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$"9CE ', %&+=, ?1-%
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region south of @al cataract( 7y %&1= the mission had sur*eyed the area up to the island of
Nil.atti south of Say( The sur*ey co*ered all the archaeological sites in the area, and =r+ of
the identified sites belonged to the Nobadian and Christian periods( "( ila .ent on to
e)ca*ate se*eral hundred tombs from the roup G and Christian periods at 5issiminia near
"bri !ila %&?'#(
The 7atn el >agar area constituted the focus of research of a number of other e)peditions in
the second half of the +s( In %&++-%&+& an "merican-S.iss 5ission headed by Ch( 5aystre
e)plored 4ageras, B6ma and Son6i South, concentrating on religious buildings !5aystre,
4N, %?%-2?#( In %&+1-%&+& an Italian mission of S( @onadoni unco*ered the small church
of SonAi Tino .ith its e)cellent Classical period paintings and a comple) of tombs around the
building !@onadoni, 4N, 2&-2%?#( The erman e)pedition of E( @in6ier e)plored the
Sunnarti and Tangur islands on the Nile and 4ulb in the years %&+1-%&+&, unco*ering a
number of churches and buildings of the Late 3eriod !@in6ier, 4N, 2=&-21( In %&+& 0(Y(
"dams .or6ed .ith an e)pedition from the Bni*ersity of 4entuc6y at 4ulubnarti unco*ering
the 6ashefs castle and a church .ith late paintings !"dams, 4N, %'%-%='#( 7et.een %&='
and %&12 on the island of Sai a French mission headed by $( ercoutter unco*ered many
Christian structures e*en .hile concentrating on earlier periods( The mission identified =
churches, disco*ered many stone architectural elements, inscriptions and pottery(
Not.ithstanding, the main sites of the Christian period to continue being e)plored follo.ingthe Nubian Campaign .ere ;asr Ibrim in*estigated by the 7ritish EES mission and @ongola
.ere .or6 .as carried out by a 3olish mission( 9esearch at ;asr Ibrim made a*ailable an
e)tremely rich set of documents and literary te)ts in ree6, Coptic and :ld Nubian, of .hich
only a part has been published so far( The te)ts are clearly of immense importance for
understanding the processes of forming Nobadian statehood as .ell as the history of the
;asr Ibrim bishopric and the history of Nubian literature( 5any of the documents from the
Late 3eriod pro*ide a completely ne. loo6 at the history and economy of Nubia in medie*al
times( "t the same time the research at ;asr Ibrim is of importance for studies of ci*il
architecture, especially of the +th century and the Late 3eriod, o.ing to the .holistic
approach to the clearing of the urban comple) of the fortress( The results of in*estigations
concerning the Cathedral are also important as are numerous small finds of architectural
elements, pottery and the plastic arts .hich help trace the de*elopment of Nubian art(
The research at @ongola is of fundamental importance to understanding the de*elopment of
religious architecture of Nubia( @ongolaHs importance as the center of Nubian art became
clear .ith the disco*ery of such buildings as the Church of ranite Columns, 5ausoleum,
Church of Stone 3a*ement, Cruciform Church and Throne >all of the Nubian 6ings( "lso ci*il
architecture and paintings unco*ered in >ouse " and currently in the mausoleum of the
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abbots of the monastery on 4om > confirm @ongolaHs importance in the de*elopment of
Nubian culture( @ongola pottery, particularly a production center disco*ered on the site, are
an important supplement to 0(Y( "dams study( :f considerable interest are also the ree6
te)ts, particularly funerary stelae of the ?th and &th century, .hich permit a re*ision of
6no.ledge gained so far from Coptic and ree6 epigraphic material collected in northern
Nubia(
The research carried out at Soba in %&?%-%&?2 by a mission of the 7ritish Institute in Eastern
"frica in Nairobi are also of fundamental importance as far as understanding the early period
in "lodia is concerned, particularly the religious architecture and pottery( The in*estigations
ha*e emphasi8ed the difference of the culture of this southern 6ingdom and correspond *ery
.ell .ith disco*eries of tombs and pottery of the 3ost-5eroitic period(
The ci*il architecture of the Late 3eriod at >ambu6ol, especially a palace of the %%th century,
.as the obect of e)plorations by a Canadian mission from the 9oyal :ntario 5useum in
Toronto( " mission from the Sudan "ntiAuities @epartment at ebel haddar unco*ered a
series of 5a6urian tombs from the period of the 6ingdomHs Christiani8ation( This e*idence is
e)tremely important and corresponds to a degree .Hsth the oldest atchaeoocJcal layers
unco*ered so far at @ongola by the 3olish mission(
:ne should also note t.o sur*eys .hich .ere conducted in 5iddle Nubia and .hich co*eredthe Christian period as .ell( :ne .as the sur*ey in %&?'-%&?+ by a Canadian mission from
the 9oyal :ntario 5useum in Toronto .hich co*ered an area from Saleb South to 4handaA
on both sides of the ri*er( The other sur*ey by the Bni*ersity of 4hartum .as done in %&&-
%&&% and registered sites, including Christian ones, in the area bet.een @elgo and 4erma(
9ecords and sources / >istory
"n important set of documents indispensable in any study of the history of Nubia is (
antiniHs :riental Sources Concerning Nubia, %&1=( This publication of the English
translations of mainly "rabic te)ts gathered in one edition but de*oid of a critical commentary
is a useful compendium, although intended for the critical student of Nubiology( " sort of
aftermath of this study is antiniHs Christianity in Nubia, %&?%(The Sudan Te)ts 7ulletin edited
by "li :sman and 9obin Thel.all, %-1, %&1&-%&?=, has turned out to be an important and
promising periodical .hich presents a .ide range of ree6, :ld Nubian and "rabic te)ts, all
published .ith care and e)tensi*e commentary(
"n e)ceptional achie*ement is 5( 7ro.neHs edition of :ld Nubian te)ts 6no.n from the
publications of F(LLriffith and E( Kychlar8 as .ell as of ne.ly unco*ered te)ts from ;asr
Ibrim, Serra East and @ongola( The study co*ers literary te)ts as .ell as documents( " full
publication of the ;asr Ibrim archi*es .ill be of considerable importance for further studies of
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the history of Nubia( :ne should remember that it is the research on the history of medie*al
Nubia .hich has so far been neglected and reAuires monographic studies .hich .ould ta6e
better ad*antage of all the ne. sources being disco*ered in Nubia( "n important stage of
these studies .ould be a critical edition of a repertory of ree6 and Coptic te)ts(
Arci"ec"#re
9esearch on the religious architecture of Nubia .as summed up after the Nubian Campaign
in 0(Y( "damsH study .hich systemati8ed in simplified form church designs and attempted to
establish the chronology of changes in the religious architecture of Nubia( "n important part of
the studies is an analysis of the changes in the liturgical eAuipment used in churches(The
disco*ery of churches in @ongola prompted 3( art6ie.ic8 to broader studies in an effort to
trace the double-trac6 de*elopment of Nubian architecture and to emphasi8e the religious
comple)es built on a central plan( art6ie.ic8 presented in effect an analysis of thede*elopment of Nubian church architecture including both the basilican and central-plan
structures( >e also pointed out the buildingHs .hich had been of maor importance for the
de*elopment of Nubian architecture and the conser*ati*e trends, based mainly on structures
in small settlements( The study demonstrated the intricateness of de*elopmental processes in
Nubian architecture and their dynamics it is ho.e*er chronologically imprecise and lac6s a
detailed analysis of particular structures(
3( rossmann, .ho is concentrating on an e)tensi*e monograph study of Egyptian religious
architecture, has included Nubia in his research, a little because of the old Egyptological
tradition in this respect .ith strong emphasis being laid on Egyptian influences in Nubian
architecture( 0hile one can be sceptic of Nubia being treated as an Egyptian pro*ince, one
cannot but admire the critical depth of the analyses of particular comple)es based on a
complete set of sources including iconographic ones( The technological analysis of Nubian
architecture based on ci*il and religious structures is e)tremely important( >o.e*er, the
chronology of particular structures raises serious doubts being as it is subected to processes
in architecture occurring in Egypt( It should be noted that Nubian architecture de*eloped
under the strong influence of the royal court and central authority, both ci*il and religious( The
relations bet.een Nubian and Egyptian architecture are in many cases selfe*ident, but there
can be no doubt that Nubian architecture .as shaped by the cultural policies of the royal
Nubian court .hich often had ambitions to follo. 7y8antine customs and .hich .as far more
dependent upon local centers of culture, such as @ongola, Faras, ;asr Ibrim and ebel
"dda, than directly upon Egypt( This is mainly the effect of a separate statehood and NubiaHs
direct contacts .ith 3alestine and 7y8antium( 3resent 6no.ledge of Nubian religious
architecture reAuires a historical analysis of its de*elopment and chronological precision not
only of the building of *arious structures but also of the successi*e stages in the de*elopmentof particular buildings( The de*elopment of Nubian architecture today can be e*aluated from
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the perspecti*e of structures in the main centers of the land, such as @ongola, Faras and
;asr Ibrim as .ell as Soba( Bnfortunately, the dating of the structures lea*es much to be
desired( " historical analysis encompassing the form as .ell as furnishings and techniAue
seems to be methodologically the best .ay to understanding Nubian architecture and
determining its position in the broader territorial conte)t including not only an Egyptian and
3alestinian perspecti*e but also the aspirations of the royal court in Nubia(
Pai$"i$!
Studies of Nubian painting ha*e been proceeding under the strong influence of research
carried out on the frescoes from Faras Cathedral( The artistic Auality of the frescoes and their
relati*ely precise chronology in conunction .ith the belief that Faras .as a center of Nubian
culture long fa*ored this approach( The first chronology of the paintings, presented by 4(
5ichab.s6i .hile e)ca*ations .ere still in progress, has been re*ised o*er the years by
5ichafo.s6i himself as .ell as by 5( 5artens-C8arnec6a( @etailed studies of the dra.ing and
of ornamental designs has helped ma6e the chronology more precise, but the analyses .ere
from the beginning hampered by certain faults resulting from a some.hat imprecise
publication of the stages in the de*elopment of the Faras cathedral and an e)cessi*ely
historical approach to the phenomena ta6ing place in Faras( 3henomena li6e the changes in
the form of the apse in the Cathedral, the problem of the fire in the building or the alleged
abandonment of the cathedral in the late %2th century ha*e been discussed in detail by 0(
odle.s6i in a number of articles( " monograph of the cathedral is clearly the most urgentneed at present(
There .ere also other restrictions .hich hampered the de*elopment of studies on Nubian
painting( The most important one .as the belief that there .ere no paintings in early
churches conseAuently, the history of Nubian painting .as freAuently begun .ith the
appearance of frescoes in the Faras cathedral in the ?th century( Today, it is clear that murals
occurred in churches from the +th century on.ard such early comple)es are 6no.n from "bu
:da, Naga el :Aba, 0adi es Sebua and "bdallah NirAi(" separate problem in studies on
Nubian painting is their iconographic analysis and the correct understanding of their liturgical
meaning( Scholars ha*e underta6en studies of indi*idual subects such as the decoration of
apses, theophanic crosses, representations of Christ and 5other of od, saints and
anchorites( It should be emphasi8ed, ho.e*er, that studies on the iconography of Nubian
painting remain in the shado. of other research and iconographic subects ha*e not entered
the repertory of 7y8antine and Early Christian art( It seemed that t.o important features of
Nubian painting, i(e(, the e)istence of paintings from the Iconoclastic period and the originality
of some of the iconographic motifs, .ould allo. the art to be Auic6ly included in 7y8antine
studies, but this failed to occur, possibly because of the scholarly .ea6ness of publications of
the best paintings from Nubian churches( :f some importance .as also the fact that ne.
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disco*eries did not follo. the spectacular finds from Faras and SonAi Tino until %&1+ and
%&&2-%&&' .hen painted compositions came to light at @ongola(
Plas"ic ar"s
In studies on Nubian art the plastic arts ha*e not yet found their proper representation( The
finds - crosses, metal and .ooden pectoral representations, terracotta figurines and ceramic
MiconsM - are usually noted in e)ca*ation reports but fail to be the obect of separate studies(
The crosses from Faras are an e)ception in this respect( The .ooden reliefs from "ttiri, no.
in the museum in 4hartoum, are a.aiting publication as .ell as similar obects from ;asr
Ibrim( E*en the dating of these obects .hich .ere undoubtedly pectoral icons is unclear(
They .ere presumably made in the %%th-%2th century in Nubian .or6shops, rather in
Nobadia(" *ery interesting set of terracotta figurines, mostly in fragments, comes from the 5a6urian
monasteries of ha8ali and @ongola they are to be dated to the Late 3eriod !%%th%2th
century#( Some pieces of ceramic icons .ith relief representations of saints on one side and
painted decoration on the other ha*e been found in the monastery on 4om > in @ongola in
the past season( It .ould seem that the minor de*otional art as .ell as .indo. grills .ith
figural representations, found at @ongola, are a specific feature of Late 3eriod art(
Po""er%
3ottery is commonly found in greatest abundance( The sites at Soba and @ongola ha*e
recently pro*ided interesting ne. material, in both cases the early pottery from the +th-1th
century being the most interesting( 7oth sites ha*e also yielded e*idence of local .or6shops
producing this pottery( "lso ne. pottery e*idence from ;asr brim has been noted in
preliminary reports but it is only of a supplementary nature in respect to 0(Y( "dams
fundamental study on the subect(
Ne. e)ca*ations and especially the disco*eries at @ongola, Soba and ;asr Ibrim ha*e
pro*ided scholars .ith an opportunity to re*ie. the current e*aluation of Nubian culture andha*e created ne. scientific perspecti*es for scholars of the art and ci*ili8ation of Nubia( :f
eAual significance for this process of re-e*aluation .ere the re*isions of some of 4(
5ichab.s6iHs conclusions in respect to Faras, especially the Faras cathedral, and the
significant progress in the study of Coptic architecture and painting in Egypt(The
understanding of de*elopments in Nubian art, dominated after the Nubian Campaign by
e*idence from Nobadia - the territory of northern Nubia, has also changed( Ne. disco*eries
at @ongola and Soba ha*e abolished the Nobadia-centric *ie. of Nubian art in fa*or of more
differentiated references( The process is much more ob*ious in studies of Nubian
architecture, especially religious architecture, less e*ident in painting( :nce again the
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importance of disco*eries at @ongola and Soba cannot be understated they are particularly
.ell discernible in the architecture but also allo. for laying do.n hypotheses in respect to .all
painting(The religious architecture disco*ered at Soba and @ongola has sho.n ho. different
the process of de*elopment .as in northern Nubia, presumably because of different outside
influences as .ell as a certain differentiation of local tradition .hich accompanied the
formation of the separate states of "lodia, 5a6uria and Nobadia, and .hich occurred in
conseAuence of the brea6ing the 3an-5eroitic tradition in Nubia as a .hole( This
differentiation in religious architecture is particularly .ell *isible in the Early 3eriod from the
+th to the ?th century .hen the three 6ingdoms e)isted separately follo.ing their union there
is an ob*ious unification of the monumental architecture in the main centers of the Bnited
4ingdom, such as @ongola, 3achoras and ;asr Ibrim, as .ell as a certain similarity of
designs in @ongola and Soba( " comprehensi*e e*aluation of this phenomenon is still difficult
to formulate o.ing to the still modest e*idence from 5a6uria and particularly "lodia, .here
.e are limited to the finds in Soba and .here the disco*ered religious architecture is only
from the early period and badly preser*ed at that( In respect to religious architecture, this
differentiation of forms appears to be the result of different .ays of christiani8ing the area and
so different sources of inspiration( In Nobadia in the +th-1th centuries the influences from the
Thebaid and the relations .ith Coptic Egypt seem to dominate( In @ongola the early
architecture is clearly inspired by 7y8antine models, although at the present stage of research
it is difficult to be certain .hether the models dre. directly from Constantinople or, .hat is
more probable, from 7y8antine pro*inces( This statement is of particular importance for themethodology of further studies for it reAuires the early period architecture to be analy8ed
separately in the three 6ingdoms and dictates the need to ta6e into consideration political and
organi8ational changes ta6ing place in Nubia, particularly the unification of 5a6uria and
Nobadia in the middle of the 1th century and the spreading of @ongolan influence to northern
Nubia as best represented by the building of the Cathedral of 3aulos in 3achoras in 11(
Early 3eriod !+th - mid &th century#
The Early 3eriod is ob*iously to be di*ided into t.o phases, before the unification of 5a6uria
and Nobadia and after it( For "lodia there is at present no .ay of determining the phases of
the Early 3eriod and the brea6-off point in the middle of the 1th century has no significance(
"ll that is possible is the suggestion that in the 1th-?th centuries @ongola could ha*e had a
meaningful influence on "lodia as .ell as Nobadia and conseAuently the centrally designed
church at Soba could be analy8ed in the conte)t of similar buildings disco*ered at @ongola,
such as the Church of ranite Columns( @ongolaHs influence may ha*e been facilitated by the
unification of the Christian rite in the three 6ingdoms after the unification of 5a6uria and
Nobadia, presumably during the region of 6ing 5er6urios(
Earl% Period - &ase I '(" - mid )" ce$"#r%* - No+adia
The =th and +th century sa. the establishment of a homogeneous culture closely connected
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.ith southern Egypt throughout the territory of Nobadia co*ering the *alley of the Nile south of
the first cataract and e)tending to the *icinity of the third cataract( This culture featured a
homogeneous pottery, burial customs and a dynamically de*eloping ci*il and military
architecture !fortifications#( 7uilding .as based on stone - limestone and granite - and
mudbric6 and ba6ed bric6( The stone .or6shops demonstrated high proficiency( Faras and
;asr Ibrim .ere the main centers in this period, but there .ere many settlements .hich
appear to ha*e been *igorously de*eloping small to.ns( The acme of NobadiaHs de*elopment
appears to fall at the turn of the =th century and in the +th( The Christiani8ation of Nobadia in
the 's of the +th century brought a further deepening of contacts .ith the 5editerranean
area and resulted in a dynamic de*elopment of religious architecture as .ell as important
changes in Nobadian ci*ili8ation apparent in burial customs !disappearance of furnishing,
changed orientation, i(e( E-0 .ith head to .est, and ne. types of tomb monuments#( The
stone .or6shops demonstrate continuity the Auality of the products remains unchanged .hile
the decorations and symbols are no. Christian(
9eligious architecture becomes the most characteristic feature of Nobadian art, ha*ing no
local models( Contrary to 4( 5ichab.s6iHs suggestions, there .as no religious architecture in
Nobadia before the stateHs Christiani8ation( The first churches in Nobadia .ere presumably
erected in the centers of Faras and ;asr brim, but e*idence of this is rather limited( "t the
turn of the +th century Faras and its *icinity sa. the construction of a number of churches of
homogeneous e)terior form and almost identical interior design( These churches include theSouthern and Northern Churches at Faras, perhaps also the 5ud Church there, the 9i*er
Church at "dindan, churches in Serre East and Serre arb( "ll these churches ha*e the
bottom parts of the .alls constructed of bro6en stone .ith bric6 being used for the upper
parts( They follo. a basilican plan of elongated dimensions .ith a broader na*e separated
from the presbytery by a triumphal arch( The apse .ith the altar is connected .ith the side
rooms( The .estern end .hich is usually tripartite houses the staircase leading to the gallery(
The *aults of the na*e are supported on massi*e pillars( T.o entrances lead to the church
from the north and south and are both located in the .estern end( 7eside these churches and
contemporaneously .ith them, typical columned basilicas .ere erected/ the first cathedral at
Faras, the church at ;asr el 0i88 and presumably also the :ld Church at ;asr Ibrim( 7oth
the foundations at 3achoras had narthe)es leading into the church proper .ith a na*e .ider
than the aisles( The apse .ith altar .as separated from the rest of the church by a triumphal
arch( The sacristies .ere accessible from the side aisles( The entrance to the basilica .as on
the main a)is in the .estern .all and in the southern and northern .alls of the narthe)( The
First Cathedral at Faras .as constructed of dressed bloc6s of sandstone ust as the church at
;asr Ibrim( 7asilican churches .ere undoubtedly the dominant form in Nobadia in the Early
3eriod( Ne*ertheless, at least t.o churches, the 9i*ergate Church at Faras and the church at
Naga el :Aba, had central domes supported on four pillars constructed of e)cellently fitted
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bloc6s of stone( The eastern and .estern ends of the t.o churches had tripartite di*isions
typical of the period( 7oth churches are not dated *ery .ell unfortunately(
"lso the churches introduced into the 3haraonic temples at ;asr Ibrim, "bu :da and 0adi es
Sebua are not *ery .ell dated( 0ithout going into details, .e can safely place their
construction at the turn of the +th century( :nly the church at "6sha may be a little later( The
interiors of these churches differ among themsel*es, logically resulting from the limitations
.hich the adaptation of 3haraonic temples or their parts imposed(
"rchitectural elements, .hich come mainly from Faras and ;asr Ibrim and include columns,
capitals, lintels and door ambs as .ell as frie8es, .ere made in sandstone and demonstrate
the s6ill of the stonecutters( In decoration they indicate a combination of local traditions .ith
ne. Christian symbols( The architectural decoration demonstrates many similarities in form,
composition and style .ith the architectural decoration made in the Thebaid, especially in the
.or6shops at Lu)or, Esna and 3hilae(
Mak#ria
The beginnings of the 5a6urian state are still insufficiently recorded .ith our database limited
to ust a fe. sites such as Tangasi, ebel addar and Tabo( The e*idence from @ongola
.hich is undoubtedly the fullest is relati*ely late and comes from the period of the
Christiani8ation of the 6ingdom, the turn of the =th century at best( The pottery of @ongolafrom this period sho.s aesthetic and technical *alors, .hile at the same time being decidedly
different in form and style from contemporaneous Nobadian production( This clearly points to
a successful local production( 3resent e*idence rather fails to confirm the presence of trade
contacts bet.een Nobadia and 5a6uria at the turn of the =th century( 3ottery from @ongola is
rare in the north( Ne. e)ca*ations in the area of the
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housing a staircase on one side and a 6ind of commemorati*e chapel on the other( The apse
of the church had a synthronon and the altar .as situated in the eastern end of the na*e and
.as set apart by a balustrade( The southeastern room ser*ed as a baptistery .ith a deep
round baptismal font .ith t.o sets of steps from the east and .est( The na*e .as presumably
higher than the aisles and the basilica .as eAuipped .ith galleries(
7uilding G .as built of red bric6 as a comple) erected to commemorate t.o persons buried in
the crypts under the apse( It .as a compact rectangular structure .ith a uniAue interior plan(
" cruciform center .as inscribed in the rectangle .ith an apse at the end of the eastern arm(
The eastern part of the building had de*eloped pastophoria consisting of double rooms on
either side of the apse connected by a passage behind the apse( In the .estern end of the
structure there .as a centrally located *estibule and t.o large comer rooms .ith a staircase
housed in the northern one of the t.o( The cruciform interior .as separated from the .estern
end by an inner narthe) and surrounded by four rooms located in the spaces bet.een the
arms of the cross t.o long corridors ran the length of the sides of the comple)( The height of
this .ell-designed and constructed building is difficult to estimate on the basis of preser*ed
remains, but most probably the central part on the plan of a cross .as much higher than the
rest of the comple) and presumably some galleries must ha*e e)isted as .ell(
The Church of the Stone 3a*ement .as built on the site of 7uilding G, ta6ing ad*antage of
the e)terior .alls and the eastern and .estern ends( The central part .as le*elled and thene. church built on the plan of a fi*e-aisled basilica .ith the na*e t.ice as .ide as the side
aisles( The aisles .ere di*ided by ro.s of columns of .ell-dressed red granite( The apse .as
filled .ith a synthronon and opened through a triumphal arch onto the presbytery in the
eastern end of the na*e set off .ith a stone balustrade( :n either side of the apse there .ere
de*eloped pastophoria connected by a passage in bac6 of the apse( The southern room
ser*ed as a baptistery .ith a deep round baptismal font .ith a set of steps on the east and
another one on the .est( The main entrance to the basilica .as located on the long a)is of
the church in the .estern .all and led to a *estibule located bet.een corner rooms connected
by an inner narthe)(The Church of the Stone 3a*ement may ha*e ser*ed as an episcopal
basilica( Considering the crypts of 7uilding G .hich .ere incorporated into the ne. comple)
and the ne. arrangement of the cult of the persons buried in them, it is Auite possible that this
basilica .as indeed the cathedral of @ongola(
"n interesting religious comple) is the three-aisled basilica disco*ered in %&&2 on 6om E near
the El haddar *illage in @ongola( The .est entrance to this structure is preceded by a
portico( The interior has a typically Nubian plan .ith a narthe) in the .est and a tripartite
bema in the east( The apse .ith the synthronon had a room on either side, connected
separately by a passage in bac6 of the apse( The southeastern room had a deep baptismal
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pool .ith t.o sets of steps( The presbytery .as set off by a stone balustrade in the eastern
end of the na*e and .as preceded on the .est by a lectern( The stone pa*ement of the
church .as co*ered .ith a mosaic of colored pebbles - a uniAue feature in Nubian church
architecture(
The architectural decoration of @ongolan churches is limited to columns and capitals of
granite( Sporadically one encounters cancella slabs decorated .ith reliefs !Church E in
@ongola# or fragments of thrones( The capitals belonging to the Church of the Stone
3a*ement and Church E .ere car*ed in an abacus .ith 6nobs supported on four comer
lea*es and 5altese crosses inscribed in a circle in bet.een( It .ould appear that architectural
decoration played a definitely lesser role in @ongolan structures than in Nobadian
architecture(
Te U$i"ed N#+ia$ ,i$!dom
3olitical changes follo.ing the "rab in*asion of the 7y8antine empire and the e)press
occupation of the "frican pro*inces along .ith Egypt in the end of the first half of the 1th
century .ere also of significance for Nubia( The "rab e)pedition against Nobadia in +'= and
the follo.ing e)pedition of "bdullah abu Sarh against @ongola in +=2 .ere instrumental in
leading to the unification of the 6ingdoms of 5a6uria and Nobadia into one state organism(
The 6ings of 5a6uria seem to ha*e played the dominant role in this process it .as the 6ings
of 5a6uria .ho managed to bring about the union, defend @ongola against the "rabs and
negotiate a baAt treaty .ith them( The treaty .hich ;alidurut signed .ith "bdullah abu Sarhbecame the basis of NubiaHs relations .ith the "rab .orld until the mid %
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.as erected - the Church of ranite Columns( It .as a significant achie*ement of the local
masons for an analysis of the plan compels us to consider it as a totally local design and
reali8ation( The cruciform interior inscribed into a compact basilical outline recalls such
structures as the 5ausoleum and the Church of the Stone 3a*ement, .hile the anne)es are
*ery similar to compartments preser*ed in the southern part of the :ld Church, thus
combining elements 6no.n from *arious other @ongolan structures( Inside the church to the
.est there .as a narthe) accessible only from the south the center .as occupied by the
intersecting na*es ending in apse at three of the ends, .ith the eastern one being the largest(
The side aisles .ere di*ided by columns of grey granite( In the east end there .ere
pastophoria connected by a corridor behind the apse( In the southern part of the structure
there .as a staircase and a side chapel .ith a cruciform baptismal font( :n the northern side
there .ere analogous rooms and the eastern one formed part of the prothesis( The eastern
apse .as filled by a synthronon, and the eastern part of the na*e .as set off by an altar
screen(The corpus .as probably de*eloped not only by setoffs in the side .alls articulating
the trans*ersal na*e on the outside, but also by an appropriate articulation of cruciform design
in the structure of the roof(
The Cathedral of 3aulos in Faras, founded in 11, .as probably influenced by trends coming
from the capital at @ongola( The earlier three-aisled basilica .as de*eloped according to a
model set by the Church of ranite Columns in @ongola( Some limitations issuing from the
necessity to retain some parts of the earlier structure enforced a reduction of the metropolitanmodel and resulted in a lesser elegance of the final structure( The 3aulos Cathedral also had
a narthe) preceding the church on the .est .ith t.o entrances from the .est and south( The
corpus had a cruciform design, but only the eastern arm of the cross ended in an apse( In the
eastern end of the building the pastophoria did not ha*e the connecting passage behind the
apse, the reno*ation here being limited to an enlarging of the apse alone( The side anne)es
.ere almost identical .ith the rooms in @ongola( The synthronon filled the apse and the altar
.as located in the eastern end of the na*e and .as screened off from the rest of the building
by an altar screen( The southeastern room ser*ed as a baptistery and chapel( The prothesis
.as located in the northeastern room of the church(
"nother important building erected after the 6ingdomHs unification .as the basilica at ;asr
Ibrim .hich ser*ed as the cathedral there( It .as built on the ruins of the :ld Church and .as
an enormous structure .ith fi*e aisles and an inner narthe)( Its na*e .hich .as .ider than
the rest of the aisles .as set apart by ro.s of granite columns .hile the side aisles .ere
separated by pillars( The tripartite bema contained an apse .ith a stone synthronon and side
rooms connected by a .ide corridor east of the apse( The passage .as ustified to a degree
by the presence of subterranean crypts( The @ongolan Church of the Stone 3a*ement
constitutes the closest analogy to this building( "lso the .estern end of the basilica at ;asr
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Ibrim .as designed in a similar fashion as at @ongola, only the staircase leading to the gallery
being located else.here, i(e(, in the south.estern corner room(
In the ?th century changes in the liturgical eAuipment .ere probably introduced into many
*illage churches under 5a6urian influence( The most important change .as the introduction
of a synthronon into the apse and the mo*ing of the altar more to the .est, usually into the
eastern end of the na*e( The presbytery .as in such cases screened off from the rest of the
church( In the ne.ly erected churches of Nobadia also the passage behind the apse .as
introduced .here*er possible( "n e)cellent e)ample of the changes is the eastern end of the
church at Naga "bdallah( It can be said that the basilical type of church became common in
all of northern Nubia at this precise time( It .as usually a small rectangular building .ith a
tripartite .estern end and a tripartite bema .ith connecting passage behind the apse bet.een
the pastophoria( The body of the church .as usually three-aisled .ith the slightly .ider na*e
being separated from the aisles by massi*e pillars, usually t.o on each side( The na*e .as
also higher than the aisles and the church usually had a gallery accessible *ia a staircase( "n
e)cellent e)ample of this type of building id the Southern Church at Ihmindi, probably erected
in the &th century(
The architectural decoration is, in comparison .ith the earlier phase, much less freAuently
applied inside churches( The rule .ere granite columns, sometimes decorated .ith crosses
on the upper parts of their shafts, used as supports in such comple)es as the Church of theranite Columns in @ongola, the 3aulos Cathedral in Faras and the basilica at ;asr Ibrim(
The surface of the greatly reduced capitals .as car*ed .ith a shallo. relief decoration of a
*ery simple design( The *olutes are in the form of narro. bands and ust barely mar6ed
bet.een them there is a decorati*e element in the shape of a cross or a palmette, sometimes
a monogram( The nec6 of the capitals is most often plain, although sometimes it is decorated
.ith small lea*es or simply a torus( It .ould appear that granite capitals .ere popular in
Nobadia as a result of 5a6urian influence( In northern Nubia sandstone continued to be used,
mostly as part of the entrance, .ith the lintels decorated .ith a sole flat cube in the center,
inscribed .ith a cross in a .reath(
Not much can be said of ci*il architecture( >ouses only rarely entered the scope of field.or6
and are rarely .ell dated .hen they did( T.o interesting houses - >ouse " and >ouse 3C>%
- .ere e)ca*ated in the northern -part of @ongola both .ere built of mudbric6 and had an
upper floor( In both cases the entrances led to *estibules connected .ith a staircase( The
groundfloor contained a number of rooms accessible from the *estibule or a trans*ersal hall(
In >ouse " a bathroom .as identified .ith t.o bathing pools, .ater installations and a
furnace for heating .ater( :ther public buildings .ere unco*ered at "rminna 0est and in
Faras .here t.o palaces .ere disco*ered to the north of the cathedral and identified as eariy
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structures(
.* Wall &ai$"i$!s
The interiors of Nubian churches of the Early 3eriod, especially in northern Nubia, .ere often
decorated .ith architectural frie8es and niche finials, but there is no doubt that .all paintings
.ere an element of church decoration right from the beginning( The oldest fragments of
paintings are found inside baptismal pools in the :ld Church and the Church of the Stone
3a*ement in @ongola the .aterproof plaster in these pools .as done in imitation of marble
re*etment( 7ut the oldest .all paintings ha*e been preser*ed inside the churches of Nobadia
and are dated to the 1th and ?th century( Interestingly, the religious .all paintings appeared
outside churches, inside roc6cut hermitages !The rotto of the "nchorite at Faras#, public
buildings !South 3alace at Faras# and e*en houses !>ouse " in @ongola#( The best
preser*ed and most famous set of .all paintings of the Early 3eriod comes from the 3aulos
Cathedral in Faras shortly after its establishment in 11( Bntil recently these paintings .ere
considered the oldest from Nubia( Today, ho.e*er, there is a number of paintings .hich can
be dated to the 1th century, such as the murals from "bu :da, part of the compositions from
0adi es Sebua, compositions from the synthronon of the First Cathedral at Faras, the Central
Church at "bdallah NirAi and possibly the compositions from the small church at Naga el
:Aba(3ainting dated to the ?th and early &th century ha*e been preser*ed in the 3aulos
Cathedral in Faras, but also in 0adi es Sebua, Serre arb and >ouse " in @ongola( :n the
grounds of the preser*ed remains, Faras may be distinguished as the most important centerof .all painting in Nubia of the Early 3eriod( >o.e*er, a certain distinctness of the paintings
from @ongola enoins caution and indicates that @ongola may ha*e been a center of eAual, if
not greater importance(
The style of Nubian paintings of the Early 3eriod is fairly homogeneous( @ra.ing dominates
the brush.or6 in bringing out the outlines of a picture( The figures are mostly sho.n frontally,
statically, hea*ily proportioned, their massi*eness accentuated by large feet( 9obes are
outlined schematically and are usually monochromatic( The e)pressi*eness of the faces is in
the setting of the .ide open eyes .hich contrast .ith the simple outline of the nose and
mouth( It .ould seem that the earlier paintings, dated to the 1th century, from "bu :da and
0adi es Sebua, sho. mo*ement .ith less constraint !martyr saint from the ceiling of the "bu
:da church# and the draping of the robes is also more free !St( 3eter the "postle from the
.est niche in the 0adi es Sebua church#( Faces are also more three-dimensional through the
stronger mar6ing of shado.s on the chee6s, as in the representation of St( 3eter at 0adi es
Sebua(3aintings are placed o*er 2 meters abo*e the floor in monumental buildings, the
e)ception being the apse and entrance to a church( The compositions gi*e the impression of
hanging icons, there not being any bac6ground and no line to indicate the le*el on .hich the
figure is supposedly standing( Narrati*e scenes occur sporadically, but the subects do not
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depart from the repertoire of icon painting/ "scension of Christ, Nati*ity, Three >ebre.s in a
Fiery Furnace, Christ appearing to St( Thomas( It .ould seem that icon painting played an
important role in shaping both the style and choice of subect matter in early Nubian
paintings(The general opinion is that early Nubian painting is stylistically *ery close to the
Coptic paintings of 7a.it and Sa66ara( " closer loo6, ho.e*er, at the faces of the saints and
the compositions as a .hole re*eal that .hile this opinion is generally true, there are certain
differences in the style and, most importantly, Nubian painting is more schematic( The
complete lac6 of frescoes on the lo.er parts of .alls in Nubian churches, so common in
Coptic monasteries, suggests that the style .as brought to Nubia in the late +th or early 1th
century and .as Auic6ly ta6en up by local .or6shops .hich already in the early 1th century
.ere fully capable of e)ecuting the commissions of the local Nubian clergy and pri*ate
founders(
It is much more difficult to establish the iconographic sources .hich Nubian painting dre.
upon( Stressing that stylistic models do not al.ays go together .ith iconographic ones, 4(
0eit8mann indicated 3alestine as a possible source of iconographic inspiration for the
frescoes from Faras( The problem remains as to .hether iconographic models came directly
from 3alestine or through Coptic Egypt or maybe also through 5a6uria !@ongola#(The
interiors of apses in the early churches in Nobadia are decorated architecturally on the most
part/ frie8es, niches and pilasters !First Cathedral at Faras#( >o. the conches of the niches
.ere decorated remains an open Auestion, since there is no e*idence( "lreadt in the 1thcentury t.o-register compositions, .hich are common in Coptic churches and orattories,
appear in Nubian apses( The irgin and Child is sho.n standing or sitting on a throne in the
company of the apostles on the lo.er parts of the apseHs .all, e(g( 0adi es Sebua, Central
Church at "bdallah NirAi and Naga el :Aba( In the latter church the irgin .as adored by
angels the fragmentarily preser*ed painting appears to be the earliest in Nubia !first half of
the 1th century# and possibly the closest to Coptic apse paintings( 9epresentations of Christ
in lory and the four apocalyptical beings appear in the conches of Nubian apses as
confirmed by a fragmentary painting in the conch of a 1th century church at Serre arb
depicting a cherubim .ith a human head( In later periods this type of apse decoration .ill be
the sole iconographic subect used in Nubia( The composition in the apse of the 3aulos
Cathedral at Faras is an interesting e)ample of local embellishment( " lo.er frie8e .as added
sho.ing a ro. of birds .ith spread .ings belo. a series of arcades the frie8e .as a
reminiscence of the sculptured decoration found in the apse of the earlier basilica(
9epresentations of Christ are fe., but t.o are of special interest( Christ painted on the roc6
ceiling of the church in "bu :da, holding a code) in his left hand and holding his right hand
up in blessing, is similar to a representation of Christ on a damaged icon from the monastery
of St( Catherine in the Sinai !7 %2# .hich 4( 0eit8mann dates to the +th-1th century and
associates .ith 3alestine( The other representation of Christ to garner special attention is the
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Christ ictor sho.n in >ouse " in @ongola( Christ is depicted trampling a lion, dragon,
basilis6 and serpent .ith his bare feet the legend describes him as the Sun of $ustice, the
accompanying inscription is a fragment of 3salm &(odegetria preser*ed among Faras paintings from the Cathedral of 3aulos is depicted
standing, the Child on her left arm and her right hand held to her breast in the open-palm
gesture of a supplicant( The 3alestinian archetype of such a representation should be noted
here("rchangels are freAuent in early Nubian painting, appearing freAuently at the main
entrances as guardians of the interior !e(g( church in "bu :da and the 3aulos Cathedral at
Faras# and sometimes as guardians of the stair.ell containing the steps up to the church
gallery, as in Faras(The apostles hold an important place among the saints, especially St(
3eter and St( $ohn( "t 0adi es Sebua and Faras, St( 3eter is sho.n .ith a large 6ey and the
legend !in the 3aulos Cathedral# describing him as MSt( 3eter, leader of the apostles and
holder of the 6ey to the >ea*enly 4ingdomM( These Nubian representations of the apostle
clearly refer to apse compositions from both Nubia and Egypt and though there are some
differences in the details a Coptic model seems highly probable( In eariy paintings the holy
.arriors/ St( Theodore Stratelatos, St( eorge and St( 5ercurios, are sho.n standing,
dressed in military garb !Faras# or court dress !0adi es Sebua and @ongola#( Egyptian
anchorites, mon6s and martyrs are stri6ingly unpopular( In the Cathedral of 3aulos only onesuch picture, i(e(, of "mmone, an anchorite from Tuna el ebel, has sur*i*ed( 3aintings
depicting St( Ignatios of "ntioch and St( Cyprian present in the 3aulos Cathedral at Faras as
.ell as the e)tended composition of the Nati*ity in the church point to 3alestinian influences
in Nubian iconography(To sum up, Egyptian and 3alestinian models, and e*en models
directly from Constantinople .ith .hich 5a6uria had much closer ties than Nobadia, are
present in Early Christian art from Nubia( The southern 6ingdom continued to ha*e a
dominating influence upon Nubian art after the 6ingdomHs unification in the second half of the
1th century( The Nubian artistic community formed fairly early and ga*e religious architecture
and .all painting a distinctly local fla*or(
Alodia
The southern Christian Nubian 6ingdom .as established upon the ruins of 5eroe presumably
in the =th century( 9ecent disco*eries of tumuli situated south of the "tbara and Nile unction
and dated to the 3ost-5eroitic period ha*e brought e)tremely important e*idence for
understanding the early stages of the e)istence of "lodia and defining its distinctness in terms
of pottery and burial customs( "lodia .as Christiani8ed by 7ishop Longinus of Nobadia
around =? and found itself .ithin the urisdiction of the Coptic patriarch of "le)andria( 0e
6no. nothing of Coptic EgyptHs role in shaping the "lodian 6ingdom in the +th and 1th
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centuries and research on the Christian period of "lodia is only beginning( The only e*idence
is from the capital of the 6ingdom, Soba, and is further limited by the deplorable state the
ruins are in and imprecise stratigraphy( Than6s to the careful research of the 7ritish mission
and speedy publication, it is possible to characteri8e the early religious architecture of "lodia,
most probably from the second phase( The t.o monumental comple)es " and 7 from Soba
ha*e turned out to be e)tremely interesting(
7uilding " measuring
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in the granite architectural elements unco*ered at Soba by 3( Shinnie( The fragments are
*ery @ongotan in character and can be dated to the turn of the 1th century( "lthough at
present too little is 6no.n of "lodian religious architecture to characteri8e it more closely, one
thing is clear/ this architecture de*eloped independently of both 5a6uria and Nobadia(
The e)tensi*e building @ refers to a local tradition .hich originates from 5eroitic times( It .as
presumably a *ast residence .ith an upper floor intended as residential Auarters and a
ground floor ser*ing storage purposes( lt .ould hardly be surprising if the comple) of three
churches and a residence turned out to be an episcopal comple), a 6ind of epis6opeion such
as those 6no.n from @ongola, Faras and ;asr Ibrim(
The Classical 3eriod, &th - %%th centuries
* His"orical I$"rod#c"io$
The classical period in Nubian art should presumably be connected .ith the rule of a dynasty
established by 4ing loannes in the early t.enties of the &th century( It is not certain .hether
the actual founder of the one and only royal dynasty in Christian Nubia in .hich the son
inherited directly from the father .as loannes or his son Kacharias .ho not only too6 o*er
from his father, contrary to Nubian custom .hich preferred to gi*e the succession to the son
of the sister of the dying 6ing, but also in a highly capable .ay made his son eorgios his
successor( Nubian community .as unfa*orably disposed to this custom .hich .as foreign to
Nubian tradition and ga*e *ent to its displeasure on se*eral occasions, both inside the
country and abroad, a fact of particular importance during the *isit eorgios I paid in7aghdad( Ne*ertheless, the dynasty implemented .ith ob*ious determination the 7y8antine
understanding of the role of the ruler in the political and cultural life of the country( This led in
effect to ne. architectural proects emphasi8ing the 6ingHs po.er, such as the Throne >all
and the Cruciform Church in @ongola, .hile in the *isual arts it bore fruit in the form of the
e)ceptionally colorful and ornamental Nubian style best represented in the mural decoration
of the Cathedral of 3etros in 3achoras and the church in SonAi Tino(The follo.ing 6ings,
confirmed either in documents or historical records, belong to the dynasty/
I:"NNES
K"C>"9I"S I
E:9I:S I
K"C>"9I"S II
E:9I:S II
9"3>"EL
9aphaelHs son
The close of the dynasty falls about the middle of the %%th century( It .ould seem that 6ing
Solomon reacti*ated the custom of the throne being inherited by the son of the sister of the
dying 6ing(" matter of unAuestioned importance for the de*elopment of Nubian culture in this
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period .ere the ne. relations .ith the Islamic .orld .hich resulted in long years of peace for
Nubia and a mutual openness in political, social and cultural relations( Nubia became .idely
6no.n in the 5oslem .orld at this time, on one hand than6s to the *isit in 7aghdad in ?
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pro*ide a .ay of lighting the dim interior( There .ere three layers of paintings on the .alls,
co*ered finally by plain plaster .hen the structure ser*ed as a mosAue( " fragment of frie8e
cro.ning the .alls is all that has been preser*ed of the original decor(The main room .as
surrounded by a corridor .hich .as presumably open to the outside on the north and south
and .hich on the east .as connected .ith the apse, suggesting that this section might ha*e
ser*ed as a chapel( :n the .est there .ere t.o comer rooms, a 6ind of *estibule-.aiting
room, and the staircase .hich led higher up to the terrace on the roof( The numerous
opportunities to enoy the *ie., from the .indo.s in the staircase, the arcaded corridors on
either side of the hall and the roof, suggest an architect recepti*e to the beauty of the
landscape and enoined to pro*ide *isitors to the audience hall .ith a chance to admire the
6ingHs domain(There .ere three separate entrances in the .alls of the groundfloor .hich
consisted of a series of narro. and *ery high rooms !%(+ - 2(? m in .idth, +(2 m high# (
The rooms formed t.o comple)es, presumably of a domestic ser*ice character, although their
specific functions can only be presumed( The fundamental role of these rooms .as to ele*ate
the throne hall as much as possible abo*e the city(There can be no doubt that the @ongola
structure .as modeled on 7y8antine architecture, especially the 5agna Jura, great throne
hall of the 7y8antine emperors in Constantinople( It ser*ed the same functions and .as
similar in architectural terms(
The other splendid structure to be erected in @ongola in this period is the Cruciform Church,
built on top of the le*elled remains of an earlier domed basilica( "s the name suggests, it .asa monumental structure based on a cruciform plan( The sAuare central space !%' ) %' m#
opened onto the arms through t.o-storey porticoes( Three of the arms ser*ed as entrances
the fourth, eastern arm .as slightly longer than the others and separated from the body of the
church( The porticoes .ere structurally reinforced on the outside by buttresses, ob*iously
e)plained by the presence of a great dome abo*e the sAuare central space of the building,
.hich rose to a total height of 2? m( This .as doubtless the largest and the most difficult
structure to be built in Nubia and appears almost impossible in *ie. of our 6no.ledge of the
possibilities of Nubian architecture of the period( The Cruciform Church most probably ser*ed
t.o functions( The eastern arm .hich .as situated abo*e the crypts belonging still to the first
Commemorati*e 7uilding !7G# presumably acted as a chapel de*oted to the .orship of
persons buried in the crypts( This is pro*ed by a table altar near the eastern .all of the space
and a large Latin cross of bric6 on the floor almost filling the .hole interior( 7et.een the
columns of the eastem portico there .as a small synthronon .hich .as semicircular on the
outside( The eastern portico .as cut off .ith .ooden partitions and ser*ed as pastophoria(
The spot of the altar has not been determined( It is probable that a ciborium .as located in
the center of the sAuare central space, at the intersection of the buildingHs a)es( The ciborium
had a dome supported on four lo. columns( Four other columns around the ciborium, .ith no
e*idence of structural ties .ith the buildingHs .alls, presumably supported beams used to
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hang lights or e) *ota( Instead of an altar inside the ciborium, there may ha*e been a large
sil*er cross .hich the 5amelu6e armies too6 from the city upon conAuering it in %21+( Thus, it
is highly probable that the Cruciform Church .as a monumental commemorati*e building
modelled on the cruciform commemorati*e structures .hich .ere popular in Syria and
3alestine( It .as most probably commissioned by 4ing Kacharias in than6sgi*ing for his sonHs
fortunate return from the trip to 7aghdad in ?
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building, .hich measures +(+ ) 1(2 m, .as the ne)t largest in Nubia after the Cruciform
Church in @ongola, its erection should be tentati*ely placed at the turn of the &th century(
There can be no doubt that it is a .holly Nubian design and 3( rossmann is unustified in
connecting it .ith Egyptian buildings from the mid %%th century on.ard(
The t.o large monastic comple)es at ;asr el 0i88 and ha8ali can be dated to the turn of
the &th century( The former of the t.o, located near 3achoras and connected .ith the
bishopric, has been e)ca*ated completely and its is practically the only monastery in Nubia to
ha*e been fully recorded and published( The monastery church .as undoubtedly an earlier
foundation, presumably erected in the 1th century( There is no certainty that a monastery had
e)isted on the spot at the time, although logically it .ould be difficult to find an e)planation for
the location of a church .ere it not supposed to ser*e mon6s or anchorites( The monastic
comple) .as a compact group of buildings surrounded by a .all .ith se*eral gates,
suggesting it .as not meant to be a defensi*e establishment( The monastery itself .as made
up of the church, Auarters for the mon6s connected .ith a large refectory, 6itchen and
domestic courtyard( The small three-aisled basilica .as gi*en an e)terior narthe) on the .est
and a typically Nubian tripartite .estern section consisting of t.o rooms and a staircase ( In
the eastern end a tomb .ith t.o crypts .as incorporated into the church and the area around
the tomb .as ta6en ad*antage of to enlarge the pastophoria and the eastern corridor
connecting the sacristies behind the apse( :n the southern side of the church an entrance
*estibule .as added along .ith t.o amfiladed halls of undetermined function .hich areconnected .ith the eastern part of the building( The inside of the church .as also altered
during this reno*ation/ the pillars .ere reinforced presumably in connection .ith the
appearance of a gallery abo*e the original basilica and a synthronon .as introduced in the
apse( The mon6sH Auarters .ere doubtless storeyed and presumably follo.ed the same plan
on each floor, i(e(, cells .ith benches-cum-beds set on either side of a central corridor( The
corridor led on the north to a sAuare room .ith a centrally-placed pillar supporting a ceiling
consisting of four flat domes( In the four corners of the room there .ere semicircular
structures ser*ing as benches for the mon6s to sit on during common meals( The 6itchen
adoined the refectory on the east and the space bet.een the 6itchen and the church, to the
east of the li*ing Auarters, .as an inner courtyard(
The monastery at ;asr el 0i88 .as definitely connected .ith 3achoras and at least some of
the bishops of 3achoras came from the ran6s of the local mon6s( "rchitecturally, the comple)
is close to Egyptian models, particularly the monasteries from the southern Thebaid !Esna,
"ssuan#( This is understandable if .e 6eep in mind the importance Egyptian monasticism had
for the Christiani8ation of Nubia and the presence of Egyptian mon6s and their role in
disseminating 6no.ledge of the Coptic language and literature in Nubia(ln this conte)t it is
highly surprising to note the presence of a Coptic community in the monastery at ha8ali in
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0adi "bu @om south of 5era.i( This isolated comple) .as also surrounded by a .all .ith a
number of gates and consisted of a large church, li*ing Auarters connected .ith a refectory
.hich .as a large room .ith semicircular benches for the mon6s( :nly the church has been
in*estigated to some e)tent( It is an early three-aisled basilica .ith .ooden ceilings supported
on granite columns .hich .ere in the Classical period remo*ed to ma6e room for pillars
supporting a central dome and *aults( The presence of an earlier church is proof that the
monastery at ha8ali .as also established earlier on and .as presumably enlarged in the
Classical period( E)plorations of the comple) are urgently necessary(
/* Pai$"i$! - &ase I
3aintings of phase I of the Classical period ha*e been preser*ed in the 3aulos Cathedral at
3achoras .here they can be surely dated to a period earlier than the middle of the %th
century( >o.e*er, paintings .ith similar stylistic features are to be found inside the churches
at 0adi es Sebua, Naga es Sheima and the Church on the Southern Slope in Faras( The
paintings in the Faras cathedral deser*e an e)tensi*e discussion(:f fundamental importance
to the dating of the Faras cathedral murals is the portrait of 7ishop 4yros preser*ed today in
the National 5useum in 4hartoum( 7ishop 4yros held office in ?++-J2 and the portrait
presumably comes from the late si)ties of the &th century( It is an e)ceptional representation
among all the portraits of church dignitaries disco*ered in the cathedral( The bishop is sho.n
standing alone, .ithout benefactors( The almost .hite robes contrasting .ith the s.arthy s6in
of the face and hands ma6e him a monumental figure( Colors - green and tones of bro.n -bring out the great boo6 held by the bishop in his left hand and the elements decorating the
omophorion( "ttention concentrates upon the aged face .ith a *ery elaborate beard and
almost MChineseM moustache and a particularly fleshy nose( "n straight loc6 of hair escapes
from under the .hite sha.l co*ering the hair and falls onto the forehead( In no .ay does the
style of this painting recall earlier representations(
" number of other paintings in the cathedral presumably date from the episcopacy of 4yros,
including St( $ohn Chrysostomos, a representation of a deacon .hich .as probably part of a
larger scene, the procession of Nubians at a great cross and a representation of the ;ueen in
a cro.n under the protection of an archangel( The latter painting may e*en be slightly earlier
than the portrait of 4yros it sho.s a .oman of .hite s6in, in all certainty a .oman .ho had
come to Nubia from the distant north, possibly as the .ife of one of the rulers of Nubia( In his
discussion of the Faras paintings, 4( 0eit8mann de*oted some space to the representation of
St( $ohn Chrysostomos, detecting Syro-3alestinian influences in it( :b*iously, there is a
definite change in style to be noted at Faras in the second half of the &th century( The fact
corresponds in terms of chronology .ith the appearance of ne. buildings in @ongola
modelled on 7y8antine designs, the Throne >all and Cruciform Church( In this conte)t, the
appearance of a portrait of a Aueen .ith non-Nubian features at Faras gains special
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importance( "lthough there are no mentions of a foreign marriage of any of the Nubian 6ings
of the &th century, it is possible considering the time and historical circumstances that the
.oman .hose image .as painted on the .alls of the cathedral at Faras .as the .ife of
eorgios, the Nubian prince .ho had tra*elled to 7aghdad in ?
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and is considered the best Nubian painting has to offer( The paintings can be admired today
in the national museums in 4hartoum and in 0arsa. as .ell as the atican 5useum .hich
holds the representation of Three Youths in a Fiery Furnace from SonAi Tino( E*en so,
caution is ad*ised until @ongola paintings of the Classical period ha*e been disco*ered( The
*igor of the @ongola artistic milieu in respect to architecture is so e*ident that a similar role in
painting cannot be e)cluded(
%# "rchitecture - phase II
The most important achie*ement of the period is undoubtedly the reno*ation of t.o great
comple)es/ the Church of ranite Columns in @ongola and the Cathedral at Faras( The
basilican interiors of these t.o structures co*ered .ith flat .ooden roofs .ere replaced by
hall churches .ith flat domes and a central dominating dome at the intersection of the main
a)es of the building( :f the t.o, the changes in the @ongolan church .ere clearly the more
important ones and the .hole proect .as definitely more ambitious( The .or6 did not
interfere .ith the e)isting granite columns, reinforcing them only .ith t.o ro.s of round pillars
in the na*es of the comple)( The rebuilding sho.s clear influences of the architectonic ideas
standing behind the design of the Cruciform Church .ith its great central dome and columned
porticos( " reconstruction of the second stage of the Church of ranite Columns done by 3(
art6ie.ic8 is con*incing, .ith only the chronology reAuiring re*ision( The rebuilding probably
too6 place a .hole = years earlier than suggested so far and definitely before the erection of
the cathedral of 3etros in Faras .hich had already undergone some rebuilding under 3etrosH
predecessor "aron !&=
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the bottom register the 5other of od bet.een apostles and in the conch Christ in lory and
four apocalyptical beings#, the Nati*ity scene is al.ays located on the eastern .all of the
northern aisle, Christ .ith Cup in the prothesis, St( $ohn the 7aptist and St( Stephanos in the
baptistery at the entrance archangels appear and usually representations of Three Youths in
a Fiery Fumace(Ne. iconographic subects also appear in this per iod/ the 5aiestas Crucis,
triple representations of Christ, Nursing 5other of od( >oly 0arriors on >orsebac6( The
number of portrait representatipns also increases( In the Cathedral of 3etros at Faras the
portraits from the period include that of bishop "aron in the apse !7ishop loannes according
to S( $a6obiels6i# and 4ing Kacharias II !eorgios I according to 4( 5ichalo.s6i#, 7ishop
3etros and 4ing eorgios II in the baptistery, a princess in a cro.n of thorns !St( @amian
according to 4( 5ichalo.s6i# and 5artha, 5other of 4ings on the southern .all of the
cathedral( The portrait of 7ishop 5arianos is most probably the last painting of the Classical
period in the 3etros Cathedral( Interestingly enough, there are no portraits of eparchs from
this time( These do not ma6e their appearance in the cathedral before the Late 3eriod( :f
course, portrait representations are not restricted to episcopal churches alone( They are
present also in other church comple)es such as the churches at "bdallah NirAi and SonAi
Tino(
Te 1a"e Period i$ N#+ia$ Ar"
from the middle of %
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particularly the 4an8 [email protected] tribe .hich held a strong position in the area of "ssuan( The
slo. decline of the church and the dissolution of its organi8ation .as an important factor
destabili8ing the Nubian 6ingdom then and .as to a large e)tent the result of a dimin
ishing importance of royal po.er( The periodi8ation of the Late period presented here is
rather schematic because of insufficiently ad*anced research as .ell as of a small number of
a*ailable documents( It is necessarily political in character but .ill ha*e to be used currently,
for .ant of a better d*ision, to periodi8e cultural e*ents, 6eeping in mind throughout that the
t.o need not be in total agreement and presumably .as not(
In the second half of the %
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for.ard to the %
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Settlement in Nubia in the mid %agar region up to the @al cataract is
relati*ely .ell researched, e*en though the most important publications of field.or6 at ;asr
Ibrim, ebel "dda, Faras, Serra East and the sur*ey in the region from amai to @al are still
.anting( Not all the preliminary archaeological reports can be considered reliable as far as
dating particular structures and paintings is concerned( In Southern Nubia, the core of the
6ingdom of 5a6uria, things are much .orse( So far late habitations ha*e been the obect of
systematic research only at the capital in :ld @ongola and in the Letti basin .hich constituted
the hinteriand of the capital( "ccording to a list of holdings of the sultan 7aybars in Northern
Nubia, preser*ed in 5ufaddalHs .or6 antini %&1=/=2, the most important settlements in
Nubia in the second half of the %agar/ Sunnarti, 4ulb( The houses in many settlements .ere also defensi*e massi*e and
storeyed, they had entrances in the first floor( enerally spea6ing, it is to be said that in
Northern Nubia and the 7atn el >agar region settlement .as concentrated at a limited
number of localities(
C#rc arci"ec"#reIn the main centers of Nubia, great church comple)es built in the Early or Classic periods
continued in e)istence/ the cathedral at ;asr Ibrim, the cathedral at Faras, the great
comple)es of @ongola such as the Church .ith ranite Columns and the Cruciform Church(
"lso the smaller churches, both of the basilican of aisle type as .ell as those .ith central
domes, continued to ser*e liturgical functions( It should be emphasi8ed, ho.e*er, that all the
churches ne.ly built in the %2th and %
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primarily they are a reflection of the changes in the liturgy and a gradual decrease in the
number of faithful( 5ost of the churches considered to be of the Late period do not ha*e an
e)act dating(The tiny t.o-phase church at "bd el adir is definitely *ery importantriffith
%&2?7issing %&
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presumably intended for li*ing purposes and the entire eastern part .as ta6en up by a small
basilican church, possibly the palace chapel( The building itself is not a homogeneous
structure and .as presumably constructed in three stages( The church belongs to the third
stage .hich should be dated to the %
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.as tripartite .ith a staircase in the south.estern comer leading to the church roof( The North
Church at @ongola has earlier analogies in religious Nubian architecture in the form of the
Church at SonAi Tino and the comple) at andal Ir6i, both of .hich may be dated to the %th-
%%th century( The @ongolan church is undoubtedly much later, from the %
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ground floor, the rooms being entered through small sAuare hatch.ays in their roofs reached
from the upper storey .hich .as accessible from the outside by means of Iadders(The
bloc6house at 5einarti "dams %&+'/2
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floor .ere there .as a number of large rooms( 7oth floors .ere e*idently for li*ing
purposes(The second entrance, .hich .as definitely more monumental in nature and located
in the central part of the comple), led to an e)tensi*e *estibule made up of = small rooms and
a monumental corridor running through the entire comple) to the southern facade .here there
.as another entrance to it( The corridor ga*e access to a number of large parallel rooms-
presumably storage rooms( Some of these rooms had a single entrance from the outside,
located in the eastern facade( The corridor also ga*e access to the upper storey *ia a
staircase located near the southern entrance( " number of large, e)tensi*ely damaged rooms
for li*ing purposes .as disco*ered on the upper floor( The entire northern part of the upper
floor of the comple) .as ta6en up by the church, .hich .as rather a 6ind of domestic chapel,
preceded on the .est by a number of rooms of a rather non-liturgical function( :n the church
.alls as .ell as in the rooms preceding the church on the .est there .ere .all paintings in
different stages of preser*ation(The structure .as apparently the residence of the Faras
bishop and the comple) as a .hole to some e)tent resembles in character the palatial
comple) at ebel "dda("t the turn of the %
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$ohannes and his successors, including lesu II .ho died in c(%%1-%%1=( The ne. tomb .as
built at the beginning of the %'th century in the form of a small domed structure on a sAuare
plan, measuring
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there do e)ist clear preferences( There is much more portrait painting representations of
saints on horsebac6, the tripartite being of Christ and highly styli8ed representations of Christ
in glory .ith four apocalyptical beings are all *ery popular(" detailed re*ie. of painting found
in particular buildings .ould seem appropriate( :ne should start from the pro*incial painting,
the "bd el adir murals riffith %&2? 7issing %&
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church at Tamit, called the Church of the "ngels( The study of this undoubtedly pro*incial set
of paintings is unfortunately encumbered by the fact that it is 6no.n only from a *ery
summary publication by B( 5onneret de illard and from blac6 and .hite photographs
5onneret de illard %&
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apocalyptical beings, a representation .hich .as popular in Nubia since the %th century( 7ut
in the Tamit church the arrangement of the .ings of the apocalyptical beings is different the
.ings meet at an angle forming a composition .hich resembles a great four-arm
star("pparently the Tamit paintings .ere created o*er a longer period of time( The building
itself .as accessible to *isitors and used presumably until the end of Christianity in Nubia to
udge by the graffiti and the characteristic damage to the paintings, mostly intentionally
destroyed faces( The latest paintings are presumably representations of a ruler protected by a
saint and angel as .ell as a cross in *elium(3aintings ha*e also been preser*ed in the late
churches at Serra East, but they ha*e not been published fully so far 4nudstad %&++/%+?-
%+&( Neither do .e ha*e any photographs at our disposal and .e ha*e to .or6 .ith dra.ings
made by F( LLriffith %&21/ %-%%, p%(11(Inside the apse of the Central Church there .as
a painting .hich is 6no.n only from a description/ Mthe figure of Christ enthroned, life-si8ed, in
robes spotted .ith eyes( >is left hand held an open boo6, the right seemed lifted abo*e the
shoulder( "t the sides of the painting the symbols of four apocalyptical beasts( To the left and
right on each side .all of the hai6al stood si) *ariously bearded saints .ith right hands raised
o*er their breasts !"postles#( :n the other .alls of the church there .ere representations of
"ngels and Christ inside a niche in the northern sacristy, the prothesis(HThe best paintings
.ere preser*ed inside the Cathedral at Faras(ln the publications so far they .ere dated most
freAuently to the %2th century, but this .as conditioned by the date accepted by the
e)ca*ators for the rebuilding of the church, .hich .as in the se*enties of the %2th century,
after the "yyubid raid( Some paintings, mostly portrait representations of eparchs of Nobadiaand bishops, preser*ed from before the rebuilding are presently dated to the turn of the %
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- eparch from the apse - National 5useum in 0arsa. 5ichalo.s6i %&1'/%
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bee.eled yello. bands at the edges( The .hite sticharion has a .ide blac6 band at the
bottom( The feet in yello. shoes are doubly outlined in blac6(7eside the representation of the
archangel .hich ser*es as a guardian of the entrance to the hai6al, there .as a large painting
depicting the standing figure of an eparch or a 6ing protected by t.o saints 5ichalo.s6i
%&1'/ 21%-21
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assigned to the first half of the %'th century( It is undoubtedly one of the leading artistic
paintings of the %'th century(ln 9aphaelHs Church at Tamit a painting has been preser*ed
depicting a priest .ith an incense burner, protected by an angel 5onneret de illard
%&=1/p%(%=
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%=2(
"dams 0(Y( %&1=, HThe t.ilight of Nubian ChristianityH 9ecent
recherches,ed(4(5ichaIo.s6i,0arsa./ll-%1(
"dams 0(Y( %&11, Nubia( Corridor to "frica, 3rinceton(
"dams 0(Y( %&?2, ;asr Ibrim/ an "rchaeological Conspectus, Nubian
Studies,ed($(5(3lumley, 0arminster/ 2=-
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riffith FILL( %&21, :)ford E)ca*ations in Nubia, L""" %'/=1-%%+(
riffith FILL( %&2?, :)ford E)ca*ations in Nubia, the Church at "bd el-adir near the Second
Cataract, L""" %=/( %&22, @as 4loster am Isisberg, 0ien 4nudstad,$(
4nudstad $( %&++, Serra East and @orginarti( " 3reliminary 9eport on the %&+
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5illet N(7( %&+1, ebel "dda( 3reliminary 9eport, %&+=-++, $"9CE +/ =