizing activities or (less probably) support for the Free Tibet movement.

Hvalkof, Søren and Peter Araby (eds). 1981. Is God an American? An anthropological Perspective on the missionary Work of the Summer Institute of Li

nguistics. Copenhagen; International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs http://www.iwgia.org/sw23651.asp

The Wycliffe Bible Translators (WBT)/Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), one of the largest missionary enterprises in the world, aims to bring »the Word« to the »Bibleless tribes«. In pursuit of converts, SIL missionaries have profoundly affected indigenous societies throughout the world. 

SIL's method of proselytising and its relationships with host countries have provoked many questions and criticisms. Especially in South America SIL has been accused of acting as a cover for CIA and US military activities, for drug trafficking, for uranium prospecting. But the precise impact of SIL on indigenous peoples has received much less attention. How has the SIL affected the lives and aspirations of native peoples? Have the benefits of literacy, better health care, etc. brought by the missionaries outweighed the damage wrought by the destruction of traditional belief?

– from the IWGIA website blurb (downloaded 25/4/2010)

The Asianisation of proselytisation in Nepal?

• At least in the Kathmandu Valley, the bulk of foreigner proselytisers are from East or South-East Asia, with South Koreans particularly prominent.

• Although South Korean protestantism has to some extent been influenced by the American variety, its emphasis on faith healing (which is also found in most Nepali Christian communities) is out of line with mainstream American evangelistic Christianity and possibly influenced by Korea’s own indigenous shamanistic tradition (also important in Nepalese culture)

OTHER CRITIQUES OF MISSIONARY ACTIVITY

• Saubhagya Shah, `The Gospel Comes to the Hindu Kingdom’, Himal Sept/Oct 1993, on the tension created by conversions at village level.

• George van Driem, Languages of the Himalayas, Leiden: Brill, 2001 (2 vols.)– condemns missionaries for erosion of Chepang traditional culture and n

otes a 1993 attack (led by Chepang shamans) on Christian Chepangs. Refers particularly to work of one New Zealand missionary (p.790)

– corroborates from own experience stories of financial inducements to convert, payment of proselytizers, encouragement of young Christian Tamangs to make fun of traditional ones etc.

– Suggests parallelism or even causal relationship between the effects of Christian missionaries in the Kham Magar area of the western hills and subsequent development of Maoist insurgency there (p.791-20

CLASHES BETWEEN CHRISTIAN AND NON-CHRISTIANS

• 1993 attack led by Chepang shamans on Chepang Christians

• Nepal News (web) 2/7/00: Buddhist villagers vandalise homes of 5 Christian families at Gumda district (Gorkha), claiming they’ve been trying to convert the village and have slaughtered animals in defiance of Buddhist tradition. Vice-chairman of District Development Committee has negotiated a compromise under which the Christians will be rehabilitated but will stop killing animals.

• Reports of tension in some Tamang villages north of the Kathmandu valley

• Murder of Fr. John Prakash, principal of Don Bosco school in Dharan in summer 2008.

• Bomb explosion at a church in Patan kills 2 in May 2009. One of the perpetrators was later reported to have been converted to Christianity himself whilst in prison.

SOCIAL WELFARE COUNCIL REPORT APRIL 2010

• Up to 15 percent of the 200 International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGO)s working in Nepal are engaged in preaching their religion in various ways.

• Informal reports received that some INGOs, which took permission from the SWC to carry out various developmental projects in Nepal, preach their religion in various ways like forcing them to convert religion to secure a job, conducting prayers during office hours and providing information about the religion during official training.

• No formal complaints received so no official action yet taken

http://www.nepalnews.com/main/index.php/news-archive/2-political/5162-15-percent-ingos-preaching-religion-swc-.html (downloaded 5April 2010)

CHRIST AND MAO• Van Driem’s suggestion that missionary undermining of traditional beliefs prepared gr

ound for the Maoists. A Kathmandu-based American Jesuit was given a similar analysis for China by a third-generation Chinese Baptist who believes missionaries in China helped prepare the ground for communism.

• Story from one foreign resident of a church in Patan making voluntary donation to the Maoists during the 2008 election campaign as a means of ensuring a secular state.

• Government closing of a Christian funded development project listed by one analyst among the causes radicalising the area where Maoist insurgency first broke out

• The Indian parallel – killing by Maoists in Andhra Pradesh of a Hindu fundamentalist leader triggered violence against Christians because the Maoists’ recruits are often from Christianised tribes.

• But relations between Christians and Maoists are not as close as Hindu activists suggest

– Those in the Kham Magar area who actually converted generally didn’t become Maoists– Churches in Everest and Jumla regions under `donation’ pressure and not able to operate n

ormally during insurgency– A Protestant pastor’s survey of his own congregation in western Nepal before the 2008 elect

ion showed support for the Maoists as about the same level (30%) as their actual share of the national vote.

– A Maoist who was briefly Minister of Justice in 2011 spoke in favour of strengthened measure against proselytisation proposed for inclusion in a reviised civil code

– This attitude may be widespread in Maoist ranks – a senior trade unionist complained to me last year about financial inducements to conversion though also thought trying to act against this would cause trouble with donor community

PROPOSED PROVIONS ON CONVERSION IN DRAFT REVISED CRIMINAL CODE

(unofficial translation adopted from one supplied by Catholic journalist Chirendra Satyal – italics mine)

• Section 160.1:No person shall be entitled to convert, attempt to convert or incite others to convert anyone to another religion.

• Section 160.2: No person shall act or behave in a manner which may infringe upon the religion practiced by any caste, community from ancient times or conduct publicity for any religion with the intention to convert whether by inducement or not.

• Section 160.3: Anyone committing offences as specified in mention on sub-sections (1) and (2) will be liable to up to 5 years imprisonment and a fine of up to NPR.50000/- fine [about US$700].

ARTICLE 23 (`RIGHT TO RELIGION’) OF THE 2007 INTERIM CONSTITUTION (UNDP July 2010

translation, italics mine)• (1) Every person shall have the right to profess, practise

and preserve his or her own religion as handed down to him or her from ancient times paying due regard to social and cultural traditions. Provided that no person shall be entitled to convert another person from one religion to another, and no person shall act or behave in a manner which may infringe upon the religion of others [Tara kasaile kasaiko dharma parivartan garaauna paaune chhaina ra ek arkaako dharmamaa khalal paarne gari kunai kaam, vyabahaar garna paaine chhaina]

• (2) Every religious denomination shall have the right to maintain its independent existence, and for this purpose to manage and protect its religious places and religious trusts, in accordance with law.

THE 2011 CONTROVERSY

• 15 May: Proposal to include provisions against proselytisation in the revised Criminal Code made public

• Campaign by Christians, Buddhists and Mulsims with some liberal Hindu support, alleging the legislation inconsistent with Article 23 of the interim constitution and with article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

• 23 June: Presented to parliament but not brought to a vote because of the fall of the UML-Maoist government at the beginning of August; outgoing prime minister Jhalanath Khanal reportedly makes a statement in support of non-Hindu concerns

• The dispute has throughout attracted little attention outside the groups affected because of concentration on the replacement of Khanal’s government.

Conversation with a convertFrom a column by Niraj Aryal in a column in The Telegraph (right-wing Kathmandu newspaper), 6/4/10:

“Dai (brother) are you a Catholic or a Protestant?” “Thuuu (pooh-pooh)….it is better to be a Hindu than a Catholic”, the person replied. “Why” surprisingly (sic) I asked.He preferred not to reply (I felt he did not know the answer and I have no idea why Protestants hate Catholics or vice versa.)“What is your name”, I asked him again.“Jeevan,” he answered.“Is that your real name or….” I questioned him.“No, this is the name given to me by my pastor after I accepted conversion”, he told me.“Then what is your real name”, my question followed.(He remained silent for some time and awkwardly replied)Ram Bahadur B. K.(belongs to Dalit community), he finally answered.

INTER-CHRISTIAN DISAGREEMENTS

• There is a general perception that Catholics are happy not to proselytise (as shown by the church claiming only 7000 adherents in Nepal and the Justice Minister in 2011 explicitly excluding Catholics from his criticism of some Protestant groups); the International Nepal Fellowship want to evade the ban; and the United Mission to Nepal includes a range of views on the issue.

• Strong disapproval of Catholics by many evangelicals because of:– their non-proselytising approach– the ritualism of Catholicism, seen as an adulteration of Christian

ity by elements of Graeco-Roman paganism (position articulated by Baptist Udi Gurung in his Tribhuvan university M.A. thesis)

– their willingness to participate in some rituals connected with Hinduism, particularly at Dasain

THE DASAIN DILEMMA

• `My fingers are still red from giving tika to the younger members of my fictive family … But I just mumble a thoroughly Christian benediction over them as I give tika.’ (American Jesuit missionary)

THE CATHOLIC TRADITION

• Willingness by some Catholics to compromise on forms of religious observance (Mattaeo Ricci, the later `Chinese rites’ controversy) but still with ultimate objective of conversion to Christian beliefs.

• Belief that `salvation outside the Church’ is possible in some circumstances

• Recent adjustment to abandonment of traditional proselytising altogether – in Nepal as legally required, but also in some other areas – Catholic schools in Indian `tribal’ areas no longer `missionising’, in contrast to the RSS, Hindu revivalist schools which , ironically adopt the Catholics’ old approach (Sundar 2010). A prominent Indian Jesuit sociologist has called for an abandonment of `aggressive’ attempts to promote conversion (Heredia 2007)

RUDOLF HEREDIA’S POSITION(Changing Gods: Rethinking Conversion in India, 2007)

• Opposition to `aggressive’ attempts to convert but opposing any legal ban (other than on use of `force, fraud or undue inducement’):– `[Conversion for material reasons] may not be a truly religious

motivation, nor a very noble one, but can a democratic, secular government or its constituents forbid their citizens to sell their religious heritage for a mess of potage if that is the value they put on it?’ (p.142)

• Calling for dialogue and an acknowledgement that no human understanding encompasses the whole truth– [inter-religious dialogue]` requires that we bracket away our own

convictions and commitments not to abandon or betray them, but to hold them in abeyance as we reach out to each other, as in any attempt at resolving differences.’ (p.328)

• But insisting that his position does not amount to outright relativism: – `The human is never the ultimate absolute but always in relationship to it.

This does not amount to relativism. For pluralism is not about the equality of differing and contradictory truths, but about equal respect for others, who hold different truths.’(p.30)

Conversion and Religious pluralism

• `Go into the whole world and preach the Gospel to all creation; he who has believed and been baptised will be saved and he who has not believed will be condemned’.

Mark 16: 15-16

• `My brother kneels (so saith Kabir) To stone and brass in heathen wise, But in my brother’s voice I hear

My own unanswered agonies. His God is as his fates assign – His prayer is all the world’s – and mine. Rudyard Kipling, The Prayer

REFERENCES(fuller bibliography in jan2012_handout.doc at

http://linguae.weebly.com/nepali.html )

Alsop, Ian. 1996. `Christians at the Malla Court’ In Siegfried Lienhard (ed.) Continuity and Change: Studies in the Nepalese Culture of the Nepal Valley. Allesandria, Italy: Edizioni dell’Orso.

• Desideri, Ippolito. 1937. The Travels of Ippolito Desideri of Pistoia, S.J., 1712-1727. transl. Janet Ross, ed. Filippo de Filippi. London: Routledge

• Driem, Gorge van. 2001 Languages of the Himalayas, Leiden: Brill, 2001 (2 vols.) • Gettelman, Nancy M, 1982. `Letter of the first westerner to visit Bhutan-Tibet-Nepal’ Kailas, vol.9,

no. 1, pp. 97-110• Gurung, Udi Jang. 2005. `A Historical Study of Christianity in Nepal’. TU MA dissertation• Hale, Austin & David Watters (eds) Clause, Sentence and Discourse Patterns (Kathmandu: SIL,

1973, 4 vols.)• Heredia, Rudolf C. 2007. Changing Gods: Rethinking Conversion In India (PB) New Delhi:

Penguin Books, India.• Hvalkof, Søren and Peter Araby (eds). 1981. Is God an American? An anthropological Pers

pective on the missionary Work of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Copenhagen; International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs

• Kircher, Athanasius. 1667. China Illustrata, 2nd.ed. . Amsterdam: Jacob Meurs [Reprint Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar 1979]

• Malcolm, Noel.1998. Kosovo – A Short History. London: Macmillan, 1998• Petech, Luciano (ed.) 1952-6. I Missionari Italiani nel Tibet e nel Nepal. Rome: Libreria dello Stato.

• Saubhagya Shah, `The Gospel Comes to the Hindu Kingdom’, Himal Sept/Oct 1993.3• Sundar, Nandini. 2010. `Educating for Inequality: the Experience of India’s `Indigenous’ citize

ns’ ,Asian Anthropology, 9: 117-142• Alan C. Wores, Bibliography of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1979-1986 (2 vols, supplm.)