Christian Ethics. How Should We Live? 6. The Ethics of Kant Sunday, June 19, 2005 9 to 9:50 am, in the Parlor. Everyone is welcome!

Christian Ethics. How Christian Ethics. How Should We Live?Should We Live?

6. The Ethics of Kant6. The Ethics of Kant

Sunday, June 19, 20059 to 9:50 am, in the Parlor.

Everyone is welcome!

Almighty Lord and everlasting God,Almighty Lord and everlasting God,we beseech you to direct, sanctify and govern we beseech you to direct, sanctify and govern

both our hearts and bodiesboth our hearts and bodiesin the ways of your laws and the works of your in the ways of your laws and the works of your

commandments;commandments;that through your most mighty protection, both that through your most mighty protection, both

here and ever,here and ever,we may be preserved in body and soul;we may be preserved in body and soul;through our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ,through our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ,who is alive and reigns with you,who is alive and reigns with you,in the unity of the Holy Spirit,in the unity of the Holy Spirit,one God, now and forever.one God, now and forever.

- Common Prayer, p. 412- Common Prayer, p. 412

Basic Moral Basic Moral Philosophy, Third Philosophy, Third EditionEdition, Robert L. , Robert L. Holmes. Thomson Holmes. Thomson Wadsworth, 2003. Wadsworth, 2003. ISBN 0-534-58477-ISBN 0-534-58477-2 (Chapter 8: 2 (Chapter 8: “Kantianism”)“Kantianism”)

Dr. Holmes is Dr. Holmes is professor of professor of philosophy at the philosophy at the University of University of Rochester.Rochester.

How Should We Live? How Should We Live? An Introduction to An Introduction to Ethics,Ethics, Louis P. Louis P. Pojman, Wadsworth Pojman, Wadsworth Publishing, 2005. Publishing, 2005. ISBN: 0-534-55657-4. ISBN: 0-534-55657-4. (Chapter 7 (Chapter 7 “Deontological Ethics: “Deontological Ethics: Intuitionism and Intuitionism and Kantian Ethics”)Kantian Ethics”)

Dr. Pojman is professor Dr. Pojman is professor of philosophy at the of philosophy at the United States Military United States Military Academy Academy

Philosophy and Religion in the WestPhilosophy and Religion in the West, Phillip Cary, , Phillip Cary, The Teaching Company (The Teaching Company (www.teach12.comwww.teach12.com), 1998. ), 1998. (Lecture 21 “Kant: Morality as the Basis for (Lecture 21 “Kant: Morality as the Basis for Religion”)Religion”)

Dr. Cary is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Dr. Cary is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Eastern UniversityEastern University

IntroductionIntroduction

IntroductionIntroductionEthics of Doing vs. BeingEthics of Doing vs. Being

There are two ways of approaching the There are two ways of approaching the question of what it means to be question of what it means to be moralmoral or or ethicalethical (= (= right / goodright / good rather than rather than wrong / wrong / evilevil):): 1. 1. Ethics of DoingEthics of Doing = = Action-based EthicsAction-based Ethics = =

Ethics of ConductEthics of Conduct. Asks the question: . Asks the question: What What should I do?should I do?

2. 2. Ethics of BeingEthics of Being = = Virtue-based EthicsVirtue-based Ethics = = Aretaic EthicsAretaic Ethics. Asks the question: . Asks the question: What should I What should I become?become?

IntroductionIntroductionEthics of DoingEthics of Doing

There are two major divisions in There are two major divisions in Ethics of DoingEthics of Doing (= (= Action-based EthicsAction-based Ethics = = Ethics of ConductEthics of Conduct):): 1. 1. RelativismRelativism: : allall moral principles are moral principles are relativerelative, and will , and will

vary from culture to culture (= Conventional Ethical vary from culture to culture (= Conventional Ethical Relativism or Conventionalism) or even from person to Relativism or Conventionalism) or even from person to person (= Subjective Ethical Relativism or Subjectivism)person (= Subjective Ethical Relativism or Subjectivism)

2. 2. Objectivism, AbsolutismObjectivism, Absolutism: there are : there are universal moral universal moral principlesprinciples that apply to all people, regardless of the that apply to all people, regardless of the culture, place, or time that they live.culture, place, or time that they live.

AbsolutismAbsolutism: the : the universal moral principlesuniversal moral principles do not conflict with do not conflict with each other. It should (at least theoretically) be possible to find one each other. It should (at least theoretically) be possible to find one correct answer to every moral problem.correct answer to every moral problem.

ObjectivismObjectivism: some of the : some of the universal moral principlesuniversal moral principles may may override others in some situations.override others in some situations.


All Christian ethical theories of doing agree All Christian ethical theories of doing agree there are there are universal moral principlesuniversal moral principles that that apply to all people, regardless of the culture, apply to all people, regardless of the culture, place or time that they live.place or time that they live.

A Christian system of ethics may be:A Christian system of ethics may be: An An AbsolutistAbsolutist system. system. An An ObjectivistObjectivist system. system.


What makes an act What makes an act rightright or or goodgood?? There are two general answers to this question that There are two general answers to this question that

create the two main divisions in the create the two main divisions in the Ethics of DoingEthics of Doing (= (= Action-based EthicsAction-based Ethics = = Ethics of ConductEthics of Conduct):): 1. 1. Teleological EthicsTeleological Ethics == Consequentialist EthicsConsequentialist Ethics. The . The

morality of an act is based on the morality of an act is based on the outcomeoutcome or or consequenceconsequence of the act.of the act.

2. 2. Deontological EthicsDeontological Ethics == Nonconsequentialist EthicsNonconsequentialist Ethics. . The morality of an act is based in the The morality of an act is based in the act itselfact itself..

Most Christian ethics of doing are Most Christian ethics of doing are primarilyprimarily deontological or nonconsequentialist.deontological or nonconsequentialist.

IntroductionIntroductionThe Ethics of KantThe Ethics of Kant

Ethics of Immanuel Kant (today’s topic) is:Ethics of Immanuel Kant (today’s topic) is: An An Absolutist ethicsAbsolutist ethics. Kant did not believe there . Kant did not believe there

was room for conflict between the universal moral was room for conflict between the universal moral principles of his ethics.principles of his ethics.

DeontologicalDeontological. The morality (rightness / . The morality (rightness / wrongness) of an act is based in the act itself, and wrongness) of an act is based in the act itself, and is unrelated to the consequences.is unrelated to the consequences.

KantKant

Immanuel KantImmanuel KantBiographyBiography

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the greatest Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the greatest philosopher of the German Enlightenment, and philosopher of the German Enlightenment, and perhaps the most important philosopher in history perhaps the most important philosopher in history since Plato.since Plato.

April 22, 1724:April 22, 1724: born to lower middle-class parents in born to lower middle-class parents in Konigsberg, East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia)Konigsberg, East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia)

Parents were devout pietists (German Lutheran Parents were devout pietists (German Lutheran movement that emphasized heartfelt devotion and movement that emphasized heartfelt devotion and ethical purity rather than dogma)ethical purity rather than dogma)

Age 8:Age 8: entered Collegium Fridiricianum (a pietistic entered Collegium Fridiricianum (a pietistic Latin School)Latin School)


1740 (age 16):1740 (age 16): entered University of Konigsberg. entered University of Konigsberg. Studied theology, natural science, philosophy.Studied theology, natural science, philosophy.

1746 (age 23):1746 (age 23): father died and Kant had to interrupt father died and Kant had to interrupt his studies. He worked for 9 years as a private tutor.his studies. He worked for 9 years as a private tutor.

1755 (age 31):1755 (age 31): returned to University of Konigsberg returned to University of Konigsberg (where he was to remain the rest of his career).(where he was to remain the rest of his career).

1756 (age 32):1756 (age 32): got his doctoral degree from the got his doctoral degree from the University and became a lecturer at the University of University and became a lecturer at the University of Konigsberg.Konigsberg.


1770 (age 46):1770 (age 46): appointed Professor of Logic appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics.and Metaphysics.

Before he retired in Before he retired in 1796 (age 72)1796 (age 72), he had , he had been Dean of the Faculties six times, and been Dean of the Faculties six times, and Rector of the University twice.Rector of the University twice.

1804:1804: died in Konigsberg age 80. died in Konigsberg age 80.

Immanuel KantImmanuel KantMajor WorksMajor Works

Published numerous works. Between Published numerous works. Between 17811781 and and 17971797 he completed the series of now classic works that he completed the series of now classic works that secured his reputation in philosophy.secured his reputation in philosophy.

Most famous work Most famous work Critique of Pure ReasonCritique of Pure Reason (1781, (1781, age 57)age 57)

Important works in ethics and morals:Important works in ethics and morals: Foundations of the Metaphysics of MoralsFoundations of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785 age 61) (1785 age 61) Critique of Practical ReasonCritique of Practical Reason (1787 age 63) (1787 age 63)

The Moral LawThe Moral Law

The Moral LawThe Moral LawNatural Law and Moral LawNatural Law and Moral Law

Built into the structure of realityBuilt into the structure of reality, there are:, there are: Natural lawsNatural laws (the laws of physics, chemistry…) (the laws of physics, chemistry…)

that specify what that specify what mustmust occur.occur. Moral lawsMoral laws that specify what that specify what oughtought to occur. to occur.

The Moral LawThe Moral LawRational CreaturesRational Creatures

Rational creatures (ourselves, angels and Rational creatures (ourselves, angels and intelligent extraterrestrials, if they exist) may intelligent extraterrestrials, if they exist) may differ in their differ in their inclinationsinclinations (what they desire, (what they desire, want, need for happiness), but all have in want, need for happiness), but all have in common:common: Their rationality, their ability Their rationality, their ability through reason alonethrough reason alone

to discover the to discover the moral lawmoral law.. The The free willfree will to choose or not to choose to try to to choose or not to choose to try to

obey the obey the moral lawmoral law..

The Moral LawThe Moral LawThe Moral Law and Rational CreaturesThe Moral Law and Rational Creatures

This ability to discover the This ability to discover the moral lawmoral law, and to , and to freely choose to try to obey it, gives freely choose to try to obey it, gives dignitydignity and and infinite worthinfinite worth to all rational creatures. to all rational creatures.

The greatest “achievement” of the universe is The greatest “achievement” of the universe is to provide a setting for rational creatures to to provide a setting for rational creatures to freely choose to try to obey the freely choose to try to obey the moral lawmoral law..

The Moral LawThe Moral LawThe Holiness of Obeying the Moral LawThe Holiness of Obeying the Moral Law

For a rational creature to try to obey the For a rational creature to try to obey the moral moral lawlaw is a event that has an intrinsic “holiness” is a event that has an intrinsic “holiness” within reality.within reality.

Kant: it Kant: it “sparkle[s] like a jewel with its “sparkle[s] like a jewel with its own light, as something that had full own light, as something that had full worth in itself.”worth in itself.”

Duty andDuty andThe Good WillThe Good Will

Duty and The Good WillDuty and The Good WillBeing MoralBeing Moral

What is necessary for a rational creature to be What is necessary for a rational creature to be moral?moral? 1. We must 1. We must trytry to obey the moral law. Whether we to obey the moral law. Whether we

succeedsucceed in performing a given act is often beyond in performing a given act is often beyond our control. What is important is that we our control. What is important is that we trytry..

2. But not only must we try to do the right act, but 2. But not only must we try to do the right act, but we must try it for the we must try it for the right reason or motiveright reason or motive..

Duty and The Good WillDuty and The Good WillThe Right ReasonThe Right Reason

Example:Example: if you do not cheat on an exam if you do not cheat on an exam because you are afraid you will get caught, because you are afraid you will get caught, you have not acted “morally.”you have not acted “morally.” You did the right act (did not cheat)You did the right act (did not cheat) But you did But you did notnot act for the right reason or motive. act for the right reason or motive.

Duty and The Good WillDuty and The Good WillThe Right Reason: DutyThe Right Reason: Duty

The only The only morally rightmorally right reason or motive is to reason or motive is to act “out of act “out of dutyduty:”:” To do what is right To do what is right becausebecause it is right. it is right. To obey the moral law To obey the moral law becausebecause it is the universal it is the universal

moral law built into reality telling us what we moral law built into reality telling us what we oughtought to do, even if every inclination in our being to do, even if every inclination in our being is pulling us in a different direction.is pulling us in a different direction.

To act from the motive of To act from the motive of dutyduty is to have a is to have a Good Will.Good Will.

Duty and The Good WillDuty and The Good WillThe Right Reason: DutyThe Right Reason: Duty

Example:Example: If you are in love, and perform acts If you are in love, and perform acts of great kindness for your beloved because of great kindness for your beloved because you are in love, your acts of kindness have you are in love, your acts of kindness have no no moral valuemoral value.. Your acts are not morally bad; they are Your acts are not morally bad; they are morally morally

neither positive or negative.neither positive or negative. For your acts to have For your acts to have moral worthmoral worth, you must act , you must act

with a with a good willgood will, that is, from a motive of , that is, from a motive of dutyduty, , doing what is right because it is right, because it is doing what is right because it is right, because it is the moral law and what you the moral law and what you oughtought to do. to do.

to act because you are in love, or out of a want or to act because you are in love, or out of a want or desire, is to act out of your desire, is to act out of your inclinationsinclinations

Duty and The Good WillDuty and The Good WillThe Value of Good WillThe Value of Good Will

The The Good WillGood Will is unconditionally good in itself. is unconditionally good in itself. Kant: Kant: “Nothing can possibly be conceived in “Nothing can possibly be conceived in

the world, or even out of it, which can be the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except the called good without qualification, except the Good WillGood Will. Intelligence, wit, judgment, and . Intelligence, wit, judgment, and the other the other talentstalents of the mind, however they of the mind, however they may be named, or courage, resolution, may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as qualities of temperament, perseverance, as qualities of temperament, as undoubtedly good and desirable in many as undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but these gifts of nature also may respects; but these gifts of nature also may become extremely bad and mischievous if become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them, and the will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore constitutes what is called which, therefore constitutes what is called character character is not good . . . is not good . . .


. . . Even if it should happen that, owing to . . . Even if it should happen that, owing to special disfavor of fortune, or the stingy special disfavor of fortune, or the stingy provision of a step motherly nature, this provision of a step motherly nature, this Good WillGood Will should wholly lack power to should wholly lack power to accomplish its purpose, if with its greatest accomplish its purpose, if with its greatest efforts it should yet achieve nothing, and efforts it should yet achieve nothing, and there should remain only the there should remain only the Good WillGood Will . . . . . . then, like a jewel, it should still shine by its then, like a jewel, it should still shine by its own light, as a thing which has its whole own light, as a thing which has its whole value in itself. Its usefulness or fruitfulness value in itself. Its usefulness or fruitfulness can neither add to nor take away anything can neither add to nor take away anything from this value.”from this value.”


The only unqualified good in reality is a The only unqualified good in reality is a Good Good WillWill..

If two soldiers set out on a risky mission with If two soldiers set out on a risky mission with Good WillGood Will to save some comrades, and one is to save some comrades, and one is cut down and dies immediately, and the other cut down and dies immediately, and the other succeeds and gets a Medal of Honor, what succeeds and gets a Medal of Honor, what counts is the counts is the Good WillGood Will of the two soldiers, of the two soldiers, and both acts shine as jewels in the unseen and both acts shine as jewels in the unseen fabric of reality.fabric of reality.

The Categorical The Categorical ImperativeImperative

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical ImperativeHow Ought We Act?How Ought We Act?

Duties or obligations use a language of commands Duties or obligations use a language of commands (The Ten “Commandments”) or imperatives. (The Ten “Commandments”) or imperatives.

Kant distinguished between two types of commands Kant distinguished between two types of commands or imperatives:or imperatives: 1. 1. Hypothetical ImperativesHypothetical Imperatives or Mean-Ends imperatives. or Mean-Ends imperatives.

Have the form Have the form “If you want A, then do B.”“If you want A, then do B.” 2. 2. Categorical ImperativesCategorical Imperatives or Unconditional / Unqualified or Unconditional / Unqualified

ImperativesImperatives Have the form Have the form “Do B!” “Do B!” No “ifs, ands or buts” about it.No “ifs, ands or buts” about it. Are the form of imperatives for the Are the form of imperatives for the moral lawmoral law: they are intuitive, : they are intuitive,

immediate, absolute commands that all rational creatures can immediate, absolute commands that all rational creatures can understand through their reason. This is what you do whether you understand through their reason. This is what you do whether you like it or not.like it or not.

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical ImperativeHow Ought We Act?How Ought We Act?

All morality can be rationally derived from a single All morality can be rationally derived from a single categorical / unconditional / unqualified command: categorical / unconditional / unqualified command: “The Categorical Imperative”“The Categorical Imperative” Actually Kant gave Actually Kant gave threethree different formulations of this different formulations of this

Categorical Imperative, but argued that the three Categorical Imperative, but argued that the three formulations were related and would lead to the same formulations were related and would lead to the same moral judgments on a given action.moral judgments on a given action.

The The Categorical ImperativeCategorical Imperative encapsulates the way a encapsulates the way a fully rationalfully rational creature creature wouldwould act. act. As imperfectly rational creatures, the Categorical As imperfectly rational creatures, the Categorical

Imperative tells us how we Imperative tells us how we oughtought to act. to act.

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative1. The Golden Rule Formulation1. The Golden Rule Formulation

The first formulation of the Categorical The first formulation of the Categorical Imperative: (the Golden Rule Formulaton or Imperative: (the Golden Rule Formulaton or

Principle of Universalization):Principle of Universalization):

Always act according to principles that you would be willing to

become universal laws


Not to act in this way is irrational and inconsistent. Not to act in this way is irrational and inconsistent. Example:Example: You need money, and choose to act under the principle: “I You need money, and choose to act under the principle: “I

will borrow money and say I will repay it without any will borrow money and say I will repay it without any intention of doing so.”intention of doing so.”

But you would not want this to become a universal way But you would not want this to become a universal way people acted, for then no one would lend money, and your people acted, for then no one would lend money, and your need for money could never be satisfied through a loan.need for money could never be satisfied through a loan.

The way a fully rational creature would act, and therefore The way a fully rational creature would act, and therefore what we as imperfectly rational creatures what we as imperfectly rational creatures oughtought to do, is to to do, is to keep promises, not lie and be deceitful to others.keep promises, not lie and be deceitful to others.


To act morally is to recognize the same rules To act morally is to recognize the same rules must apply to you as apply to everyone else.must apply to you as apply to everyone else.

Implies an underlying respect for others, who Implies an underlying respect for others, who as rational creatures:as rational creatures: Are autonomous beings, capable of “legislating Are autonomous beings, capable of “legislating

universal laws” by following this Golden Rule universal laws” by following this Golden Rule formation of the Categorical Imperative.formation of the Categorical Imperative.

Are capable of acting out of duty, with a Good Are capable of acting out of duty, with a Good Will, and who hence have dignity and infinite Will, and who hence have dignity and infinite worth.worth.

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative2. Principle of Humanity2. Principle of Humanity

The second formulation of the Categorical The second formulation of the Categorical Imperative (the Principle of Humanity or the Imperative (the Principle of Humanity or the

Formulation of Respect):Formulation of Respect):

Always act so to treat people, whether yourself or others, as an end, and never as a means only


Rational creatures have infinite worth, and Rational creatures have infinite worth, and must be treated as priceless ends in must be treated as priceless ends in themselves.themselves.

It is immoral to use people or treat them as It is immoral to use people or treat them as tools only.tools only. They must never be treated as mere instruments to They must never be treated as mere instruments to

serve the ends of ourselves or othersserve the ends of ourselves or others


Example:Example: You need money, and choose to act under the You need money, and choose to act under the

principle: “I will borrow money and say I will principle: “I will borrow money and say I will repay it without any intention of doing so.”repay it without any intention of doing so.”

To do so, would be for us to:To do so, would be for us to: treat the person loaning us money as a treat the person loaning us money as a mere meansmere means for for

our need, by making our deceitful promise to themour need, by making our deceitful promise to them fail to respect that the person loaning us money is a fail to respect that the person loaning us money is a

rational being, by depriving them of the information rational being, by depriving them of the information they need to make a rational decision to loan us money.they need to make a rational decision to loan us money.

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative3. “Kingdom of Ends” Formulation3. “Kingdom of Ends” Formulation

The third formulation of the Categorical The third formulation of the Categorical Imperative (The “Kingdom of Ends” Imperative (The “Kingdom of Ends”

formulation):formulation):

Always act so to promote a “kingdom of ends,” in which every rational being respects each other

as ends in themselves

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative3. “Kingdom of Ends” Formulation3. “Kingdom of Ends” Formulation

This is a “social” formulation of the This is a “social” formulation of the categorical imperative.categorical imperative.

It is also “idealistic:” our duty is to act so as to It is also “idealistic:” our duty is to act so as to move the world towards a “kingdom of ends,” move the world towards a “kingdom of ends,” even though we realistically know such a even though we realistically know such a kingdom can never be achieved in this life.kingdom can never be achieved in this life.

Is It Possible to Is It Possible to Have a Good Will?Have a Good Will?

Is It Possible to Have a Good Is It Possible to Have a Good Will?Will?

Is it humanly possible to live by the Is it humanly possible to live by the CCategorical Imperativeategorical Imperative, to obey the moral , to obey the moral law, motivated by duty, by the desire to do law, motivated by duty, by the desire to do right for the sake of doing right?right for the sake of doing right?

Is it, in other words, humanly possible to have Is it, in other words, humanly possible to have a a Good WillGood Will??


Kant: it is impossible to recognize or prove.Kant: it is impossible to recognize or prove. For any action, it will always be possible to For any action, it will always be possible to

find an explanation involving our inclinations find an explanation involving our inclinations (our desires, wants, needs…).(our desires, wants, needs…).

The soldiers who risk a mission to save their comrades The soldiers who risk a mission to save their comrades may be motivated by anger, or fear of a commanding may be motivated by anger, or fear of a commanding officer, rather than duty.officer, rather than duty.

We may not even know ourselves well enough to We may not even know ourselves well enough to be sure of our own motivations.be sure of our own motivations.


Nonetheless, as rational beings with free will, Nonetheless, as rational beings with free will, we we cancan act out of duty (= have a act out of duty (= have a Good WillGood Will) ) even when all our inclinations are crying out to even when all our inclinations are crying out to do otherwise.do otherwise. Free will gives us the freedom to act despite our Free will gives us the freedom to act despite our

inclinations.inclinations. This ability is what gives rational creatures This ability is what gives rational creatures

dignity and infinite worth in the creation.dignity and infinite worth in the creation.

ProblemsProblems

ProblemsProblemsKant’s EthicsKant’s Ethics

Kant’s ethics defines a very narrow scope for moral Kant’s ethics defines a very narrow scope for moral action.action. An action is moral only when we act from a motivation of An action is moral only when we act from a motivation of

duty, of doing the right thing only for the sake of the doing duty, of doing the right thing only for the sake of the doing the right thing.the right thing.

To act out of our inclinations is amoral – even to act out of To act out of our inclinations is amoral – even to act out of love is amoral.love is amoral.

Yet it would seem moralityYet it would seem morality should should deal with actions deal with actions motivated by our “inclinations.”motivated by our “inclinations.” For example, the many selfless acts that arise from love For example, the many selfless acts that arise from love

surely deserve a place in any theory of morality or ethics.surely deserve a place in any theory of morality or ethics.

ProblemsProblemsKant’s EthicsKant’s Ethics

Kant’s ethics is the paradigm of moral legalism. The Kant’s ethics is the paradigm of moral legalism. The rules that follow from the Categorical Imperative are rules that follow from the Categorical Imperative are absolute duties.absolute duties.

If you hide an escaped Jew “Mr. A” in your house in If you hide an escaped Jew “Mr. A” in your house in Nazi Germany, and the police come to your door and Nazi Germany, and the police come to your door and ask the straightforward question: “Is Mr. A in your ask the straightforward question: “Is Mr. A in your house?” your duty is to answer truthfully.house?” your duty is to answer truthfully. Your duty is to obey the moral law, not to try to predict Your duty is to obey the moral law, not to try to predict

consequences.consequences. To act with a Good Will, duty for duty’s sake, is To act with a Good Will, duty for duty’s sake, is

intrinsically holy, a jewel shining in the unseen fabric of intrinsically holy, a jewel shining in the unseen fabric of reality. To lie would be unholy, would darken the unseen reality. To lie would be unholy, would darken the unseen fabric of reality.fabric of reality.

Christian Ethics. How Should We Live? 6. The Ethics of Kant Sunday, June 19, 2005 9 to 9:50 am, in the Parlor. Everyone is welcome!

Documents

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