Chris Evans ; Jakob Jespersen - Farmers' Handbook

Farmers’Handbook

How much ?

When ?

Content :Inside the HouseDiet & NutritionHouse HygeineImproved StoveHay Box

Near the House - part 1Waste Water ManagementIntegrated Pest ManagementNon-Cement Drinking WaterLivestock ManagementSweepingsPit LatrineCompostMulchingDouble DiggingSeed ProductionLiquid ManureBeekeeping

Forestry, Integrated Literacy,Permaculture etc.ForestrySoil ImprovementA-FrameVillage FundsDesign, GlossaryPractical Literacy, Permaculture,Etc.

The whole handbook is 50 chapters in 5 vol-umes, total 792 pages, including 170 pages ofcolour photos & illustrations. Cost includes awaterproof carrying bag + a design poster :

The handbook will be published in 2007??

Near the House - part 2Kitchen GardenVegetable PolycultureOff-Season Onion GrowingHerbsHome NurseryHot BedAir NurseryProducing Fruit Trees (5 chapters)Leaf Pot Nursery

The FieldsGreen ManuresZero TillageAgro ForestryIntegrated Fruit OrchardPlanting Fruit TreesTop GraftingAir LayeringBamboo PropagationLiving FenceS.R.I Rice cultivation

forFarmers,

Extension Workers,Development Workers,

Gardeners, and for everyoneinterested in the improving

the well-being of themillions of small farmers in

the World.

• easy to read

• practical

• robust

• based on local resources

• sustainable techniques

Farmers’Handbook

The handbooks are available from:• Permanent Publications (UK) ??

Addressph./email

and from• Appropriate Technology Asia (Nepal) ??

Addressph./email

From Where ?

“A Gift Package for Sustainable AgricultureThe idea of publishing a series of booklets onagriculture for farmers, using simple language,is a wonderful concept. The planned series willsurely be a milestone in trying to reach out tofarmers with useful and up-to-date informationon sustainable agriculture. An additional attrac-tion is that this series will also act as follow-upliteracy material in any country where so littlereadable information reaches the neo-literatepopulation in the rural areas. Neither is the textand presentation so simplistic thateducated farmers will not findinterest in what is offered.”

- wrote :

£ (about £30)

• easy to read

• practical

• robust

• based on local resources

• sustainable techniques

Inside the House

Near the House

Part Two

Near the House

Part One

The Fields

Forest, Soiland Other Topics

Farmers' Handbook

Farmers' Handbook

Farmers' Handbook

Farmers' Handbook

Farmers' Handbook

• Structure of the Chapters : Each chapter deals with one or a few techniquesand is structured in the following way :1. What is it ?2. Why do it ?3. How to do it ?4. How to maintain it ?5. Links between the books6. Farmers’ Experiences

• Illustrations :all in all over

450 colour photos150 bw photos650 drawings

• Bag :Practicalwaterproofcarrying bag

Why aFarmers' Handbook ?

• Reading SkillsThe handbook is well suited for literacy andpost-literacy programmes, and village librar-ies. It has been developed as reading andinformation material for formal & informalPractical Literacy Programmes. One of thegreat benefits of reading skills is to accessknowledge. This can help people improvetheir living standard by using techniqueswhich:

- use & enhance local resources- increase & diversify production- decrease cost of production in terms of time, land & labour

• Sustainable LivelihoodsMost people in rural areas of developingcountries depend on home production of food.However with more people, and thelandholdings becoming smaller, there is aneed for raising the productivity of the smallfarm. And this should be done in a way thatwill also allow their grandchildren to producefood, fibre, fodder, firewood etc. from theland. This way is sustainable agriculture.

• Strong EconomiesA strong economy is build from the base - itgrows like a tree. A healthy natural resourcebase and robust production at the small farmlevel means that local, district and nationaleconomies can grow sustainably, meeting theneeds of the land and the people.

• 5 volumes• 792 pages

Many people would like to plant fruit trees, but often can'tfind good types. Sometimes the seedlings may cost too much, ifyou have limited income. But difficulty in finding good fruittrees shouldn't stop you trying to get them - the solution to theproblem can be found. Raising rootstock seedlings in thenursery may take 2-3 years. After grafting, it will take a fewmore years before they bear fruit. So let's learn an even easierway to grow grafted fruit trees. This is called Top Grafting (ortop working).

Top grafting is a method of grafting cuttings (scion) fromimproved fruit trees onto appropriate types of wild trees whichare already growing in the fields and forests, without needing anursery. This method is very cheap and easy, and produces goodquality fruit trees which give fruit quickly.

A selection fromthe over 50 illustra-tions in the “Top-Grafting” chapter

Inside the House

The Farmers' Handbook

+ HayBox

Introduction to this Volume ................. 1

Diet & Nutrition .............................. 2

Household Hygiene .......................... 3

Improved Stove ............................... 4

Hay Box Stove ............................................... 5

This Volume's Authors : Ms Hom Maya Gurung, Mr Bipin Vaidhya, Mr Laxman Rana,Mr Chris EvansTranslated from Nepali by Chris EvansEdited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob JespersenProof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, JakobJespersen, Andy Langford, Looby MacnamaraPhotos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris EvansAddional photo credits are given in Volume FiveCover illustration: Mr Motilal PhaujaTyping: Chris EvansComputer Coordination: Graphics Edge, KathmanduPublished by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copiesThis Edition.........Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-XThis Volume One: ISBN 99933-615-1-8

The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming, and this is the firstof 5 volumes. There are 4 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are a total of 44techniques and approaches.

This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well aspractical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please rememberthat photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive, and does not give agood quality.

Subject Chapter No:

Chapters are separated by a yellow page

C O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T S

This is the first of five volumes in the Farmers'Handbook. In all there are forty techniques and approachesshown, of whch three are in this first volume. Here, weintroduce you to some technologies used inside the house.The titles of these are given on the previous contents page.

This Farmers' Handbook provides information aboutsustainable farming methods, and can also be used as aresource to run literacy programmes. Information about these,and how the Handbook can be used, is provided in volumefive. A list of new and/or difficult words and their explanationis also provided in volume five.

Aims

Background

Evaluation & Feedback

The main aim of this handbook is to help farmers maketheir own farms more successful. This is done by providinginformation about using simple methods which strengthen,rather than damage the environment, and help to createsustainable livelihoods for future generations.

The techniques described in the handbook are the resultsof research made by the farmers of Surkhet and Jajarkotdistricts of Mid-Western Nepal. We believe these methods willalso work well for farmers of other countries. However,aroundthe world there are diverse climates and soils, and so weexpect that small changes will need to be made in thetechniques according to this diversity. Similarly, it may benecessary to change plant species according to climatic region,but their function will remain the same. For example, thechapter on the Living Fence describes the use of thorny plantsas a barrier. In the low altitude, hot Tarai of southern Nepal,"Babool" (Acacia nilotica) is suitable for this. But this doesnot grow in the higher elevations. Here, species such as wildpear, wild blackberry and Sea Buckthorn make a good livingfence.

Comments and questions about the techniques andapproaches described in this handbook will be most welcome.Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editionsof this handbook and other similar publications.

The Farmers' Handbook -this Volume's IntroductionThe Farmers' Handbook -this Volume's Introduction

4. Improved Stove

3. Household Hygiene

TechniquesStructure of the Handbook

Inside the handbook each method is descibed in aseparate chapter, or chapter. All methods are descibed in thesame way:-

• "What is?" - the method is defined and described.• "Why?" - the benefits of using this method are then

described.• The main part is then "How to?" make or do the method;• In the "How To" section the centre pages show colour

pictures about the method.• After describing how to create the method, how to

maintain, care for, manage and/or operate it is described.• After this, there is an interview with an experienced farmer

who has built and used the method.• Finally, information is given about other chapters in the

Handbook which are directly connected to this method.

There are minor changes to this structure as necessary.

Techniques

2. Diet & Nutrition

5. Hay Box Stove

Support for the production and printing ofThe Farmers' Handbook has come from

Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK),ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for

Work, Helvetas Nepal, Hill AgricultureResearch Project (HARP), ICIMOD.

email:- [email protected]

Nepal Permaculture GroupP.O.Box 8132, Kathmandu, NepalTel: +977-1- 252597

FundingSupport

Distributor andmain contact

addresses

Appropriate Technology AsiaP.O. Box 8975 EPC 849KathmanduNepaltel: +977 1 [email protected]

Permanent PublicationsThe Sustainability CentreEast MeonHampshire GU32 1HRtel: +44 1730 [email protected]

Permaculture Association UKBCM Permaculture AssociationLondon WC1N 3XXTel: +44 845 [email protected]

What is

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In order to live, grow and to protect us from variousdiseases we need a good, nutritious diet. Nutrition is found invarious types of food. Everyone wishes for themselves andtheir family to remain in good health. A healthy family alsomakes a healthy and strong homestead. Besides this, you canalso help others to be strong. If the family is sick it needsconstant expense and can cause much worry. A good, nutri-tious and balanced diet helps to protect and release the familyfrom sickness. A nutritious diet is not just available fromexpensive foods. We can also obtain and prepare a nutritiousdiet from easily available local and even wild foods.

This chapter gives information about what foods areneeded for our bodies, where these foods are available, andsimple ways of increasing the quality of our diets.

Diet and Nutrition ?

Diet and Nutrition ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

Kwashiorkor– thin,

emaciated

Marasmus– swollen

face, hands,feet

3

WhyWhy Do we neednutrition ?

From the time we are in the mother's womb, for ourwhole life long, we need a nutritious diet. To give strength,for growing, and to protect or help cure us from illness anddisease, there are many types of nutritious elements needed inthe body. If any of these elements are deficient in the body,we can become weak and sick. Nutritious foods provide uswith energy, help to build and maintain muscle and organs,and help our bodies to produce other important elementswhich we need to keep us healthy.

Common problems of poor diet in thehome and village

If people do not get the needed amounts of the necessaryfoods they can suffer from malnutrition and anaemia. Ba-bies under five years, children, pregnant women and lactatingmothers are especially at risk from poor nutrition.

1. Malnutrition. There are several symptoms of malnutri-tion, for example:• Crying - continuously crying and lack of appetite• Wounds - cuts, boils, etc. spread on the skin and are diffi-cult to heal.

2. Anaemia - lethargic; poor skin colour; yellowish skin,tongue and nails; poor skin texture

Nutritious food, in brief,

• helps us to remain healthy• helps to protect us from disease• helps our bodies to grow• helps us to build a strong household

2

Ms Hom MayaGurungHealth Technician,HimalayanPermacultureGroup,

Surkhet, Nepal

Mr BipinVaidya,Nutrition Pro-gramme,U.M.N.,Kathamndu,Nepal

The Authors of this Chapter

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition 54

Cretinism Goiter

3. Vitamin "A" DeficiencyVitamin A is essential for eyesight.

There are several symptoms of thisdeficiency:

• Night Blindness - unable tosee in half light

• Eyes dry out• A pale, spongy-like spot in

the eye (Whit's spot)• Blindness

4. Iodine Defficiency

Goiter - swelling on the throatCretinism - mentally handicapped, poor limb use, etc.

to getnutrition ?

For Health through nutrition we need to pay attention tothree things:

1. We need to have the right foodsFoods are best if crops are grown using sustainable

agriculture methods. Crops grown without chemicals aremore nutritious.

2. We need the knowledge to select the right foodsWhat to eat and how much to eat ? We need to know

how much of what type of food different people need. Whohas special needs ? For example, pregnant and lactatingmothers, or sick people should have extra of some foods.

3. We need to know how to prepare and serve the right foodsIt's not enough to have the right foods, we need to

know how to prepare and cook them. Without thisknowledge, we can sometimes loose many nutrients inpreparation.

To get health fromnutrition we need

both knowledge andresources.

To be Clever and Ener-getic use Iodized Salt

To be Clever and Ener-getic use Iodized Salt

HowHow

One leaf of Colocasia("Taro") can providethree children with theirdaily needs for vitamin A

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition 76\

Food to pro-tect the

body (fruits)

Food to pro-tect the body(vegetables)

Food forthe body's

growth

Food forEnergy

In this chapter, information is given first about the func-tion of different foods. After that, from page 20 to 22 moredetailed information on nutrition is given. The centre colourpages show examples of the different foods in each group.

1. Foods Which give Energy (Carbohydrates)When there is much physical work,

before and after childbirth, and when sickpeople are recovering, the body needs moreenergy. At this time, if nutritious food is notavailable people can become weak and andcatch other diseases more easily. Malnourishedchildren also need more energy foods.

2. Foods Which Help the Body to Grow(Proteins)

Healthy babies grow fast But if food forgrowth is not available, babies become weak,and this can cause them many problems in thefuture. Growth foods are called Proteins.

3. Foods which Protect the Body(Vitamins & Minerals)The body always needs protection from damaging things.

When recovering after being ill, energy foods (carbohydrates)help to get better, while vitamins and minerals help protectthe body from disease. These vitamins and minerals are foundin fruit and vegetables.

Just as farming can be divided into various types ofcrop. such as livestock, grain crops and orchards, so nutritioncan be divided into three types of food, according to function.In vegetables and meat there are various nutrients. The mostimportant nutrients of our diet can be divided into thesegroups:

Types of Food

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition 98

A mixed diet means many different kinds of food areeaten together. Because there are many types of nutritiouselements in a mixed diet it is well balanced. It is not enoughfor the body eating just to stop hunger, or to enjoy the taste. Abalanced diet is always needed. Pregnant women, sucklingmothers and babies are in special need of a balanced diet.Relatively expensive foods like fish and meat are not essen-tial for a balanced diet. It is also possible to make a balanceddiet from foods common in the villages, such as grains,pulses, green vegetables, spices and fruit.

There are many nutritious types of food for goodhealth available in the villages. Net-

tles, buckwheat, millet, watercress,ferns, pumpkin shoots, etc. are allvery nutritious. But many cul-tures regard these as "poorpeople's food" and so eat themless. If you eat such foods,firstly they are cheap or evenfree of cost, and also these foodscan provide many types of essen-tial nutrients for the body - often

more than highly bred "developed"vegetables.

Community and private forest providesmany types of direct and indirect benefits. Theseinclude nutritious food available from the wild.

Mushrooms, ferns, watercress, bam-boo shoots and wild yams are ex-

amples of some vegetables thatcan be found in the forest. Simi-larly, fruits like berberis, black-berry, amla, chestnut, hazel, wal-nut, etc. are also available. It is also

possible to grow many of these on theedges of farmers' fields to increase the supply,

without needing lots of extra work.

Watercress

Amla for sale -collected from the forest

A Mixed Diet

What, is this Poor People's Food ?

Free Nutrition from the Forest


6f_

+ =1110

• Cooking potatoes with their skins and inpeices as large as possible will savevitamin C.

Pulses Grains

MoreBenefits

MoreBenefits

• When eaten together, grain andpulses provide the same benefits aseating meat

• Millet contains more calcium thanmost other grains.

• Rice de-husked by hand or pre-boiledcontains more vitamin B than ricedehusked in a mill.

• Unprocessed wheat flour has morenutrients than processed white riceflour

• When cooking rice, don't add too muchwater which otherwise you'd have tothrow it away, along with vitamin B.

• Don't scrub rice before cooking it as thisprevents vitamin B from being washedaway

• Sprouted pulses are very high in nutrients. Pulses can in-crease their content of vitamins A and C by up to 10 timeswhen sprouted. Vitamin B also increases, and iron andcalcium minerals which are in food can be more easilyabsorbed by the body. For this increase, only a little waterand time is needed but the benefits are huge. Why not useeasy methods like this?

Soak pulses fora day in water,then wash anddrain themevery day. After4-5 days thesprouted pulsesare ready to eat.

This is like getting free increase in benefits! There aremany types of vitamins which provide more or less nutrientsaccording to the time. In the spring, vegetables or fruit areless available, so at this time vitamin deficiency symptomsare common. But sprouted pulses can be made at any timeand so can solve deficiency problems.

• If you wash green leaf vegeta-bles after they have been cut,nutrients can be lost. Alwayswash before cutting.

There are morevitamins in ricewhich has beende-husked less

How to Preserve Nutrients in Food During Cooking

Chapter 2 - Diet & NutritionThe Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

❁ Animal Prod-Animal Prod-Animal Prod-Animal Prod-Animal Prod-uctsuctsuctsuctsucts - meat, fish,eggs.

❁ Dairy ProductsDairy ProductsDairy ProductsDairy ProductsDairy Products -milk, yoghurt, but-termilk, cheese, etc.

❁ SeedsSeedsSeedsSeedsSeeds - peanut,pumpkin seeds,sesame, walnut, etc.

❁ PulsesPulsesPulsesPulsesPulses - soya, beans,grams, chick peas, peas,mung bean, etc.

❁ GrainsGrainsGrainsGrainsGrains - millet, rice, wheat,maize, buckwheat, barley, etc.

❁ Sweet FoodsSweet FoodsSweet FoodsSweet FoodsSweet Foods - sweet po-tato, sugar, sugar cane,honey.

❁ Oily FoodsOily FoodsOily FoodsOily FoodsOily Foods - Ghee,vegetable oil, but-ter, cream, fat.

❁ RootsRootsRootsRootsRoots - potato,taro, yam,sweet potato,etc. ❁ GreenGreenGreenGreenGreen

LeavesLeavesLeavesLeavesLeaves - net-tle, taro, broad

leaf mustard,cress, fenugreek,

mustard, radishleaf, pumpkin shoot,

amaranth, lambsquarters, spinach, etc.

❁ VegetablesVegetablesVegetablesVegetablesVegetables - pumpkin, cauli-flower, sweet pepper, ladies finger,beans, carrot, tomato, etc.

❁ FruitFruitFruitFruitFruit - mango,amla, orange, lemon,

guava, pineapple, apricot,peach, plum, raspberry, ber-

beris, lichi, papaya.

!

!@

##

1

3

2

3

For a Balanced Dietyou need to eat food from

these 3 groups

1

2

Salt

1312

Energy Foods

Foods for theBody's Growth

Foodsto Protectthe Body

3


• Partially fermented vegetables in-crease the amount of iron and calciumavailable, which improves digestionof grains.

• Making pickles means vegetables canbe kept for a long time and increasestheir nutrition. In places where thereis a long dry season without irriga-tion, then a monsoon, many vegeta-bles can be grown in only a shorttime. Making pickles and oils allowsthese vegetables to be stored andeaten all year round, e.g. cucumber,tomatoes, radish, leaf vegetables, etc.

• Leafy vegetables can be dried in theshade to keep their nutrition and colour.

• when cooking leaf vegetables add alittle oil, keep the pan coveredand don't over cook. This preventsloss of vitamin A, and absorbtion ofoil improves digestability.

Good Foodand a Healthy

Family

Whoseresponsibility

?

1514

Additions to the Normal Diet

Sometimes it is necessary to eat more than the recom-mended daily diet. For example, a normally activepregnant women should eat an extra handful ofgrain, half a handful of pulses, a handful ofgreen leaf vegetables, and at least one extrapiece of fruit per day more than her daily diet. Apregnant women who has a heavier workloadshould eat an extra one and a half handfuls ofgrain, and if she is malnourished she should alsoeat an extra one and a half handfuls of grain.

A woman who has just given birthshould eat an extra handful of grain, half ahandful of pulses, a handful of green leafvegetables, and at least one extra piece of fruitper day more than her usual diet.

Six months after childbirth the mothershould eat an extra one and a half handfulsof grains and an extra one handful of pulses.

One to two years after childbirth(still suckling) the mother should be eatingan extra one and a half handfuls of grainsand an extra half handful of pulses. Atthis stage she should also be eating one

extra handful of green leaf vegetablesand one extra piece of fruit.


• After childbirth a mother should drink 5 teaspoons of"Jwano" (Trachyspernum ammie) each day.

• While a mother is pregnant, and justafter childbirth should eat at least 3-4times a day. For example, 2 full mealsand 2 snack meals.

• The best milk for suckling infants isthe mother's own milk. If this is notgiven, it can lead to many problems inthe future. So it is much better to feedmothers' milk rather than powdered milk.

• Once a baby stops drinking its mother's milk it should begiven extra food.

• Always feed a malnourished child extra food.

• A baby with diarroea should be fed more liquids. An oralrehydration mixture of salt, sugar and water should be given.It is even better to give the water skimmed off washed orcooking rice.

• It is better to feed a child little and often. Never stop feed-ing a sick child. Pursuade it to drink more liquids. Amalnourished child shouldbe given a spoonful ofhoney or sugar a day.This provides moreenergy. Also, a mal-nourished childshould be fed a ba-nana every day.

• Similarly, old people cannot digestmuch food at one time

and only eat a little.So they need amixed meal 3-4 times a day.

Without nutritiousfood it's not possible

to keep healthy

Drumstick LeavesIn sub-tropical areas the Drumstick (Moringa) tree

is found [this may have other namesin your area]. This tree has manybenefits. It's leaves are good forlivestock fooder and the flow-ers are good for bees. Its seedhelps to purify water. It canbe grown easily and quicklyfrom cuttings. Its flowers, podsand newly sprouted, young leavescan all be used as vegetables. Theleaves are especially nutritious and can be dried andmade into a powder. One teaspoon of this leaf powderprovides daily vitamin needs for one person. In cooler,upland areas where drumstick isn't found, you can storeand use the powder made in the lowlands.

1716


3

4

5

6

1

2

Super Flour

Maize Wheat

one part one part

Soya bean

two parts

Maize, wheatand soya beanflour mixed intosuper flour givesa balanced andnutritious meal.It gives nutrientsfor energy,growth and pro-tection together

Clean themaize, wheat

and soyabean

Bake each of themseparately

1918

Then grind thebaked grains

and pulsesseparately.

Store the flour inan airtight vessel.Then you can use

the processed superflour for several

days.

Make thesuperflour into a

porridge andfeed to childrenabove the age of

6 months.

Once they're usedto it, they'll eat it

themselves.

Maize, wheatand soya beanflour mixed intosuper flour givesa balanced andnutritious meal.It gives nutrientsfor energy,growth and pro-tection together

Super Flour


• anaemia, lackof digestivejuices

2120

The various types of food and nutrients needed for goodhealth are given below. Information about the function ofdifferent elements, effects of deficiency and which foodsprovide them is also given.

Car

bohy

drat

e (e

nerg

y)P

rote

in (

grow

th)

Oil/

Fat

• gives the bodystrength & vigour• maintain abalanced bodytemperature• assists growth& development

• malnourish-ment (crying,Marasmus,Kwashiorkor

wheat, maize,barley, millet,rice, yam, sugar,cane extract,potatoes (allenergy foodsexept oils)

• used for growth &development• growth & mainte-nance of muscle• making hormones,red blood cells,digestive juices• helps to make upenergy needs iflacking in other foods

• malnourish-ment (crying,Marasmus,Kwashiorkor,etc.)

cow pea, favabean, soya bean,amaranth, peas,fish, meat, eggs,milk, peanuts,pumpkin seeds,walnuts, etc. (allgrowth foods)

• gives energy• helps in the body'stake up of Vit. A• helps in cellformation

• rough skin vegetable oils,ghee (purifiedbutter), butter,fatty meat, fish,peanuts, soyabean

Foodtype

What does itdo?

DeficiencySymptoms

What is itfound in ?

Foodtype

What does itdo?

DeficiencySymptoms


Vit

amin

AV

itam

in B

gro

upV

itam

in C

• keeps eyeshealthy

• keeps skin soft

• helps to preventdisease fromspreading

• eye disease(night blindness,dry eyes)

• disease spreadsbetween nose,ear & throat

• less ability tofight off disease

green leaf veg-etable & yellowfruit or vegeta-bles, e.g. ripepapaya, pump-kin, persim-mon, carrot,spinach, radishleaf, mustardleaf, corianderleaf, beans,watercress, etc.

• increases appe-tite• helps nervegrowth & func-tion• helps digestionof carbohydrates

• loss of appetite• tingling feet• burning sensa-tion on soles offeet•sore on tongue• sore in cornersof mouth

unhusked grainand its flour,liver, pulses,green leafvegetables,kidney, fish,meat

• joining musclefibres• helps woundsheal• helps uptake ofiron and calcium

• bleedinggums; infectedgums

• slow healingof wounds &sores

amla, lemons,guava, oranges,raspberries,berberis, freshgreen leaf veg-etables, pota-toes, sproutedgrains & pulses


Foodtype

What does itdo?

DefficiencySymptoms


2322

Iron

(a

min

eral

)Io

dine

(a

min

eral

)ca

lciu

m (

a m

iner

al)

• making blood,keeping musclehealthy

• protectionagainst disease

• anaemia• dizzyness,weakness, lazi-ness, breathless-ness• retardedgrowth of babies• miscarriage,still birth

green leaf veg-etables, pulses,millet, beatenrice, fermentedvegetables,liver, meat,eggs, fish,sprouted pulses,food cooked iniron pots

•helps body'sgrowth• helps brain &nervous system• gives heat fromenergy use

• goitre• cretinism,spasticism• mental disor-ders, dull• lack of body'sgrowth• paralysis

seafood, fish,iodized salt

• helps bone, teethformation &growth• prevents musclecontraction &wasting• helps bloodclotting

• poor bone/teeth forma-tion; crumblingbones

milk & milkproducts, greenleaf vegetables,fermented veg-etables, grains,millet, lamb'squarters, pulses,fish

æ

Æ

Mrs Thuli Dhimnan

Mrs ThuliDhimnan

From Nepal, Lalitpur district,Burunchuli VDC, Champi villageMrs Thuli Dhimnan's son SanoBabu was malnourished as ababy. Now let's hear her story.

At two and a half years of ageSano Babu was nothing but skin andbone. At that time he wouldn't eat andcould hardly even walk. It was so hardto feed him at that time. Then I started to feed him superflourporridge with his other food. After only a few days he startedto gain weight. After that Sano Babu's two younger brotherswere also born but they didn't have the same problems astheir older brother. This is how Sano Babu's life improvedwith a mother's love & care, and good, nutritious food.

Sano Babu attwo and a half

year old,malnourished

Sano Babu attwelve years old,with his motherand 2 younger

brothers

Farmers'ExperienceFarmers'Experience

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

Subjects Related to NutritionGood benefits can be had from the information in this

book about nutrition. However, this information is also linkedto other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and prac-tice other related chapters.

Improved Stove ChapterIn Nepal 95% of households use firewood forcooking food. Everyone knows the effects of toomuch smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Nowlet's learn about an easy and successful method.

Hygiene Inside the House ChapterImproved health isn't only about good food. If thekitchen and house is dirty, many diseases canstrike. In this chapter information is given abouteasy methods to keep the house clean.

Fruit Related ChaptersInformation on how to produce and grow im-proved fruit species at home is given in thesechapters about the fruit nursery, grafting, budding,top grafting, stone grafting, air layering, fruitseedling planting and integrated fruit orchards.

Kitchen Garden and Polyculture VegetableGrowing ChaptersThese chapters give information about how toproduce good vegetables with less work.

Read On !Read On !

Th

e F

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What is

The house shel-ters us from the sun,wind and rain. Thehouse is also where wekeep food, pots, pansand clothes necessaryfor our lives. Often,farm tools such ashooks, spades, ropes,and water containersare kept in the home.The home is also ourplace to live and sleep.So all members of thehousehold shouldknow about how tokeep the house clean.There should be acustom of sweepingand plastering. Afterusing any tools orequipment it's veryimportant that they are cleaned and stored in their right place.And everyone needs to cooperate to make a good, cleanhousehold which is enjoyable and hygienic to live in.

House Hygiene ?House Hygiene ?

The text on the wall says "Alwayscover the lid of the water pot".

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 3 - House Hygiene

1

Keep theHouse Clean ?

Problems leading to not keeping the house clean

2

Ms Hom Maya GurungHealth Technician, HimalayanPermaculture Group, Surkhet,Nepal

The Authors of this Chapter

Mr Lal Bahadur BudhathokiRural Livestock Health

Programme

• Eating stale (old) food :- it's important to eat clean andfresh food to stay healthy. So when cooking, cook just theright amount and don't leave food to be eaten later. Old foodcan upset the stomach.

Pathways ofspreading

disease

flies

dogs

dirty hands

dust

On the right side the child is sick and the bacteria arepresent in the faeces. On the left side the bacteria get intothe other child's plate and food, and the disease is spread.In this way dysentery, gastro-enteritis, worms, typhoid,

stomach ache, colds and flu can spread.

How do Flies Eat ?

2

Flies vomit up the remains oftheir last meal onto our food. Thisstarts to digest their new meal

1

2

Then the fly eats the old re-mains and the new food. So, if theprevious meal for the fly was faeces,it is mixed with the food on our platefor the fly to eat it. Can we stayhealthy by eating that food ?

3

WhyWhy

• Eating food without washing hands :- we do most workwith our hands. Doing this work makes our hands dirty. Sobefore preparing food and eating it we should always washour hands well with soap, ash or oil seed cake.

• Dogs licking plates :- after eating waste meat, bones oreven excrement, dogs can come and lick plates in the house.Many diseases can come from this.

• Allowing dogs to eat babies' faeces :- dogs shouldn't beallowed to eat babies' faeces because it's possible that the dogcan then go and lick food plates.

• Going to the toilet :- it's wrong to use just any place as atoilet. Wherever this is done becomes dirty. This attracts flieswhich carry the dirt to our food.

• Dirty Kitchen :- flies and invisible bacteria like to live indirty places. So disease can start in the kitchen and on thefood there. If there's dirt on the floor it can spread to wherethe plates, food, water, etc. are.


!!!1

6

5

43

2

54

The picture below shows how bacteria can enterour bodies. In the upper part of the picture aresmall drawings of where the food comes from.

From here arrows point lead to the person's mouth.The numbers given to the pictures below corre-

spond to descriptions on the next page. Read theseas you see the pictures.

How bacteria canmove in the kitchen

1

6

54

3

2

Milk :- milk is clean inside the cow's udder but if theperson milking has dirty hands this will make themilk dirty. The hands and udder should be washedalong with the milk bucket. The milk should beboiled and put in a clean container with a clean lid.Use clean water if making buttermilk or other dairy products,and the container these are put in must also be very clean.

Water :- if possible do not use water from streams orrivers. Use water from wells, springs or drinkingwater taps. It's not enough just to use clean water.The containers it is put in must also be clean andhave a good fitting lid. Finally, the cups, glasses,plates, etc. to drink from must also be clean.

Fruit :- fruit is clean on the tree but as soon as wepick it, it quickly becomes dirty. Before eating, handsshould be clean, and fruit should be washed or peeled .

Grains and Pulses :- cooked grains andpulses etc. will become dirty if left uncovered.Dirty utensils used to transfer or serve food willalso make the food dirty. Keep utensils off theground.

Vegetables :- just like 4 & 5 above, vegetablescan become dirty. If chemicals are used in the garden veg-etables should be washed well in water.Vegetables such as radishes, carrot andcoriander are often eaten raw, so must bewashed in clean water. Plates, bowls etc. used for eatingshould also be very clean. Grinding stones used for makingpickles should be kept clean (see page 13).

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 3 - House Hygiene 76

Bacteria are tiny organisms that the eye cannot see.These micro-organisms can be beneficial or harmful. In thesoil, without micro-organisms there would be no humusmade, while in the stomach, if there were no micro-organ-isms we could not digest our food.

Bacteria

Usually, beneficial bacteria live offdead things, breaking them up and rottingthem down, and helping in uptake (digestion)by plants' roots. As for harmful bacteria, theyusually live on living tissues, and often dam-age them. If harmful bacteria get intowounds, or into our stomach, they can makeus very sick.

Bacteriaseen

close up

Bacteria enjoy dirty, dark and moistplaces so if we want to be protected frompossible harm, kitchen pots, pans, clothes,bedding, etc. should be kept clean, dry and aswell aired as possible. Before and after anypreparation, cooking or eating of food, handsshould be clean. Hands should be washed aftertouching hair, animals (livestock/pets), soil,etc. and before touching food or food contain-ers. Food should remain covered when not inuse and old food should not be eaten, exceptby the chickens! If the hands have a wound then use soap towash and keep it covered when preparing, cooking or eatingfood. No spitting in the kitchen, or if possible, anywhere inthe house or courtyard. If attention is paid to all these things, then harmful bacteria can't enter and harm our bodies.

How many mistakescan you see in this

picture?

In a well man-aged housekeeping thepots and the

kitchen clean iseasy

Let's seeLet's see How to keepthe house cleanHow to keepthe house clean

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 3 - House Hygiene 9

In a clean, dry andlight kitchen there isless fear of disease

A basket for keepingpots made from local

resources.

The grindingstone should becovered when

not in use.

Water containersshould always be

covered. The text onthe wall says "Always

cover the lid of thewater pot" in Nepali.

Then, this is the wayto pour water

Dirt can also get intothe milling stone sothis should also be

covered

8


In a well managed House:

Pots and pansare cleaned

and put awayin the right

place

Food is cov-ered and put

away

The grindingstone is covered

and put away

The floor is keptclean and freshlyplastered or swept

Farm tools usedevery day are also

kept clean and in theright place

HowHow to clean theHouse ?

Cleaning and managing inside the house isn't difficult.Below are some things to pay attention to for cleaning thehouse well.

1. Putting away pots, pans, etc. :- pots, pans, plates, etc.should be stored in a cupboard, rack or woven basket in acorner of the kitchen. Water containers should also be kept ina clean and easily usable place in or near the kitchen. Theopening of the water container should always be covered witha clean lid. The grinding stone should be cleaned and putaway after use.

2. Putting away cutting hooks, digging tools, ropes, etc. :-cutting hooks, digging tools, ropes, etc. should be stored in aplace easy to see and access by all thefamily (except babies).

3. Putting away clothes, etc. :-clothes and bedding should bestored away from the kitchenotherwise dust and smoke canmake them dirty. Also, to pre-vent dust getting from clothes orbedding into the food theseshould be kept in a separateplace, in a rack or cupboard.

10 11

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 3 - House Hygiene12 13

Water Containers

Drinking water should always be kept clean. If water isdirty it can cause all sorts of diseases such as diarrhea, stom-ach aches, colds and flu, worms, etc. Many types of dirt canget into the uncovered drinking water container. While sweep-ing the house,dust can blowinto drinkingwater con-tainers, anddrinking thatdirty watercan thencause sick-ness. Beingaware ofsome simplethings canhelp to pro-tect us from these diseases. For example, the water containershould always be covered. The water container's lid can behome made. For this, first measure the lid of the water con-tainer, and make a lid from wood or thick tree bark to fit the

opening. Make a string to tie the lid tothe container. Another method is to usea small plate or bowl to cover the lid.The lid of the container should never beput on the floor otherwise it could getcovered in dirt, which could then getinto the water inside the container.

The Grinding Stone

The grinding stone is a tool used many times a day in thekitchen. After it has been used, it should be washed andstored in a clean place. After the grinding stone has beenused, for example to grind spices for pickle, and if it is leftuncovered, then while sweeping or doing other work dirt canget onto it. We may bring dirt into the house from outside.This dirt can contain harmful bacteria. If the grinding stone isleft out unwashed then these bacteria can then get into thespices etc. we are grinding on the stone. This can then causeillness such as diarrhea, dysentery, worms, and other types ofillness. So we should get into the habit of always washing thegrinding stone before use. After use, again wash the stonewith clean water, dry it and store it covered or upright againstthe wall of the kitchen. If this is not possible (for example, if itis too big), then the stone should be kept covered by a large lidor bowl, plastic bag, clean cloth or even a plate made of leaves.

If we pay attention to the small ideas given above, wecan protect ourselves from big diseases.


!

14 15

During the monsoon there is much more rain, it getsvery muddy everywhere and it's a much busier time for farm-ers, so everywhere gets much more dirty. So we should paymuch more attention to hygiene at this time, compared toother times of the year.

It's easier and cheaper to prevent diseasethan to cure it. Let's pay attention to this !!

If we don'tkeep the houseclean we can causemany types ofhealth problems. Ifwe can stay healthyall household workis easier. But if weare always sick,how can we run agood household ?

Other things to pay attention to

æ

Æ


Mrs AtimayaSunuwar

From Nepal,Surkhet district,Gumi VDC,Ratadada villageand a member of"Hariyali" women'sgroup, Mrs AtimayaSunuwar has seenthe benefits of goodhouse hygiene. Nowlet's read aboutwhat she says

Mrs Atimaya SunuwarIn 1998, I be-

came a member of the local Women's Group and learned a lot,but first I started keeping the house clean. I use a bowl to keepthe drinking water container covered, and clean it each day. Ikeep the pots and pans clean and covered, so they can't getdirty. I always wash the grinding stone. These things are easy,and they only seem difficult if you don't have the habit ofdoing them. It's the same for cleaning and putting away farm-ing tools such as the cutting hook and digging tools. I put thedust swept out of the house into a sweepings pit. Apart fromkeeping the house clean, this makes good compost too. There'slots of benefits when we keep the house clean. If we can't keepourselves clean, then what other work will we be able to do ?

Gri

hast

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unic

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Subjects Related to House Hygiene

Read On !Read On !

Improved Stove ChapterIn Nepal 95% of households use firewood forcooking food. Everyone knows the effects of toomuch smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Nowlet's learn about an easy and successful method.

Diet and Nutrition ChapterMany diseases can be prevented by a healthydiet, In this chapter, information is given aboutthe benefits provided by different types of food.

Waste Water ChapterThis chapter gives information on how to get irri-gation for the garden from domestic waste water.

Sweepings ChapterInformation about making good compost fromsweeping the house and yard is given in thischapter.

Pit Latrine ChapterEveryone has a responsibility to use a propertoilet. Information about building and correctuse of the pit latrine is given in this chapter.

Th

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Im

pro

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Sto

ve

What is an

Improved Stove ?Improved Stove ?

Mrs Chitramaya Gharti-Magar's improved stove,Surkhet district, Nepal

The stove is theheart of the household.The stove turns ourhard-earned farmingproduce into tasty andwholesome food. Awell managed stovehelps in other workalso. If the stove isn'tgood, smoke in thekitchen will causehealth problems and alot of firewood will be used. In this chapter, a usefulmethod is given to help solve these problems, which canbring big improvements in the kitchen, and from there tothe household.

This method is called the improved stove. The im-proved stove can be cheaply made from local resources,and helps to remove smoke from the kitchen, while usingless firewood.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 4 - Improved Stove

make anImproved Stove ?

Differences between traditional and improved stoves

Traditional Stove or Tripod Improved Stove

1. Uses a lot of firewood

4. Cost of tripod

5. Smoke stays in kitchen

6. Smoke damages health

7. Makes kitchen utensilsdirty with soot

8. Small children can fall inthe fire

9. Cooking makes the potsblack with soot

10. Wind can make the fire jump

11. Can't make tripod fromlocal resources

12. Food cools quickly

3. Can only cook one itemat a time

2. Food cooks quickly2. Food cooks slowly

1. Uses less firewood

3. Can cook 2 items at atime

4. Don't need tripod

5. Smoke goes outside

6. No harm to health

7. Doesn't make kitchendirty

8. No fear of small childrenfalling in fire

9. Pots kept cleaner duringcooking

10. Stove not affected by wind

11. Stove made from localresources

12. Food stays hot longer

2 3

There are some disadvantages of the improved stove. These are :-

1. Large pieces of firewood can't be used;

3. The stove needs good maintenance, and fromtime to time you need to let the smoke into thekitchen (see page 22 for more information).

2. The stove gives less light and direct heat in the kitchen;

Other methods to reduce firewood use

While cooking, keeping the lid on potshelps to reduce firewood use. This alsohelps to conserve nutrients in the food.

Another method of conserving fuelwood is called the"Haybox". This can be made in a basket or box filled with tightlypacked straw, as in the picture below, As soon as food (rice, pulses,vegetables, etc.) is brought to the boil on a normal stove, the pan isremoved and placed in the hay box, and covered well. Here, thereis no fire, but the food slowly keeps cooking, due to the conservedheat in the box. This takes 20-30 minutes longer than on a stove.After a while, take out the pan and the food is ready to eat.

covered by a lidstraw

clothlid of the pot

food inside (just boiled)

strawbasket or box

WhyWhy

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 4 - Improved Stove4 5

HowHow To make animproved stove ?

Things to consider when making animproved stove

• get all the materials and tools ready first;• map out the height of the kitchen's wall;• map out the stove according to the needs of the family;• allow for a place to clean the stove;• the hole to allow smoke out should be out of the wind.

Materials needed to make an improved stove

bowl

string

diggingtools

soil

stones

brick makingform (see p.8)

cookingpans

straw orhusk

This Chapter's Author:Mr Laxman RanaCommunity Service Group,Dahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal

Making the Improved Stove

An improved stove uses a chimney to pass the smokeout of the kitchen. There are 2 ways of making a chimney todo this :-

1. Making bricks using mud "pancakes"2. Making bricks using a wooden form or mould

On this stoveunleavened flat

bread can be madeover the mouth ofthe firebox, as well

as smoke goingoutside

1. Making bricks using mud "pancakes"In this method only clay, straw or rice husk, water and a

small bowl are needed.First mix the clay and the husk, or straw cut into 2 inch

lengths, with water to make a stiff texture, like dough.see the pictures on the next page

soil


1

4

2

3

6 7

Making bricks from clay "pancakes"Making bricks from clay "pancakes"

The pancakes should be8 inches in diameter

8 inches

The bowl should be 4 inchesin diameter

Place thebowl upside

down on the pan-cake and pressdown, like this

The up-turned bowl

will cut the clay

make 30-35 pan-cakes like this

This willmake a hole

the same shapeand size as thebowl

5

2. Making a chimney using a wooden formor mould

Materials needed to make the form

One 3-inch nail

Eighteen 2inch nails

measuring tape

hammer

roundpiece ofwood

saw

timber

length 4-5 feet, width 7 inches,thickness half to one inch

Cut the timberinto pieces asshown here len

gth7 i

nches

width7 inches

onepiece

2 pieces of length 7 inchesand width 4 inches

2 pieces of length 7 inchesand width 4 inches

One village will need only one of these forms


Join the 3 pieces of woodwith nails, like this

Saw 2 pieces of woodas shown below

length 15 inches,width 4 inches

Join the pieceswith nails, asshown here

Now put the round pieceof wood in the form

diameter4 inches

length3 inches

On the undersideof the form make

an 'X' betweenthe 4 corners tofind the centre

Holding the roundpiece of wood on

the other side, nailin the long

nail tohold it in

place

Making bricks in the Form

• mix the clay, husk or straw and water• wash the form well• scatter a little husk or straw in the form so it sticks to

the wet wood

Now put the claymix into the Form


Scrape off the excessclay to make level

Turn the formupside down and

tap gently

Leaving theclay brick onthe ground,gently lift theform off

To make thechimney,12-13 brickslike this areneeded

Make 1 brick without a holefor the top of the chimney

Make 2 brickslooking like this

The formused to

make thechimney

Rice husk, orchopped straw

Husk orstraw mixed

to a thickpaste

1

2

3

Let's seeLet's see How to make animproved stoveHow to make animproved stove


;fpnf;fpnf;fpnf;fpnf;fpnf

12 13

4

8

7

6

5

Cleaning the Form

Pressing theclay/straw mixinto the form

12-13 ofthese bricks

2 brickslike this

1 brickwithout ahole

Chimney brick afterremoving from the form

Starting tobuild the

stove

Bridgingstone overthe fire-box hole

Smokeleaves here

Build up thestove, leavingholes for potsand a path for smoke

Bridgingstones

Red arrowsshow pathwayfor smoke

Yellow linesshow emptyspaces left in-side the stove


11

10

9Holes for pots Hole for smoke

Cookingarea

prepared

Put firewood here

Now start to buildthe chimney withbricks made withthe form (or clay

pancakes)

After plastering,the stove is al-

lowed to dry outand can then be

used

In the below pictures is the processof building the stove in drawings

First, estimatethe best place for

the stove, andmap out with thetypes of pots tobe used and achimney brick

If using the clay pancakes for thechimney, use them to measure

Mark out ac-cording to themeasurements

Mark out theareas and path-

ways for firewood,fire and smoke


Start to build thewalls according to the

measurements

Iron rod

Use an iron rod if available. This sitsinside the pot's hole and allows

smaller pots to rest on it

Continueto buildup thewalls

Cooking areafinished

Inside the stovelooks like this

Below the sec-ond pot-hole asmall hump is

made. Thissends the

flames right upto the base of

the pot

This shows theinside when afire is burning

Between thehump and baseof the pot a 1.5

inch gapsmoke going

out

fire burning inthe stove

clay hump

Note: the pots should sit down in the hole (see page 22)

smoke goingout


Now use a string tomeasure the hole

going outside

Firstchimney

brick

Place thechimney

bricks likethis

If using the clay pancakebricks they look like this

After placing 12-13 of these bricks

the level of thehole is reached

This isthe waythe top 3

bricksare

placed(see

p.20)

After placing thetop 3 bricks, the

hole from thechimney and thehole going out-side should fit

exactly

1

3

2

1

3

2


The method to place the top 3 bricks is shown below

Brick 1 seenclose up

Brick 1


Brick 2

Hole to the outside


Brick 3

Finally, plaster thestove, and allow itto dry out. Then it

is ready to use


Things to pay attention towhen using the stove

In this picture the stove is beingused correctly - the pot islow in the hole wheremore flames reach thebase, and smoke can escape.

In this picture the stove is notused well - because the potdoes not sit low in the hole,the flames do not reachclose. In this way foodcooks slowly. This is due to using the wrongsize pots for the hole.

If the pots are the wrong size for thehole then, as in the diagram, put 3small stones under the pot todraw the flames up wherethey heat the base of thepot. But this allows moresmoke into the kitchen.

stones or clay

A well made stove, used correctly, will not let smoke outinto the kitchen. But this can cause another problem in thatthe smoke helps to control various pests which otherwise candamage timber, stored grain and seed. Smoke, protects thetimbers from these pests. Therefore, every few days smoke needs to be let into the house.

Cleaning the Improved Stove

• watch if smoke is passing or not• watch if food is cooking fast or slow• clean the chimney every week or 2 (see below)• plaster the stove daily (do not use dung)• measure how much firewood is used

Once every 2 weeks wrapcloth on the end of a stick to

clean the chimney

43

1

2

stickwithcloth

Open the stove to removethe dirt and soot

Clean from theoutside also

Re -plaster

Gri

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æ

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Mrs ChitramayaGharti Magar

Mrs ChitramayaGharti Magar

From Nepal, Surkhet district,Dahachaur - 4, and member of"Ritu Laligurans" and"Hariyali" women's group MrsChitramaya Gharti Magar hasmade an improved stove. Nowlet's read about what she says.

Because smoke affects ourhealth it's important to make thesmoke go outside. In the im-proved stove less firewood is alsoused, so time is saved collectingfuel as well as helping to protectthe forest. To make this stove stone, clay, rice husk and aform to make the chimney is all that's needed. We didn'thave a form in our village, so I used a bowl to make 35-36clay pancakes. The form also uses more clay. Making thepancakes needs less clay and you don't need the form, so Imade up this method. There's no smoke from my stove, andit uses less firewood. Once cooked, the food stays warm along time left on the stove. There are no flies and thefood can't burn. Also, the pans don't get so black withsoot. Now, I want teach others in the village howto make the stove.

Far

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“In

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Boo

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The need of today is to con-serve, recycle and use resourcesefficiently, and to save waste. Todo this many types of stove havebeen developed and taughtaround the world, in order to savefuel in cooking.

One method of cookingwhile saving fuel is called theHay Box. Food such as rice,pulses andvegetables are broughtto the boil on a traditional stove,and then immediately placed in abox packed with straw, and cov-ered. The food continues to cookeven though it is not on a stove,because the heat in the pan isenough to keep cooking the food,while the box and straw stop theheat from escaping. After sometime the pan is removed and thefood is ready to eat.

In this booklet we describehow to make and use a hay box outof locally available resources, toconserve fuel use in the home.

What is a

A pan of cooked ricetaken out of a hay box

Hay Box?Hay Box?

The Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House” Booklet 5 - Hay Box

Use aHay Box?WhyWhy

Advantages of using the Hay Box

• Food can be cooked with less fuel (wood, kerosene, gas,electric, etc.)

• Because food is not boiled for a long time,many vitamins are saved

• Because pots are in the flames less, theylast longer

• Less time is spent cooking, so there ismore time for other activities

• The hay box can be made from local resources• It doesn’t require much skill to make and use.

Once the traditional stove has brought the food to theboil, the packing of the hay box (hay, straw, wool, cottoon,etc) keeps the heat in and this is enough to keep the foodcooking. This may take 10-20 minutes longer than if using adirect flame. In this way, for example, rice is brought to theboil, packed in the hay box and covered. It will continue tocook itself and will be ready in about 20 minutes longer thanon a normal fire.

This booklet’s authorChris Evans, advisor,Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepalwww.designedvisions.com

You can make a Hay Box in your own home for yourown use. There’s no need for any special skill. In this bookletwe show how to use a traditional bamboo basket to make the“box”. But instead, a wooden box, cardboard box or even anold fridge or drum can be used. The size of the “box” shouldbe about 4-6 inches wider than the width of the pot. Becausein Nepal the bamboo basket is available everywhere, we findthis easiest to use.

Bamboobasket("box")

Materials needed to make a Hay Box

to make aHay Box ?HowHow

Towel orblanket

Lid forbox

Cooking pots

Straw/hay(or wool,cotton)

2 3


Method

Straw, hay etc. is packed tightly into whatever type of box orcontainer is available. While packing, leave enough space forthe size of pot you will be using. Keep some straw aside tocover the pot later. Keep a towel or blanket ready. The box isnow ready for use.

Instead of straw, dried grass, wool or cotton can also be used.

Once the box is ready, the cooking can begin in the kitchen.Start to cook your usual food, such as rice, vegetables, etc.,on your traditional stove, as you would normally do.

In the pictures on the next 4 pages we use the example ofcooking rice in the hay box. But whatever food you are cook-ing, use the stove just to bring it to the boil. As soon as thefood is boiling it is removed from the stove and placed in thehay box.

4 5

While pack-ing, leaveenough spacein the basketfor the pot tobe placed.

Pack straw tightly intothe bamboo basket.Instead of straw, driedgrass, wool or cottoncan also be used.

1

Let’s see How to make theHay BoxLet’s see How to make theHay Box

3

2


In the kitchen,start to cookyour usualfood in theusual way.

Thencom-pletelywrap thepot in ablanket ortowel.

In a few minutes thefood will start toboil. Then, cover thepot and remove itfrom the stove.

Cover it all withsacking or a blanket.

Pack more straw on topto completely fillthe box.

Place thewrapped potin the mid-dle of thepackedstraw.

4

5

6

7

8

9Booklet 5 - Hay BoxThe Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House”The Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House” Booklet 5 - Hay Box6 7

The Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House” Booklet 5 - Hay Box 9

Finally, place arock or heavyobject to weighdown the lid.

Here the rice iscookedperfectly.

In 20-30 minutes thefood in the pot willfinish cooking by it-self. After this, youcan remove the foodwhenever you areready to eat.

How to usethe Hay Box

The food will cook by itselfinside the box in 20-30 minutes.After this, you can remove the foodto eat, or you can leave it there for3-4 hours or until you are ready toeat, and it will stay warm.

basket or boxstraw/hay etc.

food just boiledlid of pot

blanketstraw/hay etc.lid of the box

After a short while the food in the pot will start to boil.Then, cover the pot and take it off the stove. Then, com-pletely wrap the pot in a thick towel or blanket. Put the pot inthe middle of the packed straw. Cover it with more packedstraw to completely fill the box. Cover the box with a lid, andfinally place a weight on the lid.

MaintenanceMaintenance10

11

12

8 The Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House”The Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House”

The Farmers’ Handbook “Inside the House” Booklet 5 - Hay Box10

Inside the box with itslid and tightly packed straw,food cooks and stays warmfor a long time. It works inthe same way that freshlyboiled tea is kept hot for along time inside a thermosflask.

Another benefit of using the hay box is that because thefood is not boiled for a long time, vitamins are not lost inover-cooking, so the food is more nutritious.

Just by keepingthe lid on the potwhile cooking saves a lot offuel. Nutrients in the food arealso saved.

Another way of saving fuel in cooking

WhoseResponsibility

?

GoodFood &HealthyFamily


æ

Æ

I find this hay box reallyeasy to use and very benefi-cial. I can start cooking thengo off to the fields or the forest and just at the time whenI start to feel hungry come home and the food is ready,hot and fresh in the hay box. I boil the rice in the pot andskim off the excess water, then wrap the whole pot withrice and lid in a thick cloth and place inside the hay box,and it's cooked in just half an hour. I reckon that it savesabout the same amount of fuelwood that I'd use to cook

the vegetables each meal. I really likemethods like this, that can make our lives

easier as well as helping to protectthe environment

From Humla district capitalSimikot Mrs Shivakala Rokayais a member of JolimungraVegetable Growers Group.She's made and used a hay box -let's read about her experience.

Mrs Shivakala Rokaya

Mrs ShivakalaRokaya

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Subjects Related to the Hay Box

Hay BoxChapter

Diet and NutritionChapter

Improved StoveChapterIn Nepal 95% of house-holds use firewood forcooking food. Everyoneknows the effects of toomuch smoke in the kitchen

but what todo ? Now let’slearn about aneasy andsuccessfulmethod.

Many diseases can beprevented by a healthydiet, In this chapter,information is givenabout the benefits pro-vided bydifferenttypesoffood.

Good benefits can be had from the information in thisbook about the hay box. However, this information is alsolinked to other methods. For extra benefits let’s read, learnand practice from other related chapters.


Near the HousePart One

The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming, and this is thesecond of 5 volumes. There are 12 techniques presented here. In five volumes there area total of44 techniques and approaches

This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well aspractical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please rememberthat photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive, & does not give a goodquality.


Subject Chapter No:


Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1Waste Water Use ............................................ 2Sweepings Pit ................................................ 3

Pit Latrine ..................................................... 4Compost ......................................................... 5Mulching ....................................................... 6Double Digging ............................................. 7Seed Saving ................................................... 8Integrated Pest Management ....................... 9Liquid Manure .............................................. 10

Livestock Management ................................. 11

Beekeeping .................................................... 12

Non-Cement Drinking Water ....................... 13

This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Mr Laxman Rana, Mr Bhuvan Khadka, Ms Hom MayaGurung, Mrs Deu Maya Rana, Ms Bal Kumari Giri, Mr Narayan Acharya, Mrs Naomi Saville,Mr Satananda UpadhayaEdited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob JespersenTranslated from Nepali by Chris EvansProof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, JakobJespersen, Andy Langford, Looby MacnamaraPhotos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris EvansAddional photo credits are given in Volume FiveCover illustration: Mr Motilal PhaujaTyping: Chris EvansComputer Coordination: Graphics Edge, KathmanduPublished by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copiesThis Edition.........Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X.......This Volume : 99933-615-2-6......

This is the second volume of a five volume productionof the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty fourtechniques and approaches shown, of whch twelve are in thissecond volume. In this volume we introduce you to some ofthe methods used near the house (part one). The titles of theseare given on the previous "Contents" page.

Aims

Background


The Farmers' Handbook -this Volume's IntroductionThe Farmers' Handbook -this Volume's Introduction The main aim of this handbook is to help farmers make

their own farms more successful. This is done by providinginformation about using simple methods which strengthen,rather than damage the environment, and help to createsustainable livelihoods for future generations.

Comments and/or questions about the techniques andapproaches described in this handbook will be most welcome.Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editionsof this handbook and other similar publications.

This Farmers' Handbook provides information aboutsustainable farming methods, and can also be used as aresource for runnning literacy programmes. Informationabout these, and how the Handbook can be used, is providedin volume five. A list of new or difficult words and theirexplanation is also provided in volume five.

The techniques described in the handbook are the resultsof research made by the farmers of Surkhet and Jajarkotdistricts of Mid-Western Nepal. We believe these methods willalso work well for farmers of other countries. However,around the world there are diverse climates and soils, and sowe expect that small changes will need to be made in thetechniques according to this diversity. Similarly, it may benecessary to change plant species according to climatic region,but their function will remain the same. For example, thechapter on the Living Fence describes the use of thorny plantsas a barrier. In the low altitude, hot Tarai of southern Nepal,"Babool" (Acacia nilotica) is suitable for this. But this doesnot grow in the higher elevations. Here, species such as wildpear, wild blackberry and Sea Buckthorn make a good livingfence.

4. Pit Latrine

2. Waste Water Use

5. Compost

3. Sweepings Pit

Techniques

Structure of the Handbook

6. Mulching

7. Double Digging

8. Seed Saving

9. Integrated Pest Management

10. Liquid Manure

11. Livestock Management

12. Beekeeping

13. Non-Cement Drinking Water









Support for the production and printing of TheFarmers' Handbook has come from Methodist

Relief & Development Fund (UK),ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for Work,Helvetas Nepal, Hill Agriculture Research Project

(HARP), ICIMOD.



FundingSupport


addresses




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There aremany problems ofwater shortage inour homes andvillages. Apartfrom needingwater to irrigatenurseries andkitchen gardens, inmany places it canbe difficult to getwater even for theessentials of dailylife. It's not possi-ble to carry waterfrom far away toput on the garden.In places where itisn't plentiful, waste water from washing dishes, hands, facesand bathing can be used to irrigate kitchen gardens. This iscalled Waste Water Use. Water that has already been usedonce is still a valuable resource to use again.

There are many resources around us which can be easilyand beneficially used . Problems come only when we don'tknow the methods to do this.

In Surkhet, Nepal, waste water is col-lected from the taps to water vegetables

Waste Water Use ?Waste Water Use ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use

???

useWaste Water ? HowHow

This Chapter's Author:

Mr Laxman RanaCommunity Service Group,Dahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal

2 3

Benefits of Using Waste Water

• Water isn't wasted afterwashing dishes and bathing

• We can use that water toincrease crop production

• Increase resources for thehousehold

• Waste resources are recycled

• Keeps the house and court-yard clean

Because ashes and other materials are used in the wastewater, it is very fertile. So it gives nutrients to crops as well asirrigation. Plants grow really well with these extra nutrients.This is a good use of waste resources.

Where to Collect the Waste Water ?

On the edge of the courtyard around the house thereshould be a fixed place for washing hands, pots, etc. Whenthe pit is made close to this, the waste water can be collected.When making a pit, it should be close to the household'skitchen garden or home nursery, so irrigation is easy.

When to Make it ?

Ways of collecting waste water can be made at any time.Waste water collection helps to keep the area clean all yearround. It's especially useful for irrigation in the dry season.

Materials Needed to Make a Waste Water Pit

DiggingTools

Stones

Bambooor thinsticks

to useWaste Water ?WhyWhy

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use4 5

There are different methods of collecting and usingwaste water. You can use the method which is best for youaccording to your own needs and resources. For any method,first all water should be collected at one point. Water can becollected into a pit and then a watering can be used to put iton the garden. Or a series of small canals can lead from thewashing place directly to the where the water is needed in thegarden.

After collectingwaste water like

this, it can be usedin the garden.

Even more water can be used thisway if bathing and clothes washing are also done here.

The pit should be kept clean, and the water usedas quickly as possible, otherwise mosquito and otherpests or diseases can collect.

A draining plat-form like this

can be made tosend the waste

water straight tothe garden

How to make awaste water pitHow to make awaste water pit

If water used inthe house goes towaste it cannot

help to growcrops, and also

makes the court-yard dirty.

In the very sameplace with very

little input, agood kitchen

garden can bemade

Let's SeeLet's See

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use6 7

At the washing up place,on one side the clean

pots are dried, and onthe other the waste wa-

ter is made to flow away.

Then the wastewaster flowsby itself ontothe garden.

In this way the washingplace, drying place and place

to send the water away can beeasily arranged.

Here is thewashing place

Because the wastewater is well man-

aged to go to all theright places in the

garden, this isenough for water-ing and fertilizingthe vegetables in

the beds.

From a commu-nity tap or wellthere is enoughwater for sev-eral kitchengardens ornurseries.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use 98

Here waste waterfrom a commu-nity tap is col-

lected in a canal.

Then the canalflows to a pond.

Gardensare thenirrigatedfrom the

pond.

The pondseen close

up.

How toMaintain the

Waste Water Pit

Where to use the Waste Water ?

Using waste water collected daily

• to water small kitchen gardens• to water nurseries of fruit, fodder trees, fodder grass

seedlings etc. for your own use or to sell or trade• to raise vegetable seedlings for the kitchen garden

Because nurseries or kitchen gardens are made near thehouse, livestock like chickens, goats and pigs mustn't be leftto roam the area because they will destroy the plants there.They will also damage the pit or tank.

If waste water is sometimesadded to the compost pile, it will helpit to rot down quicker.

Around the edges of thewaste water pit perennialplants like lemon grass,comfrey, tree tomato and

fruit trees can be planted.Because it is always moist,these plants will grow andproduce well.

MaintenanceMaintenanceHow to

Maintain theWaste Water Pit

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use

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Subjects Related to Waste Water

Read On !Read On !

Waste Water Pit Chapter

Chapters on howto make variousNurseries

MulchingChapter

House HygieneChapter

Kitchen Garden andPolyculture VegetableGrowing Chapters

1110

Mulching ChapterIf water is to be used it must first be con-served. A mulch covers the soil and preventswater loss, so giving more water for the plants.In this chapter is information on how to domulching.

Good benefits can be had from the information in thisbook about collecting and using waste water. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Æ


Mrs Tilisara Gharti

From Nepal,Surkhet district,Gumi - 8, PanditKanla village, and amember of "WomenImprove" women'sgroup, Mrs TilisaraGharti has made anwaste water pit.Now let's hear abouther experience.

Mrs Tilisara GhartiAt first I didn't

know about this method. All the water from washing upwent to waste. Now, after learning about this method, awaste water pit has been made. From here, a small ditchcarries water into the nursery and kitchen garden area. Nowthe washing area is better managed, a bamboo rack hasbeen made, and water is collected into one place. Fromhere it goes to the garden. A small amount of work hassolved the water problem. Now waste water from ourhouse is used for vegetables, and a fruit seedling nursery.This method is really easy and efficient. Now others arestarting to use the same method in the village.

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Kitchen Garden and Polyculture VegetableGrowing ChaptersHow to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity.Information on doing less work for moreproduction while also being able to produce awide range of fresh vegetables is given inthese chapters.

House Hygiene ChapterDon't think that health improvement comesonly from eating a good diet. If the house andkitchen are dirty, even more diseases canspread. Information about easy techniques tokeep the house clean are given in this chapter

Chapters on how to make variousNurseriesDifferent types of plants need different types ofmanagement to grow them. Information on how tobuild and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery,air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in thesechapters.

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Pit

What is a

Mrs Maiya Khatri is growingpotatoes in her sweepings pit

Dirt is the home of disease. If we don't pay attention toregular home cleaning we can suffer from various illnesses. Itcan be very expensive to be cured from these illnesses. Nowlet's think, how dirty are our homes and courtyard ? Yes,they're dirty, but there's an easy way to solve this. The dirtshould be collected in one fixed place. Extra money or workisn't needed for this. The place to put the dirt is called asweepings pit.

The Sweepings pit is where dirt, leaves and other or-ganic waste swept up from inside and outside the house iskept, and it is used to make compost as well as keeping thearea clean and tidy .

Sweepings Pit ?Sweepings Pit ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 3 - Sweepings2 3

WhyWhy HowHowmake aSweepings Pit ?

to make aSweepings Pit ?

This Chapter's Authors:

Ms Balkumari GiriMr Bhuvan Khadka

The Benefits of a Sweepings Pit

• dirt is put in a fixed place• this keeps the home and courtyard clean• this helps to protect against illness• the decomposed sweepings can be used as an extra

source of compost

We sweep up dailyand lots of sweepingsare produced. If weuse it right this be-comes an importantresource - it makesgreat compost.

How to make :-It's really easy to make a sweepings pit. It doesn't take muchtime and can last for a long while.

Time to make :-The sweepings pit can be made at any time.It's good to start it after the monsoon, if youhave one.

Place to make it :-The sweepings pit should be made at theedge of the courtyard.

Method of making a Sweepings PitThere are 2 ways of making it :-(a) digging a pit; (b) without digging a pit

Materials needed to build a Sweepings Pit

Hook (cutting tool)

Crow barSmall sticksor bamboo

BroomLeaves, etc. (sweep-ings)

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 3 - Sweepings

How to make asweepings pit

How to make asweepings pitLet's SeeLet's See

4 5

(a) Digging a pitYou can choose the best place on the edge of your court-

yard to dig the pit. The depth and width of the pit is up to you- see how much you sweep up daily, and according to fillingthe pit once or twice a year, decidehow big the pit should be.

After making the pit, thecollected sweepings are verygood compost for fruit trees.In one farmer's experience,fruit trees given compostfrom sweepings fruited 2years before those whichdidn't have it.

Sweepingsput on thefruit tree

The pit is made in theright place to collect thesweepings, on the edge of

the courtyard

Put 3-5 seedpotatoes onto

fertile soilplaced in the

bottom

(b) Not digging a pitPut 4 strong upright corner posts in the ground and in

between put in smaller uprights. Weave bamboo or othersmall sticks to make a basket-type effect. This needs to begood and strong, to last a long time. Fill this with the dailysweepings, making sure they can't spill out.

If sweepings can be kept for a long time this can be usedas compost for your own field crops or kitchen garden. So it'sgood to make a pit or frame to hold as many sweepings aspossible, for a long time.

Like this you need to develop the habit of daily puttingthe sweepings into the pit.


To make the heap,first put 4 upright

sticks at the corners

Then putsmallersticks inbetween

Sweeping into thisfrom the house andcourtyard every daywill fill the heap andmake compost

A stick buriedin the middle

of the heap ( )will help thesweepings

to rot quicker

If potatoes areplanted in theheap, you needto water from

time to time


After 4 months thepotatoes are readyfor harvesting.This is also called"vertical growing"

When the heap is takenapart, both potatoes andcompost can be removed

Using bamboo in apot, here straw-berries are grownin the sweepings

Vertical Potato GrowingThere are many methods to give maximum production

from a small area with minimum inputs. Of these, to get quickbenefits from a small space potatoes can be grown using thismethod. This way of growing potatoes is done on an areaabout 1 metre square and one metre high. So from a squaremetre of land a small family doesn't have to buy potatoes.

Using verticalgrowing on this

much land, 12-15kg of potatoes

can be produced

Benefits of Vertical PotatoGrowing

• produce lots of potatoes onminimum land

• minimum input gives moreproduction

• don't need much seed• don't need to dig or earth up• makes use of waste biomass

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 3 - Sweepings

sweepingsMake a frame one

metre square from uprightsticks, and weave or tiehorizontal sticks or bambooup to a height of 1 metre.Put 2-4 inches of leaf litterand compost on the bottom.On top of this place 4-5 seedpotatoes, spaced separatelyand evenly. Now cover thepotatoes with 4 to 6 inchesof leaf litter and sweepings.The potatoes will sprout, andafter they sprout above theleaf litter, from time to timeshould be covered with morelitter and sweepings, allow-ing just an inch of the tipsticking out. Keep on addingthe sweepings daily. Keepcovering like this for up to 3months, then stop adding forone month until the potatoesstart to flower at about 4months. At this time, theheap can be taken down andpotatoes harvested all atonce, or as needed.

one metre

potatoes

one

met

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1011

Vertical Growing Method

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From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 3, Ratadada village,and a member of "Hariyali"women's group Mrs RikaliGurung has made a sweep-ings pit. Now let's hear abouther experience.

Mrs Rikali Gurung

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Mrs Rikali Gurung

At first I didn't know thismethod and sweepings werethrown away anywhere. But com-post made from sweepings isreally well rotted and fertile. Our corn grew much betterusing this compost compared to any other compost. Before,all the dirt from the house and yard went to waste. Now, in 5months we get 15-16 baskets of compost. At first I put it onthe corn, and by the time this is harvested another load is

ready for the wheat. There's evensome left for the kitchen garden. Inthis way, waste resources are wellused and the house and yard are keptclean. This gives many benefits, andI'm going to keep using thismethod each year.

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Subjects Related to Sweepings

Read On !Read On !

Chapters on how to make various NurseriesDifferent types of plants need different types ofmanagement to grow them. Information on how tobuild and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery,air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in thesechapters.

House Hygiene chapterDon't think that health improvement comes onyfrom eating good food. If the house and kitchenare dirty, even more diseases can spread. Informa-tion about easy techniques to keep the house cleanare given in this chapter

Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing

How to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity ?Information on doing less work for more produc-tion while also being able to produce a wide rangeof fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.

Good benefits can be had from the information in thisbook about the sweepings pit. However, this information isalso linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,learn and practice from other related chapters.

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What is a

Vishnu Maya Siris's temporary pit latrine, Surkhet

When eating, people will take in and digest any foodnutrients they need, and what is left is pushed out of thebody - this is called excrement, or faeces. The properplace to dispose of this is in a toilet or latrine. Withouttoilets, excreting in just any place can lead to many prob-lems of health and pollution.

This chapter gives information on how to solve theseproblems, and at the same time getting more benefits fromthe toilet.

Pit Latrine ?Pit Latrine ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine

WhyWhy HowHowmake aPit Latrine ?

to make aPit Latrine ?


Materials needed tobuild a Pit Latrine

2 3

Mr Laxman RanaDahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal

• the environment is dirty• many types of disease can spread• there's no use for this local resource• so the resource is wasted• self esteem and dignity is lost

Temporary Pit Latrine - how to get more benefitsfrom the toilet

A pit latrine made from your own local resources iscalled a temporary pit latrine. When the pit of one latrine isfull another pit latrine is dug in another place. By doing thisyou can plant a useful and valuable fruit tree in the fertile pit.Mixing soil and leaf litter with the excrement and urine as itis made means that it quickly rots down tomake good compost. These are free nutrientsfor the fruit tree.

Where to make the temporary pit latrine ?

Dried leaves

Straw orgrass

Woodenplanks

Straw mattingor sacking

Digging andcutting tools

Flat stones

Thinsticks

String

Crowbar

Where'sthe toilet?

To avoid these problems, and to turn our waste intobenefits for minimum expense, we can build temporary pitlatrines.

What if we don't makea latrine ?

The pit latrine should be made on the edge of a field orterrace. Also, you can select a spot according to wherever youwant to plant a fruit tree.


how to make apit latrine

how to make apit latrineLet's SeeLet's See

4 5

1. Digging the Pit

2. The frame and lidThere needs to be strong timber over the pit to

support the frame and the weight of a person usingthe latrine. At right angles to this put smallersticks, leaving a space for the toilet hole. Fill inall the gaps using sticks and soil. Using planks isbest as they join tightly and be kept clean eas-ily. If you can't get planks, then sticks and soilwill do. Make a raised footstep either side of

the hole. This keeps the feet from getting wet. Fi-nally, make a lid which fits and covers the hole well, keepsflies out, and can be moved easily.

3. Covering around the latrine

Now your pit latrine is ready to use

1

2 First dig apit 1-1.5mdeep and 1metre wide

Fill the pithalf full

with strawor leaf litter

To surround the latrine so no one can seeinside, use straw matting, sacking, cut sticks suchas wormwood or morning glory, or even maizestalks. This should include a doorway to makegetting in and out easy.

Dig a pit 1-1.5 metres deep and a metre wide. Fill the pithalf-full with straw or leaf litter. Don't think the work ofdigging the pit goes to waste, as you can plant a fruit tree inthe pit after it is full.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine6 7

Now putlarge timberover the top

Leaving a hole in the cen-tre, fill in the gaps withother sticks or planks

10 inches

6 inches

3

4

5

6

Fill in thesmallest

spaces withstraw and

mud

Cover the topwith a thicklayer of soil


*

How toMaintain

the Pit LatrineMaintenanceMaintenance

8 9

7Put in stakesand surround

the latrine withlocal materials

Make a wellfitting lid andstones or woodto put the feet

on

8

Each time you have used the latrine, cover your depositwith soil and/or leaf litter. From time to time add ash whichimproves the rotting of the excrement. Always keep the lid onthe hole.

Putting soil, leaf litter and ash on the excrement preventsflies settling. This also helps micro-organisms to rot down theexcrement quicker. This makes nutrients ready for treesplanted in the pit. When the pit is full the contents will settleso add an extra foot or 2 of soil on top. If soil, leaf litter,ash, etc. is well mixed as the pit isfilled then a seedling can be plantedstraight away. If these materials aren'tmixed in, it takes the excrement along time to rot down.

A permanent toilet can cost $200 to build.Can we afford this? For us farmers the

temporary pit latrine is cheaper AND moreuseful than an expensive toilet !

This is how, with good use of alatrine's waste, excrement can beturned into a useful resource.

Things to consider when using the pit latrine


After going tothe toilet coverit with soil or

vegetation

Always keepthe lid whenthe latrine is

not in use

When you come outfrom the latrine washyour hands well with

soap or ash

10 11

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From Nepal, Surkhetdistrict, Gumi - 5,Krishnagar, Mrs ChaviGurung has made a pitlatrine for her ownhousehold. Now let's hearabout her experience.

Mrs Chavi Gurung

Mrs Chavi Gurung

There are lots of ben-efits from making a pitlatrine. Waste is made use-ful, and the house and yardis kept clean. Before mak-ing the latrine, first I dug around pit After digging thepit I put planks over the top. I left a hole in the top, and madea lid to fit exactly over the hole. This all stopped the latrinefrom smelling. After going to the toilet, soil and leaf litter areput in. When this pit is nearly full, we start digging a new pitlatrine. On the full pit we add more soil and can plant amango seedling straight away. I'll be planting another mangoin the new one when it's ready. It takes about a year to fill onepit. Now others have seen how easy it is, and are starting tomake the same type.

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Subjects Related to Pit Latrine

Read On !Read On !

Pit Latrinechapter

Fruit Tree Plant-ing chapter

House Hygienechapter

Building a pit latrineis good for the health.But dangers to healthcan come from manydifferent places. Infor-mation on where dan-gers come from, andhow can weprotect our-selves fromthem is givenin this chapter.

After raising good seed-lings in the fruit nurs-ery, if they're notplanted well, all thework can go to waste.Information on moreproductiveplanting isgiven in thischapter.

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In this book benefits can be had from the informationabout the pit latrine. However, this information is also linkedto other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and prac-tice from other related chapters.

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What is

Mrs SaraswatiAdhikari and herimproved compost

heap, Begnas VDC,Kaski district, Nepal

All farmers have experience of making compost. Theyalso know very well how much compost is needed for theirplants. But if the compost used on the fields is not well rotteddown, it can cause more problems of pests and disease, ratherthan benefits. Like carrying fodder from the forest and tend-ing livestock, carrying the compost is hard work, but it shouldalso give good production. But if the compost is poor qualityall the work can be wasted and result in loss for the farmer.

So this chapter gives information on easy methods toproduce good quality compost.

Compost ?Compost ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 5 - Compost

Materials needed to build a Compost Heap

WhyWhy HowHowmakeCompost ?

2 3

Things to consider when making compost

• it is possible to produce compost quickly• compost should be well-rotted and crumbly• unrotted compost can cause pests and disease for crops• it's easier to carry well rotted compost• more benefits can be gained from smaller amounts of

well-rotted compost

To improve the method of compost making, first it'snecessary to understand how compost is made and whatthings it needs to make it.

Quick rottingcompost needsgood manage-ment of the mi-cro-organisms

soil or well rottedcompost

unrotted manure, leaflitter, straw, etc. from the

livestock sheds

small twigs or branchespoles

• things to decompose :- leaf litter, grass, animal manure, etc.;• decomposing agent :- micro-organisms break down biomass,

manure, etc. These micro-organisms are present in rottedcompost and fertile soil;

• moisture :- micro-organisms need thecorrect moisture to work;

• air :- micro-organisms also need air towork;

• right temperature :- it shouldn't betoo hot.

Materials needed to rot animal manure andplant materials (biomass) :-

to makeCompost ?


1

4

3

5

2

When making a compost heap first put a layer of thinsticks and branches on the ground

Then put a layer of the material to be rotted - manureand biomass from the livestock pens, leaves, etc.

Then put a thin (2 inch) layer of soil or fine, wellrotted compost. This layer should completely coverthe one beneath so you can't see it.

Now bury a pole upright in the heap, and withoutremoving it, continue to add layers as before.On each 12-15inch layer of manure, biomass, etc.,

add a thinlayer ofsoil orcom-post.

1

4 5

From time to time move the pole fromside to side to keep the hole open

layer of soil orrotted compost

layer of fresh manure,straw, leaf litter, etc.

layer of thin sticks or branches

• If there is a tradition of removing all the manure from thelivestock pens at once, just burying the poles without mak-ing layers will still improve the compost.

By doing this, the numbers of micro-organisms in thecompost will increase. Then, they can decompose the manureand biomass quickly. There are most micro-organisms in thesoil and rotted compost, so this does the same work as "seed"to help make more micro-organisms to rot the compost.

The thin branches and the pole allow air into the heap.

How to make Compost ?How to make Compost ?

Chapter 5 - CompostThe Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1"

how to makeCompost

how to makeCompostLet's SeeLet's See

6 7

1

2

newlymade compost

3 monthold compost

oldestcompost

Compost made inseparate heaps,

with poles

Shaking thepole from

time to timequickly rotsthe compost

Remove thepole to test the

heap

If there's too littlewater in the heap

a white fungus canbe seen

fungus

newcompost

heap

This well rottedcompost heap is being

removed

fungus

4

3

5


How tomaintain

the CompostMaintenanceMaintenance

8 9

In many villages there is a shortage of water. However,from time to time it's good to put waste washing up waterdown the holes in the compost heap.

Symptoms of poorly rotting compost

If there is anything lacking in management of the com-post heap, it will rot slowly or badly. But how to recognisewhat is wrong ?

• If there is a bad small from the heap, and lots of flies, addmore straw or leaf litter. This can also be due to lack ofmicro-organisms and without them, the manure etc. will notrot down well. For this, add more soil or well rotted com-post to increase micro-organisms.

When all these needs are met,compost will rot quickly,

and you will have better compostto go onto the fields

If you can't make a heap with layers and it is all stackedin one place, you don't have to do anything else but makeholes in the heap with the poles. Move these sticks aroundfrom time to time. Just doing this will improve the compost.

Spreading composton the fields

After taking compost to the fields, plough it inquickly, or the sun will dry it and reduce its quality

• If there is white fungus on the pole when taken out, per-haps there is not enough water in the heap. Pouring a littlewater from time to time will solve this problem.

• If your hand is burned when you bury it in the heap, this isa bad sign. Too much heat will also kill the micro-organ-isms. This will slow the decomposition process. This isprobably due to not enough air circulation. Make moreholes in the heap to solve this.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 5 - Compost10

soil

orw

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otte

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akin

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er

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cks

&br

anch

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kitc

hen

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en

vege

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the

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Æ

From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 3, Ratadada village,and a member of "Hariyali"women's group, Mrs SitaBucha Magar has made im-proved compost. Now let'shear about her experience.

Mrs Sita Bucha Magar

Mrs Sita BuchaMagar

In 1994 I learned how toimprove my compost from theHomestead Programme (JPP).Before this we would put out justpartially rotted compost. We had ahabit of heaping compost any-where to rot. Now we make it with a pole for a chimney, andit rots much more quickly. Mixed grass, leaves and manureare stacked in layers with soil or old compost, and the poleburied in. It's an easy method. Before this the compost wouldbe wet and sticky but now it's much better. It's more crumbly,and is also easier to carry, and to spread out on the fields.Now we always make compost like this. Twice a year wecarry it to the fields. It's easy to make compost like this, youdon't have to work hard. And because it's easy to do, it's easyto learn and to teach others as well. That's why there aremany farmers using this method in the village nowadays.


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Subjects Related to Compost

Soil Conservation and ImprovementChapterWhat is soil? What does good soil need?

What damages the soil? What methods arethere to protect and improve soil? The an-swers to all these questions, and more infor-mation on soil, are given in this chapter.

Livestock Management ChapterLivestock can be healthy and give good

production from nutritious fodder grown closeto the home. Information on this and othersimple methods to manage livestock throughhealth, diet, hygiene and breeding are given inthis chapter

Agroforestry ChapterTrees planted on the land produce many

products to make compost for the soil, but youcan't plant them anywhere. In this chapter,information is given about how to plant trees onfarmland without decreasing farm productivity.

Read On !Read On !

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What is

Mulching ?

Purna BahadurNepali's mulch bed

We farmers have to work hard for food to eat and clothesto wear. But when we can produce enough from this work, thenwe can live well. For farmers, the foundation of our wealth isthe soil. If soil is washed away or becomes poor, how can wegrow food to eat ? We farmers, who work and play with thesoil, must also learn to love the soil. One method of loving,caring for and respecting the soil is called mulching.

Mulching is a method of using cut leaves, straw, leaflitter etc. to cover the bare soil while still farming and grow-ing crops on it.

Mulching ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 6 - Mulching

WhyWhy HowHowdoMulching ?

to doMulching ?

2 3

Air

Water Sun

Micro-organisms

Mulch Mulch

There are various problems if soil is left bare. Rain willwash soil away, and the sun will dry it out. Wind will dry outand blow away the soil. The beneficial organisms living in thetop soil will also be lost. All these reasons cause soil loss anddamage, and to remake the fertility in the soil then takes extrawork. So mulching is an important technique to prevent theseproblems happening from the start.

The main objective of mulching is to keep the soil cov-ered while farming it. There are many types of mulch but theyall share this objective. Mulch is usually made from biomass(leaves, straw, etc.) but where spare vegetation is uncommon,stones covering the soil have the same benefit.

There are 2 main types ofmulching :-

1. Temporary mulch2. Permanent mulch

1. Temporary Mulch

With temporary mulching, the ground is kept covered forsome time only. Mulch made of green or dried leaf litter,straw, etc. can be put on the soil during the fallow period, ormixed with compost and ploughed in. After crops have beenplanted they can also be mulched. Potatoes, garlic, onions andvarious vegetables benefit from a mulch after planting. Themulch will rot as the crops ripen. Mix the mulch with the soilby ploughing or digging in, after the crop has been harvested.

Fresh greenor dry leaves,

any straw,stones, card-board, etc.

are all usefulto use asmulch

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 6 - Mulching4 5

seedling

seedling

stones

stones

seedling

2. Permanent Mulch

For a permanent mulch, layers of well rotted compost,semi decomposed biomass, and a thick layer of fresh biomassare put on the soil, and seed and seedlings planted into this. Inthis method, after establishment new mulch (green biomass)is added only twice a year, and the soil never needs to be dug.

Making a Permanent Mulch

a. Preparing the mulch

• If necessary, dig or plough the soil one last time. If the soilis soft and fertile, this should not be necessary.

• Cover the soil with a thin layer of well rotted compost.• On top of this put a 6 inch layer of dried or semi decom-

posed biomass, such as straw, leaf litter, etc. After puttingdown each layer soak with water if possible.

Where there is no sparevegetation, stones canbe used to mulcharound apple seedlings

• On top of this put 6 inches of fresh, green biomass e.g.from weeding the field or trimming the hedge. Soak withwater again.

• Now we can plant in the mulch bed

b. Planting Seed and Seedlings

• Using a sharp stick make a hole down through the mulchuntil the ground is reached. Move the stick to make the holelarger.

• Fill the hole half full with fertile soil.• In this soil, plant seed or seedlings.• Water the seedlings well.

In the kitchen garden, a wormwoodmulch makes good compost and also

helps to repel pest insects

broadleaf mustard

mulch

•

seedling

seedling

seedling

stones

stones


@

How to domulchingHow to domulchingLet's SeeLet's See

3

2

1

7

Best time to mulch

At the start of the rainy season the soil becomes wet andoften heats up, causing the soil to let off steam. If a thickmulch is applied at this time the soil cannot breath properlyand steam cannot escape. This can cause many types of pestand disease to occur. But if the mulch is put down and wellwatered 2-3 months before the rainy season, the soil and themulch become balanced and these problems do not occur.

The best time to start a mulch is near the end of the rainyseason. By this time the steam in the earth has escaped butthere is still moisture in the soil to help the mulch break downinto the soil. This moisture will be conserved by the mulch,and be usefull for the crops for many weeks or even months.

halfrotted

biomass

rottedcompost

greenbiomass

Materials neededfor mulching

First spreadwell rottedcompost on

the soil

Then spread a6 inch layer of

semi rottedbiomass

An inside view of a mulch bed

thickest layer ofgreen biomass

thick layer ofsemi-rotted/dry biomass

thin layerof rottedcompost

hole is halffilled with soil

holemade

seedling

seedling planted in hole

6



:ofpnf:ofpnf:ofpnf:ofpnf:ofpnf

4

6

5

9

8

7

8 9

Then, spreadan even

thicker layerof green

biomass on top

Now themulch is

ready and canbe planted

To plant, firstmake a holedown to the

ground level.

Half fill thehole with

fertile soil.

Then, seedor seedlings

can beplanted in

the soil.

Seedlingsplanted in a

triangle.This saves

space.


10

11

12

How tomaintain the

mulchMaintenanceMaintenance

10 11

When seedlingsare planted in atriangular pat-tern more seed-

lings can beplanted in a

smaller space

At first the bedshould be well

soaked with water

Maintenance of the Mulch• water as necessary• put on new green biomass about twice a year• plant companion plants like lemon grass, comfrey, mari-

gold, basil, wormwood, etc. around the bed• having agroforestry or edge trees nearby makes it quicker

to cut the new mulch

mulch cut fromthe outside

mulch cutfrom the

agroforestry

water

mulchcut fromthe edge

of thebed

After 6 weeksthe vegeta-bles in themulch bed

are growingwell

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 6 - Mulching12 13

1. Mulching stops the sun drying out the soil;

2. Mulching keeps the moisture in the soil so reduces the

need to irrigate;

3. Mulching improves as well as protects the soil;

4. Mulching prevents weeds growing so reduces the need

to weed;

5. Mulching keeps a balanced temperature in the soil. "Bal-

anced" means not too hot nor too cold, and regular. This

is good for plants' roots;

6. Mulching helps to prevent spread of pests and diseases.

If water splashes on the soil, it can carry naturally

occuring diseases in the soil onto the underside of leaves,

where the diseases can cause damage;

7. Mulching feeds and protects the organisms in the soil

(earthworms, bacteria, etc.);

8. Mulching also fertilises the soil;

9. Mulching prevents root crops such as potatoes, radishes,

etc. from turning green;

10. Mulching makes use of waste resources such as banana

leaves, uprooted weeds, etc. by recycling them;

11. Mulching reduces the need to dig and plough;

12. Mulching works with the principles of nature and ecology;

13. Mulching is beneficial for later crops in a rotation;

14. Mulching saves time because digging, weeding and

irrigation are reduced or not needed.

See the comparison betweenmulched and un-mulched farming

How is themulched corn ?

How is the un-mulched corn ?

The Benefits of Mulching

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 6 - Mulching 15

Farmer brothers and sisters, lets make fertile soil,Let's keep green, Mother Nature's bare soil,Ha hey, Mother Nature's, Mother Nature's,Mother Nature's soil green

1

4

2 On the terraces the rice drips golden,On the bunds green fruit trees fruiting,Ha hey, fruit trees fruiting, fruit trees fruiting,Fruit trees fruiting,

Farmers are happy gathering the crops to fill stores,Relaxing in the homestead, if they left, where would they go,Ha hey, farmers, if they left, where would they go, if theyleft, where would they go?If they left, where would they go?

3

Farmers work in the fields, sweating from their brows,Without work, who will feed them, what will go to theirstomachs?Ha hey, farmers, what will go to their stomachs, what willgo to their stomachs?What will go to their stomachs?

Fertile Soil

Written by Krishna Panday

See how well thepotatoes grow

under the mulch

æ

Æ

From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Gumi - 4, and mem-ber of "Samaj Mukti"farmers' group MrPurnaBahadur Nepali has mademulch beds. Now let's hearabout his experience.


Mr Purna BahadurNepali

I learned mulching fromthe Homestead programme(Jajarkot Permaculture Pro-gramme, JPP). For vegetablegardening mulching is a reallygood method, and very easy.All the waste straw, weeds, leaves, sweepings, etc. are usedon it. You don't have to do much weeding, the crops needless watering, and the soil becomes more fertile. Beforestarting I gave the field a good plough and then put downrotted compost. On the compost I put the mulch and madeholes into it . I half filled the holes with fertile soil, plantedthe vegetables and watered well. Because I mixed manyspecies of vegetable there were also less pest and diseaseproblems. Whenever anyone has come come to see, I've beenteaching them this method.

Purna Bahadur Nepali

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Subjects Related to Mulching

Read On !Read On !

Mixed VegetableGardeningchapter

Mulching chapter

Kitchen Gardenchapter

Fruit Tree Plantingchapter

After plantingfruit trees variouscompanion plantscan be plantedaround the base.Mulching is alsouseful. Howthese, and othertechniques, givemore benefits isexplained in thischapter.

Mulching is veryuseful in suc-cessful vegetablegardening. Infor-mation about thisand other easymethods tohome-producehealthy vegeta-ble at low cost isgiven in thischapter

Grow varioustypes of vegeta-bles with lessweeding, water-ing and otherwork, and harvestfrom 3 weeks to 6months afterplanting. Infor-mation on thiseasy technique isgiven in thischapter

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What is

Beds made by double digging,AAA farm, Bhaktapur, Nepal

Double digging is a method of deep digging for vegeta-ble beds. It means we dig twice as deep than normal cultiva-tion. This is so we can mix compost and biomass deeper intothe soil, so plant roots grow deeper and can get more nutri-ents. In these beds production is much higher, and thoughthere's more work at the beginning, the beds stay fertile for along time, and we don't have to dig again for many years.

Now let's learn about this method of how to work onceto get good production for many years.

Double Digging ?Double Digging ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 7 - Double Digging

WhyWhy HowHowdo

Double Digging ?to do

Double Digging ?

2 3


Mr Laxman RanaDahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal

Benefits of Double Digging

• makes the soil more fertile• makes the soil able to absorb more water• allows more air into the soil• keeps the soil fertile for a long time• allows plant roots to grow deeper into the soil• keeps the soil light and soft for a long time• dig once then do not have to dig again for 3-4 years

Shown here aredouble dug bedswith mixed veg-etable crops inBhaktapur dis-

trict, Nepal.

With double digging at first there is more labour, but thiscan give up to 4 times the production of normal digging, sothere is a good return on labour. Also, you don't have to digagain for 3-4 years afterwards. If double dug beds aremulched well and regularly, they may never have to be dugagain. More information about this method is given in thechapter called Mulching.

Where to do Double Digging ?

• where the soil is poor orshallow

• where roots can't grow deep

• in vegetable growing beds• in very stony soil

Materials Needed for Double Digging

Diggingtools

Seed and seedlings

Basket Oil seed cake

crow bar

pickaxe

green biomass semi-decomposedbiomas

well rotted compost

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 7 - Double Digging4 5

When to do Double Digging ?

How to make beds with Double Digging

1. Digging out the Beds

• Beds are 4 feet wide, and can be as long as you needin the space that you have available.

• First dig out 6-12 inches of soil and keep on the side(the deeper the soil, the deeper you can dig).

• Then dig the same depth again with the crow bar orpick axe, but don't remove the soil, just leave it in thebed.

Vegetablesplanted inbeds which

are 4 feet wide

2. Filling in the bed

After digging the soil, it is replaced in layers with biomass.

• First put a 6 inch layer of green biomass on top of thelower layer of dug soil.

• Then on top of this put a 3-4 inch layer of soil.

• Then put in a 6 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomass.

• Then put in another 3-4 inch layer of soil.

• Then put in a thin (2 inch) layer of well rotted compost.

• Finally, put all the remaining soil back on top, mixed withwell rotted compost, and raked to a fine bed.

Mixing ash, oil seed cake, hair, bonemeal, etc. in withthe layers of soil will increase the fertility even more. Be-cause all this compost is mixed into the deep layers of soil, itwill give nutrients to the plant roots for a long time.

The method of planting seeds and seedlings in adouble dug bed is continued on page 12.

Beds can be dug any time. If you have a rainy season,near the end of this is best as there's still plenty of moisture inthe ground and plenty of biomass available.


How to doDouble Digging

How to doDouble DiggingLet's SeeLet's See

6 7

vegetable seedlings

comfreymulch lemon grass

fertile soil

rotted compost

soil

semi-rotted biomass

green biomass

dug and softened soil

bed 4 feet wide

6-12 inches deep6-12 inches deep

Cross Section through aDouble Dug Bed

Cross Section through aDouble Dug Bed

rottedcompost

semi-rottedbiomass

greenbiomass

pick axe

mattock

Materialsneeded for

Double Digging

pick axe

Dig out 6-12 inchesof soil and keep to

the side

soil


Use a pick axe orcrow bar to dig

another 6-12inches, without

removing the soil

Then fill in. Firstput in 6 inches ofgreen biomass,

and cover with soil

Then add a3-4 inch

layer of soil

Then another3-4 inch layer of

soil

Then put in a2 inch layer

of well rottedcompost

Then put 6 ina inch layerof semi-rot-ted biomass


Finally, on topreplace the re-

maining soil mixedwith compost

Then vegetable seeds andseedlings can be planted

After planting andsowing, add a light

mulch to cover the soil

In the fertile soil of a double dug bed, plants arehealthy and can protect themselves from many pestsand diseases. In the bed, plant vegetables with a vari-ety of colour, leaf shape and texture, and scent to pro-

tect against insect pests.


..... continued from page 5

3. Planting Seeds and Seedlings

In Bhaktapur district, in theKathmandu valley of Nepal, there are

many farmers who practice doubledigging and earn good cash from

selling vegetables in the nearby city

Double digging can give 4 times theproduction of normal beds. The beds

don't need to be dug again for 3-4 yearsOn the raised bed after the top soil has been raked fine,any type of seed or seedlings can be sown or planted. Waterwell after planting. Then add mulch, taking care to cover thesoil but not the seedlings. Adding the mulch protects the soilfrom rain, wind and sun, and conserves moisture for a longtime.

The double dug bed is now complete. Apart from grow-ing vegetables, this can also be used as a fruit nursery or forplanting other types of crops.


How tomaintain

Double DiggingMaintenanceMaintenance

14

On double dug beds, irrigation and weeding should bedone as required. The more dense the vegetable seedlings andthe mulch are, the less weeding needs to be done, and themore moisture remains in the soil. The chapters calledMulching and Mixed Vegetable Gardening give more infor-mation about this.

Beds that are well dug and well composted don't needdigging for 3-4 years. But if new mulch is added thickly twiceeach year, and compost or liquid manure added from time totime, then it is possible never to have to dig again.

If we think about our work we can make many jobseasier and more productive. Let's use this method to make thesoil more fertile and increase yield !

æ

Æ

From Nepal,Bhaktapur district,Dadhikot - 4, MrsSarda Khadka andMr Arjun Jangamhave experience indouble digging work-ing at AAA farm. Nowlet's hear their story.


Mrs Sarda Khadka andMr Arjun Jangam

Sarda Khadka and Arjun Jangam

We started learning the double dig method in 1994.Beds are made by digging the soil 2 feet deep, and as longas you need. The soil is arranged in layers mixed with leaflitter and compost. We also added ash and oil seed cake tothe layers of soil. In the double dug beds, we haven't had todig again or add compost for at least 3 years, often more.The green biomass rots slowly and vegetables grow reallywell. We dig most of our own beds this way, and we alsogive training to farmers in the local villages. Then togetherwe have a cooperative to sell the vegetables in theKathmandu markets. Buyers say thatvegetables produced in this way arealso more nutritious and tasty.

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Read On !Read On !

Subjects Related to Double Digging

Vegetable production, Kitchen Garden and MixedVegetable Growing chapters

How to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Infor-mation about how to produce many types of freshvegetables with less work is given in these 2 chapters

Integrated Pest Management chapterFarm production is reduced by many types of insect,disease, weed, etc. In this chapter information is givenabout using local resources to prevent these pests

Fruit Nursery chapterIn this chapter information is given about how tomake a nursery for grafting or budding local fruitvarieties

Mulching chapterMulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds downand conserves water. Information on how to mulchthe soil is given in this chapter

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Sa

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What is

Farmers need tohave many skills tomanage both the soiland the homestead. Outof those skills, seedsaving is probably oneof the most important.By giving more atten-tion to seed saving,farmers can improvethe quality of their seedeach year. This canthen improve cropproduction. This can bedone without having toincrease inputs of ferti-lizer, irrigation or culti-vation. So with a littleextra care in seed production, farmers can easily increasetheir farm production.

Although this chapter mainly uses examples of vegeta-ble seed production, the principles it describes are relevantto any species whose seed we want to save.

Seed Saving ?Seed Saving ?

Mrs Devi Khatri's Cauliflower

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 8 - Seed Saving

WhyWhy doSeed Saving ?

to doSeed Saving ?

2 3

Many farmers have problems of either losing or notbeing able to acquire good, pure seeds. It's important to keeplocal, traditional varieties of pure and good quality. Also,there may be a need to breed and increase new open polli-nated species or varieties. To guarantee good quality seed,good methods are needed. But the main benefit of saving seedyourself is that you can stand on your own feet and be moreself-reliant.

Why save seed yourself, on your own land?

• so the seed required is available atthe right time;

• to save the cost of buying seed;• to trust that the species or variety of

seed is the one you need;• to produce seed that is adapted to the

local climate, soil, etc.;• to increase income from local re-

sources, and• to improve local varieties and conserve

bio-diversity.

Things to pay attention to in seed saving

Choose healthy and disease-free plants to save seedfrom.Select plants according to the qualities or characteris-tics you need. For example :-

1

2

Function Qualities or characteristics needed

Timber straight stems, strong, long lasting, etc

Fodder dense foliage, nutritious, etc.

Vegetables tasty, disease & drought resistant, etc.

Medicine bitter, strong, stores well, etc

Seed producing plants are adapted to the local climate.

Select seeds from as many plants of one variety as possi-ble. Save from at least 10 plants, in order to maintaingenetic diversity and strength.

Once a plant has been identified to save seed, don't pickits leaves, flowers, etc. But if any part is damaged ordiseased, these should be removed and discarded.

5

4

3

HowHow

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 8 - Seed Saving4 5

Select plants for seed saving asearly as possible, and label them.

Give extra care to plants selectedfor seed saving. Provide water, nutrients,weed control, pest control, etc. accordingto the needs of the plant. Compost, liquidmanure, ash, oil seed cake etc. can beused for this.

As plants mature they may fall over, sostaking may be necessary.

Only allow the best plants to flower. Forany variety, poorer plants should not be al-lowed to flower so they don't mix with thegood plants, which will lower the quality of theseed. Leaving the plants for seed saving, allothers should be pulled and eaten, compostedor mulched before flowering.

RADISH

Different species which cross pollinate should not beallowed to flower at the same time. It is possible that somespecies will cross, so they should not flower in the sameplace, at the same time. To prevent cross pollination one ofthe following 2 methods should be used:

a. Plants that cross should be far apart, so that insects orwind will not be able to cross pollinate;

b. Plants which cross should be planted to flower at differ-ent times. For example, if a cauliflower grown for seedflowers in July, a cabbage also for seed should flower inAugust. This way the flowering time will be separate, andthere is no danger of crossing.

Species which will cross pollinate

The species in the following families will cross pollinate

Cauliflower family :cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli,sprout, kale, kohl rabi all cross.

Turnip family : turnip, chinese cabbage andchinese mustard all cross.

Chard family : red and green chard will cross.Pepper family : chilli and sweet peppers will cross.Pumpkin family : zucchini, dwarf and climbing

pumpkins will cross.

6

7

8

9

10


How to doSeed SavingLet's SeeLet's See

6 7

1

2

When attention is paid to all these points, good quality,pure seed can be produced. But if any one is ignored, then thequality of the seed cannot be guaranteed and the work andtime can be wasted.

Different typesof maize se-

lected for seed

On the left sidethe good seeds areall similar. On theright the rejectedseeds are differ-ent colour, shape

and size

pumpkin

climbingbean

velvetbean

good

see

d to

sav

e bad s eed to reject

The bestplants for

seed are se-lected earlyand labelled

See how manytypes of bean in

a handful !

How to doSeed Saving

pumpkin

climbingbean

velvetbean

good

see

d to

sav

e bad se ed to reject


4

3

5

6

7

Seed producing plants should be given maximum careand attention. Here, Khamba Prasad has built a roof

to protect his seed cauliflower from hail and frost

Mrs TulisaraGyami is pick-ing the dam-

aged leaves offher red SwissChard, grown

for seed

Select only the bestplants for seed

production. Here,cauliflower is shownwith Man Bahadur

Radish seedcollected

Ripe radish seedpods seen close-up


What to do afterProducing SeedMaintenanceMaintenance8

10

9

When put in water,any dead seeds will

float on the top.These can be thrown

away, leaving justthe good seeds

The seedsare driedwell in the

sun

After drying,good storage is

essential

Things to consider when pickingand storing seeds

Only pick seeds or pods when they are ripe.

Put fresh, cool ash or baked rice in the bottom of thecontainer. This absorbs water in the air, which helps tokeep the seed dry. This can be placed on top of seed also(see drawing, page 12).

If possible, pack seed in an airtightcontainer, and try to fill the containerfull, without leaving excess air space.Add ash or baked rice, which help tokeep seed dry.

If seed is sun dried, be sure to allow them to cool beforepacking.

Dry the seeds well. Usually seeds are dried in the sun.Some types, like lemon, orange, etc. should be dried in theshade, for example above the fireplace.

Reject any seeds different in size, shape or colour from theaverage good seed.

Only collect good seed or pods.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 8 - Seed Saving 12 13

Seed should be stored in a cool, dry, dark place.

It is very important to protect seed from disease,insects and fungus. There are many local herbalremedies for doing this, for example mixing ash,powdered neem leaves, neem oil, powdered oil seedcake or wormwood. Another method is to store seedsof different sizes mixed together, such as wheat andmustard, or corn and millet, This is a traditionalpractice in many places.

Check the seed regularly for pest damage. From timeto time take the seed out and dry in the sun, or addfresh herbs.

Glass or plastic jar

tight fitting lidto stop air

top layer ofbaked, cooled riceto fill the container

stored radishseed

bottom layer offresh, cooled ash

paper

paper

Farmers' WealthBiodiversity -

various types ofrice seed shown in

an exhibitionSeed store madefrom traditionalwisdom and local

resources,Southern Nepal


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Read On !Read On !

Subjects Related to Seed Saving

Mixed VegetableGardening chapter


Seed Savingchapter

15

Fruit Nurserychapter

Agroforestrychapter

This book provides enough information to be able tosave much of your own seed. However, this information isalso linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,learn and practice from other related chapters.

æ

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From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Gumi - 3, Ratadadavillage, and a member of"Hariyali" women's group,Mrs Pavisara Shris hasproduced and saved herown seed. Now let's hearabout her experience.

Mrs Pavisara Shris

I first learned seed savingfrom the HomesteadProgramme (JPP). Even aftersaving seed for myself I have been able to sell a surplus for afew hundred rupees, which has been useful. It's no trouble tosave seed. We always saved corn, wheat, mustard beans andthe like anyway. And it's easy to learn more. I saved potatoseed and after I kept what I needed, made 200 rupees.Timing is important, and not eating the seed, and you cansave for ever. Now I've saved 40-day radish, tomato, lettuce,coriander, fenugreek and peas. I keep the seed plantsseparate, look after them well, and keep them labelled. NowI'll always save my own seeds, and want tolearn how to save more varieties, and to teachothers how to do it.

Mrs Pavisara Shris

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Fruit Nursery chapter

Good seed is essential for successful vegetablegardening. Information about this, and othereasy methods to home-produce healthy vegeta-bles at low cost, is given in this chapter

Kitchen Garden chapter

In this chapter information is given about howto make a nursery for grafting or buddinglocal fruit varieties

Agroforestry chapterWhen planning agroforestry seed productionand collection are very important. Informationabout the importance and methods ofagroforestry to increase production from lessland is given in this chapter

Related Subjects

Grow various types of vegetables with lessweeding, watering and other work, and har-vest from 3 weeks to 6 months after planting.Information on this easy technique is given inthis chapter

Mixed Vegetable Gardening chapter

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What is

The spider andits web helpsto control lots

of harmfulinsects

Farmers are always concerned about their crops. Afterthe hard work of farming, it's their worst nightmare to losethem again. There are many creatures which can badly harmcrop production. A creature which does this is called a pest.Bacteria, insects, fungi, birds, rats, weeds, etc. can all beharmful. Preventing, reducing or curing the harmful effects ofpests can be done by management of the pest or the crop andits environment. To do this in a sustainable way often meansusing a range of methods together to prevent and controlpests. Because these methods are all linked, the termIntegrated Management of the pest is used. So this chaptergives information about Integrated Pest Management.

Integrated PestManagement ?Integrated PestManagement ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management

WhyWhy do integratedpest management ?

2 3

This Chapter's Author :Chris Evans, advisor,Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepalwww.designedvisions.com

• to get healthy food• to reduce farm production

costs• to increase production• to protect the environment• to reduce the need of harmful chemicals• to prevent pests becoming resistant

to chemicals• to make sustainable farming systems

I have aright to cleanand healthy

food

Poisonous chemi-cals for pest

control are oftenbanned, but not

in poor countries

Nowadays there is much use of poisonous chemicals tokill and control agricultural pests. But this has many harm-ful effects. For example :-

• poisons used can remain in the environment for manyyears, continuing to harm soil, water, vegetation andanimals.

• Poisons used on fruit, vegetables, etc. can be eaten bypeople. This can cause many diseases, genetic problems,and cause babies to be born handicapped.

• Farmers often don't know how to use the poisons cor-rectly, which results in them being affected by the poi-sons. This causes over 400,000 people to die each year inthe world.

• Poisons are used for protection of crops from harmfulpests, but often this also kills beneficial plants and ani-mals which are helpful in controlling pests, building soilor pollinating plants.

• Continuous use of chemical poisons can cause pests todevelop resistance to the chemicals. These resistant varie-ties will breed, and to kill them chemicals need to becomestronger, or different types need to be used. This willincrease the numbers and strength of chemicals used, andencourages dependency. Integrated pest managementmethods are important as the solution to this problem, andto the other problems mentioned above.


*=

HowHow to do integratedpest management ?

4 5

Integrated pest management can be divided into 2 mainareas. Firstly, (a) how to prevent damage from pests, and sec-ondly, (b) how to control or cure pest damage once it has al-ready started to occur. In this chapter we start to look at group(a) on this page, while methods for group (b) start on page 16.

Various techniques are described below. In integratedmanagement one method may not be enough to stop a pest, so itis important to use as many methods as possible.

(a) How to Prevent Pests ?

Need Methods used

1. Healthy Soil

2. Healthy plants

3. Fencing

4. Diversity

5. CompanionPlanting

6. Decoy planting

7. Helping pestpredators

8. Repelling pests

compost, mulch, irrigation, rotations,green manures, etc.

compost, irrigation, weeding,species selection, green manures, etc.

living fences

mixed cropping and rotations

mix aromatic/smelly plants e.g. coriander, fennel,marigold, lemon grass, basil, onion, garlic etc.

providing alternative plants for pests to attack

providing habitat and food for beneficialpest predators

liquid manure, herbal controls

1. & 2. Healthy Soil and Healthy Plants

• Just like people are healthy with a nutritious and balanceddiet, the soil is also healthy with plenty of organic matter,nutrients, micro-organisms, etc. It then supports healthyplants, which can resist disease.

• Unrotted compost can cause pestsand diseases in the soil, so alwaysuse well rotted compost.

• Water is essential for the soil andplants. Having the right amount ofwater at the right time helps plantsto grow, stay healthy and resistpests and disease.

• Crops attract certain types of pest and disease. Alwaysplanting the same crops in the same place causes thosepests to increase and damage the crops. This is why croprotations are beneficial. For example, potatoes and theirrelatives - tomato, aubergine, sweet pepper, etc. shouldn'tbe planted in sequence on the same piece of land for up to2 years. The rotation helps to break the pest and diseasecycle so they will not harm the next crop. After crops thatattract many diseases are harvested, such as potatoes andother vegetables, planting onions or garlic for a seasonhelps to clean the soil of the many pests and diseases at-tracted by the previous crop.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management6 7

3. Fencing

Without a fence, many types of pest can get on to theland and damage crops. So a fence is very important. Themost beneficial type of fence is a living or green fence, orhedge. This is not just a barrier, but can give other benefits aswell. For example, a barrier of lemon grass around the veg-etable bed will help to protect against weeds and other pests,and also can be cut as mulch to put on the bed. Similarly,carrot is affected by a root eating insect - the

carrot root fly - which flies at aboutknee height. So a barrier of plantsthat are at least knee high aroundthe carrot bed can help to protectagainst this pest, and give other

benefits such as food, mulch,nectar, etc.

4. Diversity

Continuous monoculture planting of the same crop willalways suffer more from pest attack. For example, if onlycauliflower is planted, a fungus or insect which feeds oncauliflower can destroy the whole crop in a very short time,and is difficult to control. This why it's good to plant a vari-ety of crops together, called mixed cropping.

It's possible to plant many types of vegetable in thekitchen garden. For example, cauliflower, Swiss chard, rad-ish, carrot, peas, broad bean, lettuce, turnip, coriander, fennel,dill, kohl rabi, spinach etc. can all be planted together. If anyone of these is attacked by a pest, there are all the others thatwill still give production. The chapter Mixed Vegetable Gar-dening gives detailed information on this technique.

garlic

radish

redmustard

greenmustard

coriander

lettuce

garlic

radish

lettuce

redmustard

greenmustard

corianderOy ! those vegetableslook tasty, but how can

we get to them ?


How to do IntegratedPest ManagementLet's SeeLet's See

8 9

5. Companion Planting

Plants give each other various types of support. Forexample, the scent of garlic helps repel many types of pest.Marigold gives a chemical from its roots which helps to repelsoil nematodes which otherwise eat plant roots. The flowersof marigold also give a strong smell which help to repel in-sect pests. Some insects recognise the smell of the plants theyeat, so strong smelling repellent plants help to protect thesevegetables. Legumes such as peas and beans help to provideextra nitrogen to other plants. Mixing these plants withgrains, vegatables, fruits or any type of crop to help protectthem is called companion planting. Marigold, mint, basil,lemon grass, wormwood, garlic, onion, coriander, fennel, dill,nasturtium, tansy, etc. are all companion plants and it is ben-eficial to mix them with and around other crops.

continued on p.13

The fencearound a

kitchen gardencan be made oflocal resources.

Home made pens tokeep chickens in the

right place. Thesecan be moved

around.

In fertile soil, plants arehealthy and can resistmany pests and dis-

eases themselves.

How to do IntegratedPest Management


Red colouredvegetables have

less pests

A variety of col-our, leaf textureand scent help toprotect vegeta-bles from insect

pests

Marigolds plantedaround the vegetablebed help to protect

against some harmfulinsect pests

The smell of liquidmanure on the

vegetables helpsprevent and repel

pests

Surya Adhikari fromBegnas, Nepal,

brought a nest of redants from the forestand hung it in his

orange tree.

These ants protectthe oranges fromany type of pest

The tree is pro-tected for free,

and the ants alsoget free meals !

This hoverfly visitscoriander and similar

aromatic plants fornectar, and lays itseggs inside harmfulcatepillars, which

kills them.


kite

mayfly

praying mantis

ladybird

hoverfly

lizard

spider

frog

These are allfarmers' friends whicheat harmful pests. Fortheir important help,

they don't need wages,just food and good

places to liveis enough !

6. Attracting Predator Insects and Animals

Ninety five percent of insects are use-ful, and only five percent cause dam-age to crops. There are many insects and

other animals which will attack harmful pests. These arecalled predator insects or animals. Predator animals arefarmers' friends. The more they are present on farms, themore they can help controlling pests.

How to help predator animals ? If there is the right habi-tat, they will arrive and stay themselves. Their food are thepests on the crops. Many types of predator insects feed onnectar from flowers. They like flowers of marigold, fennel,dill, coriander, basil, carrot, etc. If these are plantedmixed with the crops, or in the fence, the predators willcome themselves and do their work. Also, if leaf litterand weeds are piled on the edge of the cropland orbeds, many predators use this as habitat. Also rocksand stones are good habitat for lizards, which eatinsects. Frogs also eat lots of insects. Frogs likeponds to live and breed in. Bats also eat insects. By

providing a perch to sit on, birds ofprey can catch rats living and

feeding in the crops.

perch

weeds

flowers

waterrocks

leaflitter


7. Decoy Planting

Harmful insect pests will eat other plants as well asthe crops farmers plant. So if these are added to fencesaround the crops, or even mixed in with the plants,these will be attacked instead of the crops. This iscalled decoy planting. For example, an insect thatattacks cotton plants also eats the castor oil plant.So by planting castor around the cotton plants, thecotton can be saved. Like this, nettles will attractcaterpillars, which prevent them eating vegetablecrops.

castor

nettle

8. Liquid Medicine

Wormwood, neem, persian lilac, chilli, garlic, onionskins, marigold leaves, cow dung, ash, oil seed cake, khirro,Adhatura vasica and tobacco are examples of plants whichcan be used to make a medicine which repels pests and alsoacts as a fertilizer. Information on how to make this is givenin the Liquid Manure chapter.

chilli

wormwood

garlic

neem orPersian lilac marigold

Experience from the Philippines

Mr Sesinando Masajofarms 28 hectares of ricepaddy in the Philippines.Before 1973 he used lots ofchemicals on his rice. Hewould apply chemicals 5-6times on each crop. But heobserved that the rice was suffering from more and morepests. Because the pests were in different stages of theirlife cycle, it became very difficult to control them withchemicals. He thought that the poisons were also killingthe beneficial predator insects, and so the pests wereable to increase in numbers.

After 1973, Mr Masajo stopped using poisons, andhe saw that his rice production started to increase. Atthat time he was getting 5.2 tonnes per hectare rice pro-duction. In 1993, that had increased to 9.6 tonnes.

Mr Masajo has now taught these methods to hisneighbours. Because of this, by 1996 there were 550local farmers who had stopped using poisons. All thesefarmers experienced an increase in rice yield, and at thesame time they found the quality of the grain had alsoimproved.

Sesinando Masajo

Women farmers from Nepalvisit farmers in Indonesia to seeand learn about integrated pest

control in rice

Adhatodavasica

Wrightiaarborea

Artemisiaindica


It may be that even after using all the techniques givenabove, pests still attack the crops. Below are examples ofmethods used after problems have started :-

• Liquid Pest Repellent (see page 14)

• Cow's Urine :- mix one part fresh cow's urinewith 3 parts water and spray to control variousinsect pests.

• Neem Oil :- mix one part neem oil with 3 partswater to make a strong pest repellent. Add soapto help the neem to stick to leaves. Kerosene canalso be added.

• Wood Ash :- adding ash to the soil surfacehelps to protect against many insects, and alsoprovides fertilizer.

• Oil Seed Cake :- mix one part oil seed cake with3 parts soil to protect against red ants.

• Tobacco Juice :- boil a handful of tobacco leavesin 2 litres of water like making tea. Sieve, andspray the tea onto the pest, which will kill them.Only spray when there are not any beneficialinsects on the plants, otherwise they will also bekilled. Beware: tobacco juice is very poisonous !

Appropriate Agricultural Alternatives (AAA) farm fromBhaktapur District in Nepal have the following experience :

• Make a strong tea from ground mint leavesand spray on brassicas to repel butterflies,which produce harmful catepillars.

• Mix together 1 kg oil seed cake, 5 kg woodash and 1 kg mint leaves and soak the soil toa 2 inch depth. This helps to control stemcutting insects.

• Grind 250g of wild basil and mix with 1 litreof water and boil to reduce the liquid . Spraythis to repel leaf eating pests.

• When stem borers have attacked and madeholes in fruit trees, use wire or a needle topush cotton wool soaked with kerosene intothe hole to kill them.

Healthy andprotected veg-etable beds at

AAA Farm

(b) What to do once pests start to attack ?(b) What to do once pests start to attack ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management18

From Kavre District in Nepal, INSAN'S ModelFarmer Mrs Jipmaya Tamang has this

experience :-

• Take equal quantities of wormwood,Adhatoda vasica and nettle, soak incow's urine and spray on plants everyother day. For small plants, dilute with 10parts of water and spray. For large plants,dilute with 6 parts water. This protectsplants against sucking and eating insects.

• Mix 1 part chilli pepper, 2 parts kero-sene and 10 parts wood ash and apply onthe soil. This protects against red ants andother insects which live in the soil.

If you know of other remedies like this,please send us the information.

Observation

The most important work in integrated pest managementis observation. Which pests are harmful, to which crops, atwhat time ? Where do they come from ? How do they breed ?What can be done to prevent them coming ? By understand-ing these things, the life cycle of the pest can be understoodand so can be interrupted to prevent the pest becoming a pest.In this way pests can be prevented early on from being

harmful to our crops.

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From Nepal, Bhaktapur dis-trict, Dadhikot VDC,Gamcha, and manager ofAppropriate AgricultureAlternatives (AAA) farm, MrRamesh Khadka has experi-ence of integrated pest man-agement. Now let's hear hisstory.

Mr Ramesh Khadka

Ramesh KhadkaOn this farm no chemicalsor poisons are used at all. Eve-rything used is made from organic material. We use vegetablecompost, goat manure, bonemeal, oil seed cake, chicken ma-nure and rabbit manure. We also use liquid manure againstpests. For this we use various types of strong smelling plants,like Wrightia arborea, wormwood, Persian lilac, etc. squashedinto a container to partially decompose, then we use the liquidthat comes from this. It helps to repel many pests. Most prob-lems disappear when you have good, fertile soil. We also usemixed vegetable cropping to prevent pests, and teachthe local farmers the methods we use. All ourvegetables are sold at organic markets inKathmandu.

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Subjects Related to IntegratedPest Management

Read On !Read On !

Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing

Fruit Tree Planting chapterInformation on how to plant and manage valuable

fruit trees for best production is given in this chapter

Living Fence chapterIn this chapter see how to plant not just a fence but

also produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits

Information on great vegetables produced forless work is given in these 2 chapters

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterFruit trees can be mixed with other types of tree

to make an integrated orchard more productive. Findout how in this chapter

Liquid Manure chapter

Use local plants to make a liquid for fertilizerand pest control from information in this chapter

Compost chapterInformation on how to make good compost

quickly is given in this chapter

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What is

Liquid Manure ?Nowadays, the

use of poisonouschemicals to controlpests and diseases oncrops is very com-mon. These chemi-cals don't only killpests, they can harmus as well. To protectus and the environ-ment from this harm,we can use locallyavailable herbs forpest control instead.This doesn't costanything, we justneed to learn themethod.

In this chapter,liquids made from local herbs are called liquid manures. Liq-uid manure can work as a pest control, and also provides nutri-ents for the plants.

Liquid Manure ?

Janga Bahadur spraysliquid manure

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure

WhyWhy HowHowmakeLiquid Manure ?

This Chapter's Author:Mr Laxman RanaDahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal

to makeLiquid Manure ?

Why use liquid manure ?

• to protect crops• to prevent pests and dis-

eases• to avoid using harmful,

manufactured chemicals• to provide nutrients• to provide irrigation

The benefits of this

• uses local resources• saves cost• protects beneficial insects• uses local knowledge• protects the environment• helps us to be self reliant• improves the soil• saves our health by reduc-

ing use of harmful chemi-cals.

The elements listed below are all useful for makingliquid manure. Out of these, some are good for pest controland soil fertility, but some work just to provide fertility andare not pest medicines. You can use many more plants andlocal substances, according to what's availailable in your area.

local resource quality functionneem bitter medicine + nutrientswormwood bitter medicine + nutrientsgarlic smell medicine + nutrientsAdhatoda vasica bitter medicine + nutrientsWrightia arborea poisonous medicine + nutrientsPersian lilac bitter medicine + nutrientsArtemisia indica bitter + smell medicine + nutrientsmarigold smell medicine + nutrientschilli hot medicine + nutrientsXanthoxylum hot medicine + nutrientsnettle fertile medicine + nutrientslemon grass scent nutrientsmorning glory fertile nutrientspapaya fertile nutrientscomfrey fertile nutrients

2 3

This says"Medicine for

pests made fromlocal aromatic

plants".


Materials Needed to make Liquid Manure

4 5

Various plants, freshcow dung, ash

jute sacking

cutting tool

water

large containeror drum

For more informationon these ingredients see

pages 5, 6 & 7

How to make it

• Collect as many plants as you need, or will fit in the con-tainer available.

• Cut the plants into small pieces and fill the container. Addwater to fill up to the top.

• Add ash, and the cow dung wrapped in a sack. This helpsto produce micro-organisms.

• When the mix starts to smell, it is ready to use• When the weather is hot, the preparation will be ready in 5

days, or in 2-3 weeks if it is colder.

Put the ash and cowdung on a piece of

cloth or sack

Tie the cloth up with stringand suspend in thecontainer with the

water and other materials

This is how tocut the plants

into small pieces


How to makeLiquid ManureHow to makeLiquid ManureLet's SeeLet's See

6 7

Ingredients to make Liquid Manure

On the opposite page is a photo of some ingredientswhich can be used to make liquid manure.

Below is a copy of that photo with numbers to identifythe different ingredients

1 nettle

2 lemon grass

3 neem or Persian lilac

4 fresh cow dung

5 wood ash

6 marigold

7 Lucaena (ipil ipil)

8 wormwood

9 Xanthoxylem

10 Cassia

11 comfrey

12 onion

13 chilli

14 Artemisia indica

15 garlic

16 wild basil

17 Adhatoda vasica

18 Wrightia arborea

1

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4

567

89

10

12

13

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1617

18

11

1

Ingredients to make liquid manure. Arethese resources local, or do they need to be

purchaced from overseas ??


4

3

6

5

8 9

2 Liquid manure made in aplastic drum. The sack

containing cow dung can beseen at the top.

An easier way - line apit with plastic andmake the liquid ma-nure in this. A small

thatch can be made togive shade.

An air nursery canalso be made abovethe liquid manure.

Enough liquid ma-nure for 10-15

households can bemade in one big

drum.

cut upplants

Pour one part ofprepared liquid ma-nure into a bucket.

Then mix 5 to 12parts of water. Nowthe liquid manure is

ready to use.

Pipe which drains theliquid from the druminto a bucket below.


7

8

How to useLiquid ManureMaintenanceMaintenance

10 11

Liquid manurecan be sprayedwith a broomlike this .....

..... or from aspray tank,

like this

Using Liquid Manure

1. How to use on young plants

Newly made liquid manure is very strong so it needsdiluting with more water. When the liquid is used up, water isadded again to the biomass in the container, which becomesless strong each time water is added.

• The first time, mix onepart liquid manure with12 parts water to spray.

• The second time, mixone part liquid with 8parts water to spray.

• The third time, mix onepart liquid with 4 partswater to spray.

• The fourth time, mixone part liquid with 1part water to spray.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure12 13

When they are bigger and more mature, plants can standstronger liquid manure. Insects are often stronger as well.Liquid manure helps to repel these insects. Plants can take innutrients from liquid manures through their leaves. On thesoil, liquid manure also acts as irrigation.

2. Using liquid manure on older plants

• The first time, mix onepart liquid with 8 partswater to spray.

• The second time, mix onepart liquid with 4 partswater to spray.

• The third time, mix onepart liquid with 1 partwater to spray.

Harmfulinsects

When to spray liquid manure

Mix in a suitable container according to 1. and 2. aboveand spray the liquid manure. Spray whenever pests arepresent, or before they are expected to arrive. Our objective isto repel, not to kill. The pests may come again, so liquidmanure needs to be re-applied from time to time. Pests arerepelled because of the various smells and tastes. And theplants get some food as well as water.

Don't use liquid ma-nure when there areuseful insects presentotherwise they may

be harmed.

Beneficial insects

Time to eatVegetables, fruits, etc. can be eaten at any time, but you

need to wash them well in water.

Do your own research

There are many plants which are useful for makingliquid manure. Farmers can experiment and find out bytrying themselves. Plants that are soft and rot quickly, andmake good mulch can be good for making liquid manure.Plants which are bitter and aromatic or smell, or are noteaten by livestock may be good to make liquid manure forrepelling pests.


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Read On !Read On !

Subjects Related to Liquid Manure

14 15

Integrated PestManagementchapter

Kitchen Garden andMixed VegetableGrowing chapters

Compostchapter

Five chapters on howto make variousNurseries

Liquid Manurechapter

Good benefits can be had from the information in thisbook about making and using liquid manure. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Æ

æ


From Nepal, Surkhetdistrict, Gumi - 5,Ratadada village, and amember of "Protect theForest" women's group,Mrs Durgi Gharti hasmade and used liquidmanure. Now let's hearabout her experience.

Mrs Durgi Gharti

Mrs Durgi GhartiI learned how to

make liquid manure fromthe homestead pro-gramme (JPP). It's been very useful for me. Various types oflocal species are used, such as wormwood, neem, Adhatodavasica, etc., which are cut up small and put in a containerwith cow dung and water. After 5 days it's diluted with waterand sprayed on the plants with a broom. You can use it ongreens in the kitchen garden. We had a greenfly attack, so Isprayed the plants, and they never came back ! Liquid ma-nure is easy to use, making it is light work, and it doesn't costanything. It's easy to learn about, and also easy to teach oth-ers. I made it last year, and again this year, and I'll continue tomake it and show others how.

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Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chaptersHow to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity ?Information on doing less work for more produc-tion while also being able to produce a wide rangeof fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.

Five chapters on how to make various Nurseries

Compost chapterAs well as liquid manure, animal compost isalso useful for plant food, but needs to be pro-duced in a well-managed way. Information isgiven in this chapter about fast and good qualitycompost production.

Integrated Pest Management chapterThere are many types of pest and disease whichaffect farm crops. In this chapter information isgiven about preventing these problems usinglocal resources.

Different types of plants need different typesof management to grow them, but all willbenefit from using liquid manures . Informa-tion on how to build and manage the homenursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed andleaf pots is given in these chapters.

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What is

Healthy livestockmakes life on thefarm easier andmore productive

People do various types of work to sustain themselves.Within farming and the homestead, a major work is keepinglivestock. Often, more work and expense goes into livestockthan any other task. Cutting and feeding fodder, watering,mucking out, maintaning the stalls and taking out to grazeall takes a lot of farmers' time. Often it means there is notime to do other work, or learn, or play. With livestock, wecan't say "leave it until tomorrow" for any work. Butcompared to all the time, work and cost farmers put intotheir livestock, the production is often too small. And there'soften no time to grow vegetables, fruit, crops, keep bees,etc.

In this chapter, we will tell you of simpleimprovements to traditional livestock management, whichcan be made by every farmer.

Livestock Management ?Livestock Management ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 11 - Livestock Management

WhyWhy HowHowmanagelivestock ?

to managelivestock ?

This Chapter's Authors :-Bhuvan KhadkaLal Bahadur Budhathoki

Rural Livestock Health Programme, Jajarkot & Surkhet, Nepal

2 3

Nowadays there are many problems with livestockmanagement. Livestock are more sick. There's no fodder onthe farm. The people get more sick. But they still have to sendtheir children to school. So in order to get the benefits fromlivestock, we need to pay attention to this. This chapter offerssome suggestions as to how to make livestock managementeasier and more productive.

Reasons for lack of benefits from livestock

• lack of healthy forests• lack of good grazing land• sickness and disease• poor stall and feeding management• poor quality breeding stock• lack of attention to livestock management• lack of nutritious fodder well suited to the livestock

In order to keep our livestock healthy and gain morebenefits from less work, there are 3 areas to pay attention to.These 3 areas are :-

Like people, livestock need dry, clean, light but shaded,and airy places to live. How many farmers keep theirlivestock in dark, damp, airless sheds ? If the sheds are likethis, without sunlight, and dirty, of course livestock will beweaker, and get more disease. If livestock are not happy intheir place then this can lead to many problems, some of thembig ones. So to get benefits from the livestock, their shedsmust be built and managed to be cool in the summer, warm inthe winter, dry, airy and clean. The stalls need cleaning everyday, and the muck collected properly in one place to makegood compost. More information about this is given in theCompost chapter.

1. Stall Management............ page 3

2. Diet and nutrition ............ page 4

3. Breed Imrovement ........... page 12

1. Stall Management

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 11 - Livestock Management4 5

2. Diet and Nutrition

A balanced diet of grains and fodder is important forlivestock. Livestock are more healthy and resist disease betterwith a mixed diet of grain and fodder, and will be moreproductive.

What fodder to feed ?

There are many types offodder. Legume and nonlegume, tree leaf fodder, andfodder grasses, etc. are the main types. Theseare best mixed together. Especially, never feed just legumefodder, but mix it with other types so there is not more than30% legume.

How to feed ?

Straw or dried grass is best cut into short lengths about 2inches long. This makes it easier to digest for the livestock, sothey use less energy. So, less fodder gives the same benefits,or the same amount of fodder gives more benefits. In this way2 loads of fodder can give the same benefits as 3 loads.

Dried, cut straw etc. should be mixed with green fodderand a little salt to feed to livestock. This mix should be fed ina trough (manger) made of wood or another suitable material.This way the fodder doesn't spill on the floor and go to waste,the livestock eats it all, and it doesn't mix with dirt and muckon the floor. See also the pictures on page 8 for moreinformation.

(a) The importance of fodder

(b) Balanced Grains

Livestock need nutritous food to grow well, stay healthyand stay productive. To obtain these nutrients they need theright quantities of mixed grains, or balanced grains.

Why feed mixed grains ?

• to increase output of eggs, milk, meat, etc.• for healthy bones and hair• to heal wounds and bruises quickly• to give energy for working animals• to protect from disease and stay healthy• for healthy pregnancy and birth of young• for the young animals to grow well

How to prepare ?

Balanced grains can be madeat home. They can be prepared inthe following way :-

• 2 parts rice bran• 1 part corn, millet, wheat or

barley flour• 1 part oil seed cake or pulses (lentils, soya, etc.)• mix the ingredients together

rice bran

grain pulp

1 part oil seedcake or pulses

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 11 - Livestock Management

How to managelivestock

How to managelivestockLet's SeeLet's See

6 7

In this picturebalanced grains

made at home arefed to the pigs ina wooden trough

How much to feed ?For cows, buffalos, sheep, goats or pigs the more you

can feed mixed grains, the quicker they will grow to givebenefits. But of course it's not enough just to give grains - leafand straw fodder should also be provided.

Things to remember :-

• oil seed cake should be baked and ground to a powderbefore mixing with grains.

• prepared balanced grains should be stored in a dry place inan air tight container

• if there is fungus in the grains, or they have formed lumps,they should not be used.

Goats fed byhanging foddernear their shed

Livestock should bechecked regularlyfor signs of illness,wounds, etc. Iffound, these shouldbe treated as soonas possible. Iftreatment isdelayed, the costwill increase.

• cows and buffalos producing milk, or about to calve,should be fed 2 to 4 kilos of balanced grains a day.

• sheep and goats should be fed half to one kilo of balancedgrains per day.

• pigs should be fed 1 to 2 kilos ofgrain per day.


Health problems canresult from livestockbeing fed off the floor.

If fodder is fedfrom the floor, it

may contain dung.If the dung is fromdiseased livestock,

the disease willspread.

Goats fed ina manger

Disease can beprevented if fodderis given in a cleantrough, free from

dung, mud and dust

When fodderis cut into

short pieces,less amountgives morebenefits.

For commun-ities, it's worthinvesting in alarge fodder

cutting machine

Here the compost pitis dug close to thelivestock to make

removing the muckeasy. And it keeps

the place clean.


Salt Lick

1

3

2

Grinding salt to apowder to make asalt lick. This can

be mixed withgarlic.

Add the saltto powdered

clay, addwater andmix well

Make a ballaround astick and

allow to dryfor several

days

(c) Salt LickLike people, livestock need to eat salt. It's

often traditional to feed salt once a week oreven once a month, so livestock cannot eat saltas they want it. The health of livestock can beseriously affected if they are not able to eat salt when theyneed it. They will start to eat less fodder and grains, and drinkless water. They become thin, and as a result of being weakcan suffer from diseases, and have less strength. Females donot seek males to mate with, and other problems can start toappear. But too much salt can also cause problems. This iswhy it is good to make a salt lick.

How to make ?Take half a kilo of clay, half a kilo of salt, 5 egg shells,

and grind to a powder. Add a little water and mix well. Whenthe mixture is like stiff dough, make into a ball around a stick.Dry in the shade for 2 days and then in the sun for 7 days.When it is well dried, hang the ball in a place where thelivestock can reach it easily. They may need to be taught touse it at first, but when they develop the habit, they will lick itwhenever they need salt. The salt lick helps to keep thelivestock healthy and free from disease.

Hung in thestalls, the salt lickcan be used anytime it is needed

4

Salt Lick


3. Breed ImprovementWhat is it ?

To produce better offspring of any species, a male andfemale with very qood qualities are mated together. Thismethod of increasing output through the production of betteroffspring can be called breed improvement.

In Pokhora village, Jajarkot district ofWest Nepal, the local Farmers' LeaderTek B. Khadka with his improved bull

Qualities of the male :-• the right weight and height according to

age and breed.• must have the characteristics of the

species or variety.• have a strong, vibrant and healthy body.• a male goat is best chosen from a mother which has had

many kids.

• have a strong, vibrant and healthy body.• goats or pigs should have the ability to bear many young.• the right weight and height according to age and breed.• for cows/buffalos, the blood vessels should be large; in

pigs there should be many teats.• thin skin and fine hair.• broad pelvises and rear end.• the habit of seeking males at regular times.

Ways of Breed Improvement

(a) cross-breeding between relatives

Breeding between male andfemales which are close relatives(within 6 generations) is called interbreeding. For example,breeding between brothers & sisters of the same mother, orcrossing father and sons with mothers and daughters.

This is not good breeding because :-

• Bad characteristics can be passed on and increased.• Strength, stamina and ability to resist disease is reduced.• Breeding ability is reduced.• Offspring can be deformed or mutated.• Production, such as milk, will gradually decrease.

Qualities of a good female :-


(b) breeding between non-relatives within a varietyIt is better to breed between males and females which

are not related. For example, breeds that are the same butwhich have no relations over several generations. With thismethod, there are no disadvantages, but often there is littlebreed improvement.

(c) breeding between different varietiesThis is when a local variety is crossed with a different,

often improved variety, for example crossing a local cow witha Jersey bull, or a crossing a local goat with an improvedbilly.

Benefits of crossing between male and female of differentvarieties :-• the offspring can have the best characteristics of the parents.• resistance to disease increases.• a low productivity variety can gradually improve its

production

An improvedbuffalo bull

mated with alocal buffalo cow

æ


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Lekh Pharsa -2, Purano Gaunvillage, and a member of"Creative Women's Group"Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami haslearnt improved methods tomanage her livestock . Nowlet's hear about her experience.

Mrs DhanmayaGyami

At first we had to go to theforest a lot. We had to go towatch the grazing livestock.There was no time to do the workat home. The livestock (our cows, buffalo, sheep and goats)were also not so strong. Also, we didn't give the livestockregular check-ups. And we had to go far to bring fodder. Now,the fodder from trees in the fields is enough. There's muchmore spare time than before and we have started to attendnon-formal education classes. We check the livestockregularly, and now they are fat, strong and healthy. I also teachothers that they should check regularly and treat their animalsquickly if they are sick. It's better to spend a little on this toprevent disease rather than being greedy over 10-20 rupees,then find you lose a buffalo worth 10,000 rupees. The peoplein our village now have good experience about this.Æ

Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami

Gri

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Subjects Related to Livestock Management

Agroforestry chapterFodder is a very important resource for livestock.This chapter gives information on how to creategood tree fodder and leaf litter production close tothe home.

Compost chapterLivestock eat at one end, and at the other producecompost. Information is given in this chapterabout how to make good quality compost quicklyand easily.

Living Fence chapterBy planting a fence made of trees producingfodder and bedding for livestock, these essentialresources can be increased locally. This chaptergives information about this.

Good benefits can be had from the information in thisbook about livestock management. However, this informationis also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Th

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12 -

Bee

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What is

A woman trainerexamines the

Jumla Top Bar Hive

Bees live naturally in hollow tree trunks, under branchesand on rocky outcrops in the jungle. By copying the naturalneeds of bees, people have kept bees in hives at home forcenturies. There are direct and indirect benefits from beekeep-ing. Honey, wax, pollen, medicine, etc. are direct benefits. Bypollinating crops bees also help increase farm production. Inthe jungle, bees help to maintain biodiversity by pollinatingmany wild tree species. These are all indirect benefits.

With small improvements to traditional beekeeping,production can be increased and diversified. This chapterprovides information about how these low cost improve-ments can be made to traditional beekeeping.

Beekeeping ?Beekeeping ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 12 - Beekeeping

J

WhyWhy improveBeekeeping ?

2 3

Materials Needed for Beekeeping

In this chapter improvements are described in 3 areas oftraditional beekeeping :- 1. bee management, 2. honey extrac-tion, and 3. processing of bee products (honey, wax, etc.).With better bee management, bee populations increase, andbees are more healthy and productive. Improvements tohoney extraction mean better quality and quantity of honey &other products. Improvements to processing also means in-creasing the quantity and quality of bee products. Pure honey,wax and pollen have natural nutritional and medicinal quali-ties. Having more, healthier bees also improves pollinationand so helps the environment. The 3 diagrams below illus-trate the 3 areas of improvement.

1. Management 2. Extraction 3. Processing

Increase in hives,bees, bee health& production

Better and morehoney, wax, etc.

Better produc-tion & use of beeproducts

cleanhoney

pollensalves

Pollination offruit, oil crops &

wild trees

better honeymore fruit more wax & pollen

better health for people

all for home production and selling

J

J

J

Anyone can easily keep bees. For this you don't needlots of land or big investment. To improve the quality andquantity of bee products it's important to pay attention tobees' protection, health, hygeine and diet. Just small improve-ments to management can give many benefits.

Important things to consider in Beekeeping

1. Choice of beehive 2. Caring for bees3. Problems with bees 4. Product management

queen gate

smoker

queen box

bucketknifebee food

herbalmedicines

veil orswarm bag

hivewith bees

HowHow to improveBeekeeping ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 12 - Beekeeping

x

4 5

1. Choice of Beehive

When choosing a hive, the timber liked by bees, a cheapand easy method of making the hive, and its durability are allimportant. There are 2 main types of hive: traditional, andimproved. In the traditional hive the combs can't be taken outto look at, while in the improved hive the combs can be re-moved and replaced without damage. In Jumla district of Ne-pal, farmers have improved their traditional hives by makingtop bars to which combs are attached. These can be removedfor inspecting combs and replaced again. This is a good exam-ple of local hives which are improved appropriately.

old loghive

ledge cutto holdtop bar

turned onits side so

it opensfrom top

top bar

comb how the combis removed

lidtop bar

comb

The width of the top bar must be exactly fitting with thewidth of the comb, and there must be room between combsfor 2 bees to move up and down. The size of bees may changeaccording to altitude (the higher, the larger), bee species andvariety, so the width of the top bar should also change accord-ingly. Examples of different sizes of top-bars in Nepal are

given in the following diagram. In nature, the distance

from the centre of one comb to the centre of the next is equalto the width of the top bar.

distance betweenmidribs of 2 combsis the same aswidth of top bar

1

2

1

2

close upview ofmiddle of comb

Examplesfrom Nepalitopbars forApis cerana.

27mm(actual size) 29mm 32mm

The base of the top bar is pointed. This helps the bees tobuild straight combs. Hive adapted from local

hive by turning it on itsside and adding top bars

top bar

A Jumla farmer inspect-ing the top bar hive. Thisdoesn't trouble the bees.

mountainmountainhillhillvalleyvalley

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 12 - Beekeeping6 7

2. Caring for Bees

SwarmingSwarming is the natural way for bees to reproduce. It happenswhen the number of bees in the hive becomes large and a newqueen is made. When the new queen hatches, half the colony willleave along with a queen. The old queen goes with the first swarm.When bees are about to swarm you will see more males flyingoutside the hive. A cluster of bees may be seen hanging near theentrance to the hive. Inside the hive the combs contain many malebees and queen cells. If the tips of the queen cells are a browncolour then bees may swarm within 2-3 days.

A hive of bees andtheir young

A workerbee and itsdevelopingcell

A queenand queen

cells shown.If the tip isbrown aqueen wilemergesoon

Worker bees

1 2

34

4

4

3

3

It is traditional knowledge to spray swarming bees with wateror ash. Improvements to traditional practices are suggestedbelow.• Use walnut, citrus or lemon grass leaves

to clean the old hive. Wipe with honeyand wax.

• plaster any holes or cracks in the hive• Put the queen in a box if she can be

found. When the bees are all in the hive,place a queen gate over the entrance andlet the queen mix with the other bees inthe hive.

• Be careful not to damage the queen.• Put the swarm into the hive in the evening.• Feed in the evening only.• If the queen is new, don't add the queen

gate because she must fly outside tomate. Watch the hive from 10am to 2pmfor about 5 days to check that they don'tfly away. If bees are seen bringing pol-len this means they are settled, and it issafe to take the queen gate off, or to stopwatching the bees in the daytime.

• There may be a tradition of clipping thewings of a new queen, but this should notbe done because the queen may not havemated. The queen mates with the malebees outside the hive while flying. If shecan't fly, she can't mate or lay eggs, andthe colony may slowly die out.

A swarm bag orveil can be used

to capture aswarm

queen box

queen gate

Male bees. Their cells areslightly raised like a hat

Putting a swarm of bees in the hive


Uniting bee colonies

Beekeepers like as many hives as they can keep. But it'snot just the number of hives that's important, there must beplenty of bees inside also. It is better to unite 2 weak coloniesto make one big one, because :-• by uniting 2 weak colonies neither die• uniting increases honey production• it takes less to feed a united hive• a stronger colony is less susceptible to disease• a bigger colony has a more balanced temperature• if one colony has no queen, it can be saved.

How to unite coloniesTo unite 2 small or weak colonies place the 2 hives close

to each other. Put the frames of the weaker hive in thestronger hive and smoke the weaker hive to remove all thebees and drive them into the stronger hive. By doing this, thestronger queen will kill the weaker queen - you don't need todo it. It's best to unite colonies at the start of winter, or thestart of the monsoon, or when there is no queen in the colony.If bees start to fight, give more smoke.

a stronger hive + a weaker hive

bees will mix after smoking

RobbingOne problem is that bees from different colonies some-

times fight each other. Why ?

• food is spilt outside or given outside• honey is spilt during harvesting• there is no food and bees are hungry• food is given in the daytime, and the

hive is mishandled• the colony is weak

Preventing robbing• spray water on the hive• never feed outside the hive• take steps to strengthen the hive (feeding, uniting with a

stronger hive, etc.)

how to stopa swarm

Absconding

Signs that bees are readyto abscond

Reasonsfor absconding

• bees stop bringing pollen• bee traffic at the hive en-

trance slows down greatly• bees may form a ball hang-

ing at the entrance• the queen stops laying• there are no or very few

eggs or larvae - only adultbees are found in the hive

• bees usually abscond be-tween 10am and 2pm

• lack of food• too hot or too cold• too much disturbance• smoke, bad smells or

water getting into the hive• opening, moving or dis-

turbing the hive too much• robbing (bee fighting)• attack by predators or

disease


Feeding BeesWhy Feed Bees ?

It's very important to feed bees. To get good benefitsfrom bees, it's necessary to feed them according to theirneeds. Although it costs to feed bees, the honey productionpayback makes it worthwhile. As a result of feeding, the beescan increase in number and be strong to resist diseases. Beesmust be fed when flowers are unavailable, or if the colonybecomes too weak to collect enough food.

Signs of a Healthy Colony

1

3

2

4• Seeing single eggs in comb cells is a sign that the queen is ac-

tive. If open brood (larvae) and capped brood (pupae) are bothvisible, the colony is in a good condition (page 11, photo 4 ).

• Bees flying in and out & moving quickly is a good sign.• Bees bringing plenty of pollen means they are busy

raising young - this is a good sign.• Bees being light in colour is a sign of good health.• Lots of male bees is a sign of potential swarming

A good healthy colony

In a good hive, beeswill cover all the

combs

capped honey

After giving smoke, brood andhoney combs look like this

pollen

young bees free ofdisease

capped broodcells of workerbee pupae

cells with eggs tobe worker bees

uncapped(open brood)cells of workerbee larvae

To judge the colony's condition and see what manage-ment is needed, check the hive regularly.

What can Bees be fed ?The best foods for bees are honey, sugar water or candy

(sugar, honey and water solid food). However if these are notavailable in your area other sweet substances can be used.Sweet pumpkin or buckwheat pancake can be mixedwith honey, or pear or apple jam can be given. Foodshould always by given inside the hive in the evening,and taken out in the morning. Sugar water is made by mixingone part boiled water to 1-2 parts sugar. Don't give food ifolder than 2 days. Photo 17 on p.14 shows feeding technique.


5

7

6

8 9

10

11

12

A diseased, unhealthy colony

In an unhealthy colony beescannot cover all the combs

On a diseased comb thereare few capped broodcells. Un-capped cellswith dead larvae are seen.Combs may have a soursmell and bees are angry.

Combs with European FoulBrood disease seen close up

show dead larvae. Thesedry up and stick to the base

of the cell.

When seen close up, beepupae with Thai SacBrood disease look like asharp tipped bag

Compare the diseased combs(6&7) with this healthy one, wheremany capped pupae are seen andhealthy larvae are white and fat.

Wax moths occupycombs not covered bybees, and eat holes in

them, leaving silkythreads as they go.

Later, the comb lookslike a spiders' web.Wax moth's larvaelook like maggots.

This tiny red insect onthe bee's body is called aVarroa mite. This sticksto larvae and adult beesand is harmful to them.

In a colony without a queen,several eggs are seen laid by theworkers bees in each cell. Thecolony should be mixed with

another, or a new queen added


14

13

17

16

15

Herbsfor

bees

half ahandful ofHorsetail

7 Jasmineflowers

a handfulof worm-

wood

water tomixa handful of

persian lilacor neem leaves

raw,groundtumeric

seive the cooked mixture

2 parts sugarand one partcooked medi-

cine

dissolve thesugar in the

medicine

place straw, grass etc. in the liquid toprevent bees drowning and place

INSIDE the hive

3. Problems with BeesSymptoms of bee problems are also shown

on colour pages 12 and 13Symptoms that bees are in bad health (photos 5 to 12 )

• Bees leave combs uncovered• Bees are angry• Bees move slowly• If bees are dark and shiny they

may be diseased or queenless

"Brood" Diseases of young bees

• Because of lack of food,combs are dry and empty ofhoney. If starved, bees areseen dead with their headsburied in the comb cells.

Like people, bees suffer from a variety of diseases. InNepal there are 2 main diseases. These are called EuropeanFoul Brood and Thai Sac Brood. These effect young beeswhile still in their cells. Nowadays these are common diseases.

Symptoms of European Foul Brood : (photos 6 and 9 )• Tiny white lines (the tracheal beathing tubes of the bees) can

be seen on uncapped larvae• Too much water is seen around the larvae• Twisted, dead larvae are seen• Very few capped cells are seen• Dead larvae form scales which are brown and stuck to the

base of the cellsSymptoms of Thai Sac Brood : (photo 7 )• This disease effects the pupae stage and young uncapped

larvae are less affected• Capped brood cells may have jagged holes• In the capped brood cells pupae look pointed and sometimes

discoloured• The head of these pointed pupae turns black and dries out


• When taken out, these pointed pupae looklike a tiny plastic bag filled with water

• Worker bees are seen throwing the diseasedlarvae out of the hive. It may look likethey carry grains of cooked rice.

This is a bees'friend. It eats lice

found on bees'bodies, but doesn't

harm them.

Diseases of Adult BeesWorker, male and queen bees suffer

from various diseases such as acarine,nosema, amoeba and paralysis. These arecaused mainly by lack of hygiene, old sugar water, lack offood and being too hot or cold. Prevention of these diseasesis the same as for preventing disease in young bees. If thedisease spreads, infected combs should be removed.

Preventing Disease• Keep combs strong and prevent too much swarming• Unite weak colonies with stronger ones• If hives are hot, make small holes to allow air flow• If the weather is cold, cover the hive with pine needles,

moss, sacking, or other insulation• Clean out dirt from the hives every month• Take out old, black combs• Dispose of these carefully (use for wax extraction)• Take out combs not covered by bees• Process the cut combs and keep covered away from wax moths• Provide food if not available

• Transfer the diseased colony to a location where there are noother beehives to avoid spread of the disease

• Take out combs with diseased young, and burn them toprevent the disease spreading

• As cutting out diseased brood comb can cause the colony toabscond, put a queen gate on the entrance

• Mix and cook chopped Persian Lilac or Neem, horsetail, Jas-mine flowers and raw tumeric with water, strain and mix with 2parts sugar until dissolved. Feed in the evening of every otherday for at least 10 days (5 doses). This is shown on page 14.

Preventing Wax MothKeep the inside of the hive clean. Take out uncovered,

old combs. Dispose of them carefully and never throw themaround the apiary. Process the wax quickly. Store re-usablecombs and processed wax well, in sealed containers. Maintainstrong colonies by feeding, uniting etc.

Preventing Hornets

plasticbottle

cut off lidand invert

Put fruit with water in the bottle, and invert thetop so it points down. Hornets can get inbut not out

How to tell if bees have been poisoned

Preventing ants with bowls filled with water

• Many bees die in a short time• Bees can be seen dead around the hive• Bees die with their tongues sticking out• Poisoned live bees walk around in circles• Fewer bees arrive at the hive

Curing disease after it has struck• Take out uncovered combs• Give food and herbal medicine con-

tinuously for at least a week


How to prevent poisoning ?

• Use local herbs for pest control instead of toxic chemicals• Don't use poisons when plants are flowering• If it is essential to use chemicals, first inform beekeepers

and only use in the evenings or at night.If signs of poisoning are seen, close the hive immedi-

ately and keep the bees in the hive for at least 24 hours, pro-viding air flow and feeding regularly.

4. Processing Bee Products

Things to consider when extracting honey

• Never allow honey or cut combs to touch water (not evensmall drops) as this will increase the water in the honey andmake it spoil.

• Wash any utensils (buckets, knife, etc.) with hot water andsoap or ash, and make sure washed utensils are well dried.

• Extract honey in the evenings but before dark• Slowly give smoke from the edge of the colony• Once bees have moved away from the smoke, gently cut the

combs from the edge• Look closely and only cut combs with honey, don't cut

combs with brood• Gently brush any bees off the cut combs, but don't use water

on the brush• Put the cut comb in a clean, dry bowl or bucket, and cover

well to prevent bees getting into it

Combs, or parts of combs containing capped ("ripe")and uncapped ("raw") honey should be separated

because uncapped honey will ferment quickly.Use uncapped honey first.

Separate capped, uncapped, pollen and empty comb

1

2

1

2

Carefully brushbees off the

comb

1

2

On the edge of the comb un-capped (raw) honey can be seen

empty brood cells

1

White, capped cells containwell ripened, mature honey

yellow pollenfilled cells

What to do after extracing the honey• Because uncapped honey has a higher moisture content, it

shouldn't be mixed with capped honey. This means theyshouldn't be processed together, and uncapped honeyshould be used quickly because it soon ferments due tothe water content.

• Cut the capped combs into small pieces and keepin a deep, air tight container for up to a week.

skim off wax pieces & debristhat rise to the surface


• After 7 days the honey has sunk and the wax rises to the top.Skim the wax off the surface. Seive the honey through afine, clean cloth. Only use clean, dry hands to squeezethrough the seive. The wax mixedwith honey that is skimmed from thesurface can also be squeezed forhome use, or fed to the bees.

• Put the seived honey into clean anddry containers as needed. These canbe glass, clay, wood or good plasticcontainers that are airtight. If airtightcontainers are not available, seal thelids with wax.

• Honey should not be cooked be-cause this destroys its nutritious andmedicinal qualities. There is novalue in cooked honey.

• Remaining comb with pollen shouldbe cut into small pieces, covered withliquid honey and stored in the same way as honey in anairtight jar. This is very nutritious. Feed one piece once aday as needed to pregnant or suckling mothers, babies over6 months, old or sick people. It may be difficult to digest atfirst so feed small pieces until used to it.

• Pure honey can also be used as a medicine. It is useful forburns, cuts, sores, ulcers (including gastric), indigestion,stomach ache, urinary tract infections, tonsilitis, infectedeyes and ears (for eyes and ears dissolve honey in a drop ofboiled, warm water and seive well before using).

Extracted honeyseived into a

clean, dry bowl

Cook old, blackcombs and waxleft after honeyextraction over alow fire

Beeswax Wax is produced from glands on the underside of 12-18

day old worker bees. Bees use it to build their combs. SomeNepali beekeepers believe that a tiny scorpion-like red insectmakes wax, but this is untrue (but this is a useful insect, seep.16) as bees make it themselves. Many beekeepers alsocarelessly discard old combs. This wastes the wax and attractsthe wax moth. Better to process the wax to make ointments,candles or polish.

Squeeze thecooked wax in a

bag betweentwo sticks. The

molten waxlooks like oil.

Allow to cool slowly andremove the hardenedwax from the liquid.Scrape off any dirt thatis attached underneaththe wax cake.

1 2

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 12 - Beekeeping22

Processing WaxSoak old, dark combs or wax from honey processing in

water for a day. Then, put the old combs or wax in fresh waterand heat slowly. When wax melts and becomes like oil on thewater surface, pour the wax and debris mixture into a clothbag and squeeze it between 2 sticks to seive it into anothercontainer. Let it cool and harden without disturbing. Take theclean wax, break into small pieces and put in a steel or alu-minium pot. Boil water in another pot and place the pot ofwax in this to melt. When melted, seive through a clean cloth.This wax can be used to make cream, candles, polish, etc. Tomake cream, add one part wax to 3-4 part vegetable oil. Themethod to make candles is shown in the diagram below.

4

3

2

1

Make a mould from bamboofor making wax candles

Tie a piece ofstring on a thinstick down thecentre of the

mould

Make asmall hole in thebamboo to holdthe string in place

Stand the mouldsupright in wet clay to

pour

5

æ

Æ


From Nepal, Jumla dis-trict, Chandanath - 4,Dandakot village, MrKarnabir Sunar keeps beesin his improved Jumla TopBar Hive. Now let's hearabout his experience.

Mr Karnabir Sunar

I've been keeping beessince 1995. In our culture,lower castes like me aren'tsupposed to keep bees, so thecustom goes, but I've beenkeeping them successfully. There are good benefits in bee-keeping, especially with the Top Bar hive. To make the hive Iupturned the old log hive and put top bars on without any costat all. With this hive I can inspect the bees easily, watch fordiseases, feed the bees, and extract honey without harmingthe bees. I can sell the honey and wax because it's good qual-ity. Before I kept bees I hadn't been able to have children.After keeping bees and eating honey and pollen my strengthincreased and my wife had a son, and I fed him with honeyfrom when he was only 8 months old ! Now, I have 9 hives.The work's easy and low cost, and so I plan to have more inthe future.

Karnabir Sunar

23

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This Chapter's Authors :

Read On !Read On !Subjects Related to Beekeeping

Mr Narayan P. AcharyaSurya Social Service Society (4S), Jumla

Mr Satananda Upadhyaya,Simkhada, Chandanath-4, Jumla

Dr Naomi Saville, Advisor toWax Processing Centre, Jumla

Chapters related to Fruit :- how to create,grow and manage improved fruit trees with practi-cal information on fruit nurseries, grafting, bud-ding, stone grafting, top grafting, air layering,planting fruit trees and orchard management.

Seed Saving chapter :- information on methodsto produce and store various quality seeds at home.

Nutrition chapter :- information about needsand sources of a healthy diet for all the family.

Agroforestry chapter :- information abouthow to plant and manage trees on farmland with-out decreasing farm yield.

Th

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13 -

Non

-Cem

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What is

Making an intake tank without cement, Jajarkot, Nepal

It is so important to have clean drinking water for ahealthy life. Because of modern development and populationincrease, forest is decreasing and water springs are drying up.Problems have been seen of cement-made drinking watertanks causing the springs below to dry up. Also, if the cementcracks, all the water in the tank leaks away, and this is tooexpensive to fix. So as an alternative to this, we describe inthis chapter a way to build drinking water systems withoutusing cement. Instead, they use local resources and skills tomake systems which are safe, cheap to build, and long-lasting.

Non-CementDrinking Water ?

Non-CementDrinking Water ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water

makeNon-Cement

Drinking Water ?WhyWhy HowHow


2 3

to makeNon-Cement

Drinking Water ?

Mr Bhuvan KhadkaHimalayan Permaculture Group,Surkhet, Nepal

Many people think that beneficial development can onlycome by importing and using resources from far-away foreigncountries. Few people believe that it's posssible to build adrinking water system for a village without using cement. Butsince 1991 in Jajarkot and Surkhet districts of Western Nepal,the Jajarkot Permaculture Programme (JPP) has made manysuch village systems to provide safe drinking water, and allare being maintained and still running to this day.

Benefits of building drinking water systemswithout cement

• to build clean drinking water systems• to do this without damaging other springs• to build cheaper drinking water systems• these use less time and labour resources to build• local people can build and maintain these systems• this means that everyone in the village can be involved in

building and maintaining their own drinking water system• this helps the local economy

Drinking water systems can be made from springs nearto the villages without using cement. It's best to build theseduring the winter when farmers have more free time. At thistime, springs are also low due to lack of rain, so it is easier tomeasure the flow. There are 3 steps to building the non-ce-ment drinking water system :-

1. Building and managing the spring intake tank;2. Laying the pipe to the village, and tanks in between, if any;3. Building the tapstands in the village.

Materials Needed to make aNon -Cement Drinking Water system

G.I. pipe and fittings

wrench

chisel

saw

timbernails

gate

taps

polythene piperiver moss

clayrocks

diggingtools

diggingtools

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water4 5

1. Intake Tank

overflowpipe

here compact the soilaround the pipes

pipe to drainthe tank

(cleaning pipe)

pipe to the village(delivery pipe)

moss

Makesmall holes inthe intake pipe toprevent leaves, etc.from getting in

First learn aboutcutting and joining

galvanised iron(G.I.) pipe, poly-

thene pipe, fittings,taps, etc. Often thiscan be learned fromthe hardware store

make thetop of thetank fromrocks and

clay

lid of thetank

Dig a trench abovethe tank. This pro-

tects from water flow-ing in from above

stone, mudand moss

wall

stone andclay base

moss

• The tank can be madecircular or square. The sizeof the tank depends on thewater needs of the villageand the sizeof the watersource atthespring.

• As the tank is being built, leave a hole for a drainage pipe atthe bottom to empty the tank for cleaning. Just above thislevel is the hole for the pipe carrying water to the village(delivery pipe). Near the top of the tank, leave aspace for the overflow pipe.

• Then build a rock lining to the tank, just as you would builda stone wall. But as well as using mud in between the rocks,use a layer of moss which grows in water.

• First of all dig a pit for the tank. Because of not using ce-ment, this needs to be dug into the ground.

To collect the water at the spring, a tank needs to bebuilt. If it is not possible to build a tank at the spring, thespring water needs to be diverted to the nearest suitable placefor a tank.


Let's SeeLet's See

6 7

2

1

1

3

2

• When the wall is built up,leave a hole big enough fora person to get into thetank. If the pipes becomeblocked, it may be neededto clean the tank.

• Make a strong frame tocover and close the tankwith timber or rocks.

• When the tank is finishedjoin a gate valve to thepipe taking water to thevillage (delivery pipe) andto the cleaning pipe at asuitable place outside thetank. This means the watersupply can be cut off if thepipeline needs mainte-nance at any place. Insteadof a gate valve, a woodenbung can be used to blockthe pipe from the inside ofthe tank

After this work is finished, the area around the tankneeds protection. If possible, prevent livestock from walkingin the area, and prevent people from cutting trees there. If thearea is bare, a tree plantation should be made.

In Dharnasivillage,

Jajarkot, anintake tank isbeing built.

Between therocks in the

wall the mosscan be seen.

How to make Non-Cement Drinking Water

How to make Non-Cement Drinking Water


4

3

5

8 9

87

6

9

Starting to make thetop after the tank has

been built.

Leaving ahole big

enough for aperson to fitin, the lid is

made.

Showing theposition of a tank

in the forest.

An intake tankwith a stone lid.

1

4

3

2

1

2

3

For protec-tion and

maintenance,a well fittingwooden door

is made.

Overflow pipe

intake tank

overflow pipe

cleaning pipe

delivery pipe4


!! !!

10

10 11

11

Making adrinking

water tap inthe village

Waste waterfrom the tap

used to irrigatekitchen gar-dens. It can

also be used fornurseries and

orchards

don't uncoil pipe likethis, it will develop kinks

and may split

uncoil pipe like this

Dig a trench to bury thepipe from the tank to the taps inthe village. The pipe should beburied 3 feet deep. In the bot-tom of the trench first put loosesoil and stones. Use G.I. pipewhere there are rocks and so atrench cannot be dug.

If there is a steep or long drop from theintake to the village, a "check" tank can bebuilt in between. This is built the sameway as the intake tank. If there areonly rocks where this tank isthen cement may be neededto build the tank abovethe ground.

intaketank

check tank

overflowpipe

delivery pipe pipe from spring

pipe

soil andstones

tap

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water12 13

Making the TapstandAfter the site for the

tapstand has been prepared,make a smooth wooden post.

On the back of this post, tothe height that the tap will be,chisel a groove in the centre of thepost in which to hold the pipe. Atthe top, make a hole big enough tohold the tap. Measure the distancescut in the wooden post, and cut thepipe according to this. Bury thepost so it is upright and strong inthe ground. Join the pipe and fit-tings and fit into the groove onthe back of the post,with the tap comingout of the hole.Then build up astrong wall anyshape you likearound the tapstand.

Only the people inthe village respon-sible for mainte-

nance of thedrinking water

system should beallowed to use the

gate valve

Take advicefrom those

skilled in joiningpipe like this

Use nails to hold the pipe in the

groove on the back of the post

Making atapstand

in thevillages

The oldest non-cement drinkingwater system still

working inJajarkot,

Sirpachaur vil-lage (built 1991)

Make a design to use the waste water from a tapstand for kitchen gardens or a community nursery


MaintenanceMaintenanceHow to maintain

Non-CementDrinking Water

14

Protect the forestsProtect the springs !Protect the forestsProtect the springs !

The tanks may leak a little but as the moss grows it willblock all the holes. The older the system is, the stronger itgets and the less it leaks. The tanks should be cleaned ifleaves or mud get in. Any leaking or split pipes should berepaired and re-sealed immediately.

If the forest is protected around and above the spring, theflow of water will increase. This is because the forest catchesthe rain and allows it to soak into the soil instead of runningoff the land.

To help to maintain and run the drinking water system ina sustainable way the village committee should set up a fundaccording to the number of households. If a community nurs-ery is made, this can generate income from seedlings distrib-uted which can go into the fund. The fund can be used toreplace any fittings which may break, such as a tap, gatevalve, pipe, etc.

æ

Æ

From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 9, Ghuyalpani village,Mr Bir Bahadur Khatri is a mem-ber of "Shiva Shakti" group. Hisvillage has made a non-cementdrinking water system. Now let'shear about their experience.

Mr Bir BahadurKhatri

Bir Bahadur Khatri


Our village is on a high ridge.Though there are water resources itwas very difficult to get them to thevillage. With the help of the Homestead Programme (JPP) wemade an intake tank. This uses moss instead of cement. Withcement, the tank will crack and water will leak out, but withmoss this covers all the cracks. Because the system's made outof local resources we could build it ourselves, and up untilnow we haven't had to repair it. But if this is needed, we cando it ourselves. There are 5 small springs feeding 7 taps, andthey're all working very well.

JPP's Drinking Water Engi-neers:- Janga B. Gharti (left)and Ammar B. Nepal (right)have made more than 20 non-cement systems in Nepal'svillages since 1991.

15

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Read On !Read On !Subjects Related to

Non-Cement Drinking WaterThis book provides enough information to be able to

build your own drinking water system. However, this infor-mation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let'sread, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Kitchen Garden and MixedVegetable Growing Chapters

How to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity ?Information on doing less work for more produc-tion while also being able to produce a wide rangeof fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.

House Hygeine ChapterDon't think that health improvement comes onyfrom drinking clean water. If the house andkitchen are dirty, even more diseases can spread.Information about easy methods to keep thehouse clean are given in this chapter

Waste Water ChapterInformation in this chapter about how to make use ofhousehold and tapstand waste water for irrigation.


Near the HousePart Two

This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Belmaya Rana, Bhuvan KhadkaEdited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob JespersenTranslated from Nepali by Chris EvansProof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, JakobJespersen, Andy Langford, Looby MacnamaraPhotos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris EvansAddional photo credits are given in Volume FiveCover illustration: Mr Motilal PhaujaTyping: Chris EvansComputer Coordination: Graphics Edge, KathmanduPublished by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copiesThis Edition.........Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X.......This Volume : 99933-615-3-4........

The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the thirdof 5 volumes. There are 13 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are 44 techniquesand approaches in total.

This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well aspractical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please rememberthat photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive & does not give a goodquality.


Subject Booklet No:

Booklets are separated by a yellow page

Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1Kitchen Garden ............................................. 2Mixed Vegetable Gardening ......................... 3

Off-Season Onion Growing .......................... 4Growing Herbs .............................................. 5Home Nursery ............................................... 6Hot Bed.......................................................... 7Air Nursery.................................................... 8Leaf Pots........................................................ 9Introduction to Fruit Production ................. 10

Fruit Nursery ................................................ 11

Grafting ......................................................... 12

Budding ......................................................... 13

Stone Grafting ............................................... 14

This is the third volume of a five volume production ofthe Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty four techniquesand approaches shown, of which thirteen are in this thirdvolume. In this volume we introduce you to some more of themethods used near the house (part two). The titles of these aregiven on the previous contents page.

This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provideinformation about sustainable farming methods as well asbeing a resource to run literacy programmes. Informationabout such programmes and how the Handbook can be usedis provided in the fifth volume. As well as technicalinformation, a glossary of new or difficult words is alsoprovided in the fifth volume.

The Farmers' Handbook -this Volume's Introduction

Aims

Background



Comments and/or questions about the techniques andapproaches described in this handbook will be most welcome.Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editionsof this handbook and other similar publications.



Techniques

Kitchen Garden 2

Mixed Vegetable Gardening 3

Off-Season Onion Growing 4

Information About Herbs 5

Home Nursery 6

Hot Bed 7

Air Nursery 8

Leaf Pots 9

Introduction to Fruit Production 10

Fruit Nursery 11

Grafting 12

Budding 13

Stone Grafting 14






maintain, care for, manage and/or operate it is described.• After this, there is an interview with an experienced

farmer who has built and used the method.• Finally, information is given about other chapters in the


Support for the production and printing of TheFarmers' Handbook has come from ActionAid Nepal,

MSNepal, Methodist Relief & Development Fund(UK), GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research

Project (HARP), ICIMOD. In this volume, thechapter on "Grafting "has been supported by

Helvetas Nepal



FundingSupport


addresses

Himalayan Permaculture Group, P.O.Box 19121, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Kit

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Gard

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What is a

Farmers fromMulsam inJajarkot,

Nepal, displayvegetablesfrom their

kitchengardens

A kitchen garden is where herbs and vegetables aregrown around the house for household use. Since early timesa small plot near to the house has been used for growing avariety of vegetables according to the season. Local varietiessuch as radish, broad leaf mustard, chilli, beans, pumpkinsetc. are all grown in the kitchen garden.

In this chapter we provide information on how to estab-lish and manage kitchen gardens with minimum input formaximum output, and show how to produce varied and nutri-tious crops of herbs and vegetables for use in the kitchen.

Kitchen Garden ?Kitchen Garden ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden

WhyWhy HowHow

3

make aKitchen Garden ?

to make aKitchen Garden ?

For people to stay healthy it's very important to have ahealthy diet. A healthy diet means a balanced mix of rice,bread, pulses, vegetables, herbs, fruit etc. Vegetables are avery important part of a good diet as they contain variousnutrients for many body functions. For growing, energy andprotection against disease, vegetables play an essential role.Vegetables are especially important for the young, and forpregnant and nursing women.

• to grow healthy, fresh vegetables yourself;• to save the cost of buying vegetables and herbs;• waste resources such as sweepings, kitchen scraps and

dirty water can be recycled onto the garden;• wasteland around the house can be made productive.

Because there's often no tradition of kitchen gardens,many people can't grow the vegetables they need for a gooddiet. Or they spend lots of money on vegetables, or theirhealth suffers from lack of vegetables.

It may be that you haven't been able to make a kitchengarden. There are several rea-sons why it may be difficult tomake a kitchen garden, or if youhave made one, it is not success-ful. For example:

• pests, diseases or livestock

have destroyed the crop;

• no good seed or seedlings;

• lack of space;

• lack of water;

• lack of fertility;

• no spare time;

• lack of the right skills.

These vegetableshave wilted be-cause of lack of

water

In this chapter easy meth-ods are described to solve these sorts of problems, and so helpthe family to be able to grow good produce from their kitchengarden.

Benefits of the Kitchen Garden

This Booklet's Author :Chris Evans, advisor,Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepalwww.designedvisions.com

2

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden4 5

Beneficial Connections in the Kitchen Garden

collecting waste water

home nursery (hotbed, fruit nursery, etc.)

living fence

vegetable beds

livestock stall

sweepings pit

air nursery

fence (not living)

liquid manure

c

h

f

d

b

i

g

e

a

domestic waste watercollection

ash, water, hair, etc.composting re-sources from thehouse to the land

How to make the work easierin the Kitchen Garden

seeds from the garden tohouse and from house togarden sweepings from the

house and courtyard

waste water used for irriga-tion in the kitchen garden

use of compost

liquid manure also used tocontrol pests and disease

fodder from the landand live fence, andcompost returned tothe land

mulch material from thelive fence and edges

vegetables etc. fromthe kitchen gardento the house

10

8

6

4

2

9

7

5

3

1

Working rela-tionships in theKitchen Garden

a

bc

d

h

f

i

g

e

10

8

6

42

97

5

31

8


Things to pay attention to

To make and manage a kitchen garden easily, and to givebest production, the following things are important :-

Good management of the garden needs knowledge of allthese. Then we can make our kitchen garden more successful.

1. Site selection

3. Water management

5. Seed & seedlings

2. Protection

4. Fertility

6. Design of the garden

1. Site selection

If you already have a kitchen garden you may not needto choose a new site, it's enough to improve the old site. Ifyou are making a new garden, there are many factors to con-sider. For example :-

• how to protect from livestock ?• how can you bring water to the site and distribute

it ?• how is the soil ? How can the fertility needs be

managed ?• where is the sunlight coming from ?• how can the area be accessed easily from the house ?

When these issues are considered, the best site can bechosen and the work of making the garden will be easier.

Things to pay attention to

1. Site selection

2. Protection

• The kitchen garden area needs protec-tion from the very start. It should not bepossible for livestock to enter the area. Apermanent fence should be made. Thornyplants can be cut and used to make afence, but the best method is to plant a

living fence to protect the garden.

• Then, the crops within the garden will also need protectionfrom damage by many types of pest and disease. There aremany ways to do this. Mixed cropping, rotations, liquid ma-nure, etc. are all ways of protecting crops. There is more infor-mation about crop protection in the chapter Integrated PestManagement.

2. Protection


3. Water Mangement

It is important to provide enough moisture for thekitchen garden. There are many ways of conserving and in-creasing the moisture available. For example :-

• Provide shade : in the hot season trees can provide shadeto the kitchen garden. A few small trees, such as Lucaena,mulberry, Moringa (drum-stick), Persian lilac, or evenfruit trees in the fence or withinthe garden can be used for this.As well as giving shade, thesetrees can also provide otherbenefits, such as firewood,fodder or mulch material.

• Mist collection : mist collects on theleaves of trees around and within thekitchen garden, and drips onto the soilto provide extra moisture.

wind

3. Water Mangement

• Windbreak : wind will dryout the soil, so stopping thewind helps to conserve soilmoisture;

• Green Manures : also cover the soil, and so help inconserving water;

Guidelines for IrrigationBy only putting a little water over a wide area, only the

surface will be kept moist. This can cause roots to stay nearthe soil surface and in strong sun they can dry out very easily.So it's much better to irrigate less area with more water, so themoisture goes deeper in the soil. Then this area will not needwatering again for a long time. In the hot season, irrigate inthe evening or at night, and not in the daytime.

• Irrigation : if there is no irrigationfor main food crops, it is likelythat there is also not enough waterto irrigate the kitchen garden. Butif the above methods are used,then more water is conserved andso less is needed. Collecting andusing waste water from the kitchencan be enough to water the garden. Also, direct water fromcommunal tapstands can be used on kitchen gardens.

Deep wateringis better for

deep rooting,and irrigationis needed less

often.

Shallow watering meansroots stay at the surfaceand will soon dry out.

• Mulching : prevents the wind and sun drying the bare soil;

sunshine


Let's See How to make aKitchen Garden

Kitchen garden pro-tected inside a woven

bamboo fence.

Even chickens can'tget through thisfence made from

wormwood stalks.

Near thehouse manytypes of foodplants can begrown in thesame place.

chillicoriander

passion fruit

chilli broad beanbroad beancoriander

Plantingmixed vegeta-bles helps toprotect themfrom pests anddiseases.

Edge plants pro-vide useful mulchclose to the garden

beds where theyare needed.

In mixed veg-etable planting,no space iswasted and thesoil is alwayscovered.

passion fruit

Let's See How to make aKitchen Garden


4. Fertility4. Fertility

All farmers know that without fertility in the soil, cropswon't grow. But fertility can be as limited as water. If thereisn't enough compost for the field crops, it can't be taken andused for the kitchen garden. So our kitchen garden needs tobe self reliant for fertility. Suggestions for sources of fertilityare given below :-

• Sweepings pit :- by collecting every-day sweepings from the house and yardin one place, you can make enoughcompost for the kitchen garden.

• Green manures :- sowing seeds ofgreen manure helps to protect the soiland gives extra fertility for more produc-tion

• Mulching :- putting a thick layer ofbiomass mixed with compost on thesoil helps to increase fertility.

• Liquid manure :- liquid manuremade in a pit or a drum gives nutri-ents to the plants as well as protect-ing them from pests and diseases.

• Legumes :- planting legumes such aspeas, beans, Sesbania, sun hemp, etc.,provides extra nitrogen to the soilwhich is good for other crops

• Other sources :- ash, oil seed cake,hair etc. are all resources which canbe added to the soil to increase fertil-ity, as well as helping to prevent pestsand disease.

5. Seeds and Seedlings

A kitchen garden can provide very good food from local,traditional vegetables, and it's important not to lose theselocal varieties. However, sometimes farm-ers are also interested to try new varie-ties. So it's very important to save andprotect any good seed - this is the farm-er's responsibility. Information aboutseed saving is given in the Seed Savingchapter. From good seed, it is importantto be able to raise good, healthy seed-lings for transplanting into the kitchen garden.Nursery techniques are described in the Home Nursery, Airnursery, Hot bed and Leaf Pots chapters.

5. Seeds and Seedlings


6. Garden Design

broad beanpeascauliflowercarrot

tomatoSwiss chardgarlicmarigold

onioncorianderbeetrootcomfrey

new seedlings - see "succession" on the next page

1

11

10

9

87

654

3

2

12

13

24 5 6

7 810 1211

13

1 3

9

• More production in a small place

Planting lots of varietiescan give good production

in a small area

6. Garden Design

Species not shown, but also possible to plantVegetables :- cabbage, kale, radish, turnip, kohl rabi, chilli,broad leaf mustard, spinach, lettuce, aubergine, beans, etc.

Vegetable or herb companion plants :- fennel, dill, basil, tansy, etc.

If seeds and seedlings are planted too wide apart, muchof the space in between goes to waste, where weeds willgrow. Weeds use precious water and compost, and cause extrawork to keep clear. You also have to work harder to replacethe water and compost which are lost to the weeds. This iswhy it's best to plant vegetables densely. But if only one typeof vegetable is planted densely, it will compete with itself forspace above and below ground, and so not be a good crop. Soit's better to plant a mix of small and large types, to makedifferent layers of crops on the same bed. These will alsohave different layers of roots in the soil.

This means many plants can be grown in a small space,but there is no competition between crops for space, waterand nutrients.

• Succession

As smaller vegetables are harvested for food, thismakes space for the longer lasting vegetables, while inbetween new seedlings can be planted.

Succession

Newly plantedcauliflowerseedlings

Previously plantedbroad leaf

mustard seedlings


It's not only the making of the kitchen garden, we must alsobe able to maintain it easily. It can be fun to create and plant agarden, but having to work every day to maintain it may soonbecome difficult, and so the garden gets neglected. Edge plant-ing helps to make maintenance work easy in the kitchen garden.

"Edge planting" means the growing of support crops, orcompanion plants, in the edges around the garden and itsbeds. These plants help support the garden by providingmulch, protection from weeds, windbreaks, repelling pests,and producing other useful resources. Plants such as worm-wood, Adhatoda vasica, marigold, comfrey, lemon grass,nettles, Lucaena, mulberry, basil, tansy, and many others aregood for edge planting.

Edge Planting

Benefits of Edge PlantingEdge planting helps with protecting the garden and also

producing fodder, fuel, nectar for bees, herbs for medicines, soilconservation (terrace stabilisation), habitat for pest predators, etc.

Edge plantstake nutrientsfrom deep inthe soil and

cycle them tothe surface,where theyare used asmulch, and

then returnedto the soil.

Beneficialpredator insectstake nectar from

the flowers.

Then theyattack pest

insects.

The smell of marigoldflowers and leaves helpto repel many types ofpest insect. They alsoproduce a substancefrom their roots whichrepels damaging soilnematodes.

Where to plant ?• in fences • in agro-forestry• on terrace edges • on the edges of vegetable beds• on path edges • around the edge of the courtyard• on the edge of the

compost heap, waste water pit, sweepings pit, path, etc.


Read On !Read On !

Subjects Related to Kitchen GardenThis book provides enough information to be able to

make and manage your own kitchen garden. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from these related chapters.

SeedSavingchapter

Compostchapter

LiquidManurechapter

Nutritionchapter

LivingFence

chapterKitchen Garden

chapter

SweepingsChapter

WasteWater chapter


Mulchingchapter

Integrated PestManagement

chapterGreen Manures

chapter

Home Nurserychapteræ

Æ


Mr Shyam Shrestha ownsSunrise Farm in Sita Paila-4, Kathmandu, Nepal. Hehas experience makingkitchen gardens, so let'shear his story.

Mr Shyam Shrestha

Shyam Shrestha

At first I used to farm thetraditional way but doing this,one type of vegetable wasgrown all together so therewere more pest problems, andmore maintenance was neededas well. I've been collecting waste water from the kitchen forirrigation. For compost, I collect the rubbish around the houseand cow shed into a sweepings pit. When I plant varioustypes of vegetables mixed together, there are less pest prob-lems. There's less weeding too, because they're planted soclosely, and I mulch where I can. When I harvest, I clearwhatever weeds there are and mulch them back on the beds -that's more compost. I collect seed from the best plants ofeverything. With this method, I plant once and then need verylittle work or maintenance - just harvesting, and eating.Nowadays, others are starting to learn these meth-ods here for vegetable gardening themselves.

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Seed Saving chapter :- information on methodsto produce and store various quality seeds at home.

Nutrition chapter :- information about needs andsources of a healthy diet for all the family.

Living Fence chapter :- how to plant not just a fence butalso produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits

Liquid Manure chapter :- how to use local plants tomake a liquid for fertilizer and pest control

Compost chapter :- information on how to make goodcompost quickly is given in this chapter

Waste Water chapter :- how to get irrigation for thegarden from domestic waste water.

Sweepings chapter :- how to make good compostfrom sweeping the house and yard.

Mixed Vegetable Gardening :- how to grow lots ofvegetables easily by planting many varieties at one time

Mulching chapter :- how to grow more crops with lesswork while keeping the soil covered

Integrated Pest Management chapter :- how to uselocal resources and knowledge in many different methods ofcontrolling pests and diseases

Green Manures chapter :- sow a green manure seedsto add fertility to the soil and produce more crops

Home Nursery chapter :- make nurseries from localresources to grow many types of plants at home

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What isMixed Vegetable

Gardening ?

Mixedvegetablegardeningmeansplanting lotsof differenttypes ofplants to-gether. Inconventionalgardening,different varieties of vegetable are usually planted in differentareas of the garden. So cabbage, onion, lettuce, radish, pea,etc. are all in their separate places. However, there are benefi-cial relationships between many types of vegetable and herbplants, which help them to grow. When plants grow sepa-rately, these benefits are lost to the system. This is one reasonwhy various problems can start to affect the vegetables. Tosolve these problems farmers must then work harder at weed-ing, pest control, irrigation, etc. Without this extra work,production can be lost.

Mixing different species together helps the differentcrops. So in this chapter information is provided on how toplant and maintain a mixed vegetable garden.

A mixed vegetable garden, Begnas, Nepal

Mixed VegetableGardening ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening

WhyWhy HowHowplant a MixedVegetable Garden ?

to plant a MixedVegetable Garden ?

2 3

• lack of seed & seedlings • lack of water • lack of time• lack of knowledge • lack of fertility • lack of space• pests & disease or being eaten by livestock

Many problems can affect the success of vegetablegardening. For example :-

These problems can make vegetable production seemvery difficult. They can cause the garden to fail, or productiv-ity to be less, even with high inputs.

Benefits of Mixed Vegetable Gardening

• less pest and disease• less weeding• less need to irrigate• many types of vegetable in the same place• no space is wasted• vegetables can be harvested over a longer time• high production in a small area

leek

If you have your own good method of growing vegeta-bles, don't stop all at once to try mixed vegetable gardening.Try it out on a small area of your vegetable garden and see. Ifit works well, you can increase it next year.

Materials needed• seed :- mustard, buckwheat, fenugreek, broad leaf mustard,

lettuce, chard, beetroot, coriander, fennel, radish, turnip,kohl rabi, spinach, pea, broad bean, carrot, kale, chinesecabbage, pak choy, basil, garlic, parsnip, onion (seedlings orstarts), etc.

• seedlings :- cauliflower, cabbage, brocolli, onion, leek,marigold, etc.

• compost • fertile soil• light (fine) mulch• ash, oil seed cake

parsnip

Time to plant• low-lying tropical or sub tropical - after the monsoon (Au-

tumn)• high altitude or temperate areas - in the early spring

beetroot


The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening4

Materials Needed to plant aMixed Vegetable Garden

5

Preparing the gardenThe more fertile the soil is, the less preparation is

needed. Dig the area, mix in compost and make the soil fine.Make garden beds according to your needs and the shape andslope of the land. If the width of the beds is 4 feet then thecentre of the bed can be reached without treading on the soil.

kale lettuce cabbage

various typesof seedling

various typesof seed

mulchmaterial

well rottedcompost

diggingtools

Planting SeedlingsThe soil should be fertile and fine to plant seedlings.

Plant cabbages, cauliflower, etc. at their normal dis-tance of 12-18 inches. In between and on theedges of the beds plant onion seedlingsor starts, and garlic bulbs at 4 - 6inch intervals.

Different typesof vegetablesare good forour health

Sowing SeedsFirst sow the large seeds :- pea, radish, broad (fava)

bean, climbing or dwarf beans, etc. are planted at intervals of6 inches. Make a smale hole with your finger, plant the seed,and cover. Then, thinly sow all other vegetable or herb seedexcept the mustard, buckwheat or fenugreek. Lastly, afterplanting the seedlings and sowing the seed, thickly sow themustard, buckwheat and/or fenugreek. If you don't have all ofthese 3, any one or two of them will do. On the edge of thebeds it's good to plant or sow companion plants, such aslemongrass,marigold,basil,worm-wood,comfrey,etc

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening6 7

Let's SeeLet's See How to make a MixedVegetable GardenHow to make a MixedVegetable Garden

2

1

Covering the soilAfter planting everything, sprinkle

ash on top. Then cover with fine, fertilesoil - enough to cover all the seed andash. Finally, taking care not to cover theseedlings, add a thin mulch to cover all thesoil, and water well. Now your mixedvegetable bed is complete, and all you haveto do is harvest !

sprout

cauliflowerbroadleafmustard

onion

radish

This vegetablegarden looks

good, but all thespecies are sepa-rate, so it takes

more work.

Now lets see howmuch work it takes to

look after a mixedvegetable garden

One week aftersowing, mus-

tard, fenu-greek, radish

and onionbulbs have

started to ger-minate. Cauli-flower seed-

lings have alsobeen plantedAfter 3 weeks all

types have germi-nated. Broad bean,buckwheat, Swiss

chard and kohl rabican also be seen.


4

3

6

5

redmustard

broadleafmustard

garlic

radish

lettuce

corianderSeen close, vari-ous types of veg-

etable

radishbroadleafmustard

broadbean

Chinesemustard

redmustard

6 weeks aftersowing, pro-

duction isgood andbare soil

can't be seen

Because of dif-ferent types ofleaf shape, leaf

texture andcolour, there areless pest prob-

lemsHow many types ofvegetable can you

count ?


7

8

10 11

How tomaintain a MixedVegetable Garden

MaintenanceMaintenance

After eating from thegarden for 4 monthsthere are still lots of

vegetables, and still nobare soil.

This farmer hassown 9 types of veg-etable together on

his large field.

By making the bed in this way, less maintenance isneeded later on. Weeding and watering may still be neededaccording to site, but the mulch, and the density of plants helpto conserve moisture and keep weeds down.

In a bed planted like this, first the mustard will germi-nate. It will be followed by broad leaf mustard, radish, fenu-greek, buckwheat, and so on. The mustard, fenugreek andbuckwheat will grow very densely, and help prevent weedsfrom growing to leave minimum weeding. From 2-3weeks, production starts with mustard leavesbeing picked as a greenleaf vegetable.Shortly after, buckwheat and fenugreekcan be picked for the same use. Pickingof these can continue over the next 2-3weeks, until they are all gone (except forseed plants).

By this time, other vegeables willstart to be ready. Broadleaf mustard, radish leaves, smallradishes, lettuce, etc. can be harvested from 1 month aftersowing. Fast growing leaf vegetables are picked to makespace for slower, longer living species.

So maintenance of the mixed vegetable bed is really justharvesting. If this doesn't happen, the vegetables will growtoo thick and the system will lose productivity. The space leftby a harvested plant is quickly taken up by another. In thisway, the bed never has any empty spaces or bare soil.


mustard greens

When can you harvest thefruits of your labour ?

Before 3 weeks

cabbage, sprout, onion, garlic, corianderseed, fennel seed, leek, brocolli, etc.

chard, cauliflower, carrot, peas, broadbeans, cabbage, onions, garlic, etc.

chard, carrot, peas, broad bean, kale, cab-bage, etc.

broadleaf mustard, chard, turnip, radish,carrot, coriander, peas, chinese cabbage,kohl rabi, beetroot, kale, etc.

radish, broadleaf mustard, lettuce, chard,coriander leaves, kohl rabi, turnip, beet-root, etc.

radish, broadleaf mustard, lettuce, Chinesemustard.

mustard greens (continued); fenugreek,buckwheat greens; radish greens.

7 months

6 months

5 months

4 months

3 months

2 months

1 month

After all plants are harvestedUsing this method, vegetables can be easily har-

vested and eaten for up to 7 months. Finally, after every-thing has been eaten, add compost and dig the bed readyfor the next season. If the monsoon or summer is next,maize, beans, squash, chillies, etc. can be sown. Or acrop of green manures can be grown, or the gardenmulched thickly and left fallow. It's up to you, your sea-sons, your crops and your needs. When the right seasonstarts again, the cycle is complete and the process ofmixed vegetable growing can be repeated.

5 months after sowing,radish, broad bean, cori-ander, etc. produce seed.

The soil is still com-pletely covered.


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Mixed Vegetable Gardening

15

SeedSavingchapter

Compostchapter

LiquidManurechapter

Nutritionchapter

Living Fencechapter

SweepingsChapter

WasteWater chapter


Integrated Pest Management chapter :-how to use local resources and knowledge in manydifferent methods of controlling pests and diseases

Mulching chapter

Integrated PestManagement

chapter

GreenManures chapter


æ

Æ


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 5, Ratadada village,and a member of "Haryali"women's group, Mrs EkmayaShris has planted her ownmixed vegetable garden. Nowlet's hear about her experience.

Mrs Ekmaya Shris

Mrs Ekmaya Shris

I learnt about mixed vegeta-ble gardening from the homesteadprogramme (JPP) so I could growvegetables better. I planted greens,radish, garlic, broad beans, cabbage, coriander and others allat the same time. The beans were good young, and used forlentils when they were older. It's a good method to protectagainst pests as well, and by planting lots of types, if onedoesn't do well the others will still produce food. After plant-ing, there was always food to harvest, but no work for awhole 5 months. We start in September after the monsoon,and there's enough to eat continuously until April. Weedingisn't needed either even though we only put a light mulcharound the plants. This is a great method. Now I can teachwhat I've learned to others, and I'm still learning more aboutwhat I don't know.

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Seed Saving chapter :- information on methodsto produce and store various quality seeds at home

Nutrition chapter :- information about needsand sources of a healthy diet for all the family

Living Fence chapter :- how to plant notjust a fence but also produce fodder, fuelwood,mulch and other benefits

Liquid Manure chapter :- use local plantsto make a liquid for fertilizer and pest control

Compost chapter :- information on how tomake good compost quickly is given in this chapter

Kitchen Garden chapter :- design yourgarden to produce healthy vegetables at low cost

Waste Water chapter :- how to get irriga-tion for the garden from domestic waste water

Sweepings chapter :- how to make goodcompost from sweeping the house and yard

Mulching chapter :- how to grow more cropswith less work while keeping the soil covered

Green Manures chapter :- use green manuresto add fertility to the soil and produce more crops

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What are

Onion seedlings readyfor off-season planting

In Nepal, farmers usually start planting onions from seedin October, and transplant in November. This means thatwhen April comes the crop is ready, and for a short period thebazaar is full of onions. And that means at this time, the priceof onions is low. As a result, it's more difficult for farmers togain a good income from selling onions. However, before andafter this time, the price of onions is 2 or 3 times higher.Then, onions need to be imported from outside the country.How fine it would be for farmers to get such good prices fortheir crops. One way of making more from onion growing isby off-season onion production.

This booklet gives information on how to grow onions tosell over an extended period. Note that months are describedfor the northern hemisphere, and need to be adapted for thesouthern hemisphere.

Off-SeasonOnions ?

Off-SeasonOnions ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions

WhyWhy HowHowgrow off-season Onions ?

2 3

to grow off-season Onions ?

Materials Needed to grow off-season onions

• when onions are less available, they can be sold at higherprices;

• by growing onions out of season, you save having to buythem at higher prices;

• onions are a nutritious vegetable, and it's good to eat themfrom time to time. By growing them out of season, you caneat onions more regularly;

• in the off-season method, onion bulbs are planted at the endof the monsoon when there is still moisture in the soil. Thismeans that poorer farmers without irrigation can benefitmore from producing off-season onions,

Benefits of growing off-season onions New types of seed aren't needed to grow off-seasononions. You can use whatever types you are used to planting,or are locally available.

onionseed digging

tools

compost

2. Where ?Firstly you need a nursery to sow the onion seed in.

Choose a place where the seedlings can be protected andcared for easily. The onion seedlings can be transplanted intothe kitchen garden. If grown on a large scale, a transplant bedis also needed, according to the needs of the farmer.

1. When ?Onion seed is planted between October and December.

Use the same method to plant seed as in normal onion grow-ing. You can also start a little earlier, in September.


The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions4 5

Let's SeeLet's See3. Sowing the seed

Before sowing onion seed,soaking it in water helps to speed upgermination. Change the water twicedaily and after 2-3 days a tiny whiteroot will appear. As soon as thishappens, sow the seed in the nusery.After sowing, cover the seed with fine, fertile soil. Mixingash and ground oil seed cake with the soil provides fertility,and also helps to protect against pests in the soil. Then, coverthe soil with a fine mulch. As the onion seedlings grow,irrigate and weed as needed.

4. Transplanting the seedlingsAfter about a month in the nursery, the seedlings are

transplanted so they are a distance of about 2 inches apart.The seedlings will be about 3-6 inches tall. The nursery bedcan also be used by leaving seedlings at the required distanceafter transplanting the others.

2 inches

These seedlings will grow in the transplant nursery for a fur-ther 2 months, and need to be weeded and watered as required.

Shown here is theonion seed germi-

nating. In thelower photo the

seedlings areready for trans-

planting

How to grow off-season onions

How to grow off-season onions


After transplant-ing, the onionsgrow until the

bulbs are the sizeof a thumbnail.

Then the bulbsare lifted andplaited togetheras shown

The plaitedstrings of onionsare hung up in a

dry, airy andshaded place

They can beleft like this for

4-5 months


At the end of themonsoon the bulbsare planted again.

A shoot quicklygrows and lookslike this after a

week.

As in normal oniongrowing, bending

over the leaves helpsto produce bigger

onions bulbs.

5. When the onion bulbs are the size of athumbnail, they are ready to lift (uproot). Thebulb should be firm. After lifting, plait theleaves together to make a long string ofbulbs 18-24 inches long. There may be 50-60 bulbs in a string.

The string is hung in a shaded, dry andwell-aired place.

6. The string can be left hanging for thewhole of the monsoon. At the end of themonsoon unplait the string and plant thebulbs separately in the vegetable garden.

The off-season onions can be mixed withother vegetable varieties in the garden. More informationabout this is given in the booklets Mixed Vegetable Garden-ing and Kitchen Garden. Planting the bulbs in Septembermeans the onions will be fully grown in November. This isthe time when onions are not easily available so the marketprice is higher

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions10

Occasional irrigation is needed to grow onion seedlings.But by planting at the end of the monsoon there is still plentyof moisture left in the soil. If there is a lack of irrigation,groups of farmers can get together to grow seedlings in oneplace where water is available, such as below a communitytap stand. Then, the bulbs are distributed among the farmersfor storage individually. After the monsoon, everyone canthen plant onion bulbs and produce a good crop without theneed for irrigation.

It's also easy to produce seed from onions grown in thisway. Simply select the best plants, and let them grow to seed.

There's morebenefits for

farmers by sell-ing onions onthe bazaar out

of season

Æ

æ


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 2, Shera village, MrBal Bahadur Regmi hasproduced his own off-seasononions. Now let's hear abouthis experience.

Mr Bal BahadurRegmi

Bal Bahadur Regmi

I've grown off-seasononions since 1997 and I like themethod very much. After sow-ing the seed in December, Ileave the seedlings to grow intofirm bulbs the size of mythumbnail, then lift them andhang them plaited together in a shaded and airy place. Then inSeptember I make beds and plant the bulbs again. At thattime, the soil is moist from the monsoon, so I don't need toirrigate. The onions are then ready to eat and sell in Novem-ber. This method is really easy and I can eat onions whenthere's normally none available. And because there areno other onions available, they're more expensive.You can also save seed using this method. Nowa-days others in the village have started to use thismethod. We produce seedlings on our farm, and dis-tribute the bulbs to other farmers to continue the method ofplanting the bulbs on their own land.

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Growing Off-Season OnionsGood benefits can be had from the information in this

book about growing off-season onions. However, this infor-mation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let'sread, learn and practice from other related booklets.

Kitchen Garden andMixed Vegetable Growing booklets

How to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity ?These booklets give information on how to doless work for more production, while also beingable to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables.

Seed Saving bookletThis booklet gives information on methods toproduce and store various quality seeds at home.

Home Nursery bookletDifferent plant species have different ways ofpropagation. This booklet tells how to easily growmany types of plant for home use.

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In our diets, we eat not only grains, bread, vegetablesand pulses but also different types of herbs. Herbs make foodmore tasty and can also help digestion, and act as medicines.So it's a good idea to learn how to grow appropriate newtypes of herb. In this booklet we learn about some new typesof herb, and how to grow and use them for more benefits inour diet and garden.

How to read the information on new herb varieties ?

1. The herb's name2. Its drawing

6. Its functionsand benefits

3. Its height

4. Its age

5. How to plant itsseed or seedling

Information AboutGrowing Herbs


The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs

Information About Growing HerbsInformation About Growing Herbs

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs2 3

Species

Drawing ofthe Plant

Height

Age

PlantingMethod

Function

Balm

1 metre

perennial

sow direct, orraise in a nursery

and transplant

• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• mulch material

Basil

50 cm

annual


and transplant

• mix with vegetables• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure

perennial

Borage

50 cm

annual


and transplant


and transplant

• mix with vegetables• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure• mulch material

Chamomile

50 cm50 cm

perennial

raise in a nurseryand transplant


• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant

Lavender




Species

Drawing ofthe Plant

Height

Age

PlantingMethod

Function

perennial

50 cm

annual

sow seed or plantcutting in a nurs-

ery, and transplant

• mix with vegetables• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant

Marjoram



ery, and transplant

50 cm

Rosemary


ery, and transplant

• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure• mulch material

perennial annual

Sage Tansy Thyme

perennial

up to 1 metre 1 metre 50 cm


ery, and transplant


ery, and transplant


• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure

raiseand

soraise

and




Species

Drawing ofthe Plant

Height

Age

PlantingMethod

Function


perennial

up to 1 metre50 cm


ery, and transplant

Oregano Nasturtium

perennial

sow direct or raisecuttings in a nurs-ery, and transplant



perennial perennial

sow seed in anursery andtransplant

LemonBergamot

Sorrel Comfrey

Flower

1 metre 25 cm 50 cm

perennial


and transplant

from rootcuttings

• tea• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure

• mix with vegetables• medicine• edge plant


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Spec

iesD

raw

ing

of t

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lant

Hei

ght

Age

Pla

ntin

gM

etho

dF

unct

ion

annual

• mix withvegetables

• medicine• companion

planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant

perennial


50 cm

SummerSavory Feverfew Parsley

50 cm 30 cm

perennial




planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure




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In our diets, we eat not only grains, bread, vegetablesand pulses but also different types of herbs. Herbs make foodmore tasty and can also help digestion, and act as medicines.So it's a good idea to learn how to grow appropriate newtypes of herb. In this booklet we learn about some new typesof herb, and how to grow and use them for more benefits inour diet and garden.

How to read the information on new herb varieties ?

1. The herb's name2. Its drawing

6. Its functionsand benefits

3. Its height

4. Its age

5. How to plant itsseed or seedling






Species

Drawing ofthe Plant

Height

Age

PlantingMethod

Function

Balm

1 metre

perennial


and transplant


Basil

50 cm

annual


and transplant

• mix with vegetables• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure

perennial

Borage

50 cm

annual


and transplant


and transplant


Chamomile

50 cm50 cm

perennial

raise in a nurseryand transplant


• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant

Lavender




Species

Drawing ofthe Plant

Height

Age

PlantingMethod

Function

perennial

50 cm

annual


ery, and transplant


Marjoram



ery, and transplant

50 cm

Rosemary


ery, and transplant

• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure• mulch material

perennial annual

Sage Tansy Thyme

perennial

up to 1 metre 1 metre 50 cm


ery, and transplant


ery, and transplant


• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure

raiseand

soraise

and




Species

Drawing ofthe Plant

Height

Age

PlantingMethod

Function


perennial

up to 1 metre50 cm


ery, and transplant

Oregano Nasturtium

perennial

sow direct or raisecuttings in a nurs-ery, and transplant



perennial perennial


LemonBergamot

Sorrel Comfrey

Flower

1 metre 25 cm 50 cm

perennial


and transplant

from rootcuttings

• tea• medicine• companion planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure

• mix with vegetables• medicine• edge plant


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Age

Pla

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annual




perennial


50 cm

SummerSavory Feverfew Parsley

50 cm 30 cm

perennial




planting• bee food (nectar)• edge plant• liquid manure




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ery

What is a

A Home Nurseryis a nursery made inyour own garden togrow plants that youneed yourself. There isno single way to makea Home Nursery, nor isit made for just onetype of plant. Vegeta-ble, fodder, fruit, me-dicinal herbs, and othertypes of seedling canall be grown in thehome nursery. Then,you can plant theseseedlings on your ownland, or distribute toyour friends, or evensell them. For differentspecies of seedling,there are different types of home nursery.

In this chapter simple methods are described for grow-ing different types of plants for home use.

Belmaya Rana and her HomeNursery, Surkhet, Nepal

Home Nursery ?Home Nursery ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 6 - Home Nursery

WhyWhy HowHow

2 3

make aHome Nursery ?

to make aHome Nursery ?

• to obtain suitable seedlings when needed;• to produce seedlings close to where they are needed;• so seedlings can be cared for and protected at home;• to grow the right species which are right for the local climate;• to make use of domestic waste resources for water and

compost;• to improve productivity on your own

land using trees and shrubs;• seedlings can be exchanged or

sold;• by producing seedlings

yourself you don't need toimport them;

• you increase your skills

It may be that you don't have the resources in your vil-lage to build and manage a large nursery. In a big nurserymore water, compost, and more maintenance would beneeded. This means there is less time to spend working athome, and an extra person would need to be employed. Inmany villages it's difficult to make such arrangements. So,you can use local waste resources and simple methods tosuccessfully raise seedlings, even if only a few, at home.

There are many methods of growing plants, and manydifferent types of nursery to do this. The fruit nursery, leaf potnursery, hot bed, air nursery, etc. all have their own methods.They are described in more detail in other chapters.

In this chapter, at first information is given about thingsconcerned with any type of nursery. After that, we give someexamples of useful types of nursery.

Materials Needed to make a Home Nursery

Diggingtools

cuttingtools

seedlings

seed

roots

cuttings

compost andfertile soil mulch

small sticks(for marking)

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 6 - Home Nursery 5

1. Things to consider when buildinga Home Nursery

(a) Site SelectionIt's important to choose the right place for a nursery. A

site is needed where watering, checking, protecting, mulch-ing, composting and such daily maintenance becomes easier.Once the right site is chosen, we can start to build the nursery.

You can put different types of nursery in different placesaround the farm. But wherever they are, you need protection,compost, water and good seed or seedlings.

(b) ProtectionTo make a successful home nursery it's essential to have

a protected area. If your home nursery isn't protected, chick-ens, goats, etc. will damage it and eat the plants there, and allyour work will go to waste. Also, seedlings won't be availablewhen needed.

What to protect against ?

Danger Management Resources needed

Livestock fence, live fence,watcher, commu-nity agreement

wormwood, thorny plants,Crotalaria, Sesbania,citrus, bamboo, etc

Sun thatch shades,water

straw, mulch, shadetrees, green manures, etc.

Pests &diseases

integrated pestmanagementmethods

healthy soil & plants, liq-uid manure, mixed crops,rotations, companion plant-ing, ash, oil seed cake,cow's urine, neem oil, etc.

Wind mulch, thatchshades, wind-break

straw, mulch, trees (agro-forestry), green manures,etc.

Hail thatch shades,tree cover

straw, mulch, agro-forestry,green manures, etc.

1. Things to consider when buildinga Home Nursery

Dangers to the Home Nursery

sun

wind

pests anddisease

livestock

In any place where these dangersaren't protected against,

the nursery will fail

4

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 6 - Home Nursery6 7

(c) Soil and FertilityManagementTo raise healthy seedlings

in the shortest possible time,fertile soil is essential. If theforest is near, you can bring ingood, fertile soil for makingbeds and filling pots. Other-wise, livestock manure is usedfor making compost to mix withthe local soil. It is important thatcompost is well rotted, and raw oreven half decomposed compostshouldn't be used in the top soil of thenursery. Compost produced from thesweepings pit is good to use. Information about this isgiven in the Sweepings chapter.

If the soil is clay type, mix one part sand with 2 partssoil and one part compost.

(d) Water ManagementBy using waste water from the household, enough water

to irrigate the home nursery can be provided. So morning andevening, washing hands and face, or washing pots and

pans, get into the habit of saving thewaste water for the nursery.More information about howto do this is given in theWaste Water Pit chapter.In the hot season, waterthe nursery in the eve-nings or at night, notduring the day. Bymulching the beds, ormaking a thatch shade,the water used to irrigatewill last longer.

Timely Seed SowingMost seeds can be sown in the nursery in the Spring. In

lower, hotter climates this can start in the winter. At higherelevations it may be some months later. Here, using a hot bedcan mean starting in the winter even at high elevations. Infor-mation about this is given in the Hot Bed chapter. Seedlingsmust always be big enough (at least 8-12 inches) to plant outin the planting season, whenever that is.

(e) SeedTalk with other farmers to decide which species are

wanted to be grown, and where the seed can be obtained.Many types of seed can be collected from the nearby forest orfarmland. This seed should be collected at the right time, andstored well until ready for sowing. Moreinformation about this is given in the SeedSaving chapter.

Soil from the Mother TreeFor many species of tree, if soil is taken from around the

roots of the same species in the forest and mixed in beds orpots, growth in the nursery can be greatly improved. This isbecause the soil under the "Mother Tree" contains essentialmicro-organisms which help the young plants to grow, justlike mother's milk helps a baby.


Species SelectionThe method used in the nursery will depend on which

plants you want to grow.

Type ofnursery

Species grown

Seed sowndirect intonurserybeds

Seed sown intopolypots

Cuttings

Root slips

Air nursery

Hot bed

Leaf pots

Fruit nursery

Vegetables :- cauliflower, cabbage, to-mato, aubergine, chard, brocolli, etc.

Trees :- Persian lilac, neem, sea buck-thorn, ash, coffee, oak, etc. (these canthen be transplanted into pots)

walnut, mango, soapnut, butter tree,etc.

mullberry, napier grass, willow, hazel,some Ficus, etc.

comfrey, lemon grass, broom grass, etc.

Lucaena, Acacia, Sisso, Bauhinia,Sesbania, (most legumes) , papaya, treecotton, etc.

wild peach, pear, citrus, walnut, etc.

pumpkin, tomato, gourds, chilli, auber-gine, etc. for off-season growing

pumpkin, gourds, cucumber, beans, peas,etc.

The air nursery, fruit nursery, hot bed and leaf pots aredescribed in more detail in their own chapters.

2. Making nursery beds2. Making nursery beds

After choosing a site with suitable water and fertilityresources, you can start work on making the beds.

• Size of the bedsThe beds should be 4 feet wide. This allows reaching to

the centre of the bed from either side without stepping on thesoil. The beds can be aslong as you need. Theshape and length of thebeds depends on thenumber of plants youwant to grow.

• Shape of the bedsIf the nursery is on a slope, the beds should follow the

contour, i.e. they should be as level as possible. Watering andaccess should then decide how to design the beds.

Circle nurseryOne good method is to make a

nursery bed around the base of afruit tree. Then, excesswater and compostput on thenursery willgo to the tree,instead ofgoing towaste.

The widthof the bedis 4 feet

4 feet

4 feet4 feet


• Preparing the nursery soil

Dig the nursery bed to a depth of 50 cm (18 inches)and add compost, forest soil, sand, etc. as needed. Aftermaking the soil fine and loose, the beds are ready for sow-ing seed. Tree, shrub and vegetable seed can be sown.Beds for planting cuttings and root slips are made in thesame way.

3. Sowing and Planting in thehome nursery

Now, information is given about planting in differenttypes of nursery. First, how to sow seed, then plant cuttings,and after that examples are given of how to plant napier grass,lemon grass and comfrey.

Lines are made inthe bed to be ready

for sowing seed

3. Sowing and Planting in thehome nursery

(a) Sowing seed in the beds

This method is dependent on the shape and size of theseed.

• Small seed :-alder, eucalyptus, etc. This seed is very small and needs mix-ing with sand or soil to help sow evenly. Mix one part seedwith 2 parts sand or soil. Make small lines across the bed withyour finger, and sow the seed mix into this small trench. Thencover with a thin layer of fine soil.

• Large seed :-make a deeper trench across the bed. Seed is planted at twicethe depth of the seed's thickness.

• Seed planting distance :-leave a distance between seeds which is the same as the sizeof the seed.

Sow the seed twice as deep as its sizeand cover with soil

peach

oakorange

cabbage


@

12 13

how to make aHome Nurseryhow to make aHome NurseryLet's SeeLet's See

1

2

4 fingers (2-3 inches) spacebetween lines

Between seeds,leave the samespace as the size ofthe seed oak seed

example

orange seedexample

• Benefits of planting in a line :- after seeds planted in a linehave germinated, they can be recognised from weeds thatgerminate around them. This means that the bed can beweeded without damaging the new seedlings.

cabbage seedexample

After sowingseed, coverwell with finesoil. Thencover (do notsmother) witha thin, lightmulch

Belmaya's home nurseryin Gumi VDC, Surkhet,

Nepal, with variousplants shaded by thatch.

Coffee seedlings ina home nursery

sheltered bynearby shrubs.



14 15

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

How to plant Napier grass, comfreyand lemon grass in the Home Nursery

Napier grass

Comfreycuttings from

one stem

planting thecuttings

comfreyroots

separated andcut into smallplants (slips)

ready forplanting

Lemon grass

Trimleaves &roots of

largeclump

small slipsmade

from largeclump

slipsplantedin a bedsmall "slips"

planted in a bed


slips planted in a bed

coveredwith a light

mulchslipssprouting

well

mulberrycuttings

sprouting

Lucaena plantedon the edge of the

beds provide shadeand a support for a

frame to holdthatch, as well asproducing fodder,

firewood, etc.

(b) Planting cuttings

Some species are more successful and grow faster fromcuttings than from seed.

Species growing from cuttings :- mulberry, willow,many Ficus, drumstick, grape, honey locust, etc.

Timing of cuttingsCuttings are usually made in the cold, dormant season.

Deciduous plants lose their leaves in winter, and 2-3 weeksbefore sprouting new leaves in the Spring is usually thebest time to plant these cuttings. So if plants sproutin late February, plant the cuttings in early Feb-ruary. If they sprout in mid March, plant thecuttings in late February, etc.

Selecting cuttings When selecting branches for making cuttings,

always choose healthy, undamaged and disease-free branches from last year's wood. Cut the branch cleanlyinto short lengths, and plant quickly in the nursery.

•

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 6 - Home Nursery18

Things to consider when preparing cuttingsCuttings are prepared after bringing to the nursery, and

when preparing should be cut straight at the baseand slanting at the top. Cuttings are usually

between 6 and12 incheslong. Thereshould be atleast 5 budson the cut-ting. Thetop of thecutting

should bepruned just above

the top bud with aslanting cut. If cut too

far above this bud, the wood will dry outand can cause disease to enter.

6ins.

12ins.

cut nearto thebud,

doesn'tdry out

if cut awayfrom the

bud, top willdry out

Preparing a bed for plant-ing cuttings

The bed is dug andmade fertile as for a normalnursery (see p.6 and 10). It'smost important that the soil islight and loose, not com-pacted like clay.

Dig a trench, place cuttings onone side, and fill in

Planting the cuttingsAfter cutting the branch from the tree to be propagated

and trimming it into short lengths, the cuttings should beplanted quickly into thebed to prevent them fromdrying out. Make a trenchin the bed about 4-6 inchesdeep. Place the cuttingsupright about 3 inchesapart against the side ofthe trench. Then refill thesoil into the trench, cover-ing more than half of thecuttings. The cuttingsshould be left at an angle,as in the drawing. Plantthe rest of the bed in lineslike this. The cuttingsshould be left with the

slanting top cut at a vertical angle, and facing away from thesun. By doing this water cannot settle on the top, and the sunwill not dry out the cut surface. Place a light mulch betweenthe cuttings and make thatch shades over the top. This willconserve moisture and protect from frost, hail, etc. The nurs-ery should be well protected, asthe cuttings should not betouched or moved.

dig a trench,place thecuttings andfill in the soil

more thanhalf of the

cuttingshould be

buried

1

2

plant the cuttings at an anglepointing away from the sun

19


Many types of cutting can be planted in the rainy seasonas well. At this time, cuttings can be made and planted directinto farmers' fields.

Broom grass can be planted in a nursery in the sameway, but this is done in the Summer.

(c) Planting Napier grass cuttingsThe nursery for Napier grass is pre-

pared in the same way as for other types.The Napier stem should be mature andslightly woody. If there are small aerialroots and leaves sprouting from theinternodes, these can be planted in a nurs-ery, or directly onto their permanent posi-tions in the fields. To make the cutting,make a slanting cut mid point between 2nodes. When planting in the nursery makesure the node on the cutting is buried inthe soil. If successful, roots will sproutfrom this node and the cutting will grow.

(d) Planting Lemon grass slipsTo propagate lemon grass, carefully dig out a large

clump and divide into small plants, or slips. These can then beplanted in the nursery. In the rainy season the small slips canalso be planted out directly into the fields. Before planting,the leaves should be trimmed to about 4-6 inches and theroots trimmed to about 2-3inches long. Plant as describedabove, cover with mulch andwater well.

Make small slipsfrom a large clump

Trim theleaves and

roots

4-6 inches

2-3 inches

Dig a trench, place theslips and fill in the soil


(e) Planting root slipsSome plants will grow from planting

sections of root, or root and shoots. Byplanting these in a nursery, many usefulplants can be produced in a small space.Plants which will grow from root slipsinclude comfrey, lemon grass, broomgrass and cardamon. Preparation of bedsto plant root slips is the same as othermethods described above.

Planting methodThe method for

planting root slips is thesame for plantingcuttings. Dig a trenchand line the root slipsalong one side, then fillin the soil again. Leave asmall shoot sticking upfrom the soil surface.Then cover with mulchand irrigate. Atfirst the bedshould be wellwatered, andthen give wateras needed. Adda thatch shade asrequired.

(f) Using PolypotsMany seeds can be planted directly into polypots. Others

planted into beds can then be transplanted into polypots afterthey have germinated.Planting seeds in polypots

When planting seed in polypots, the seed is buried by thesame depth of soil as is the thickness of the seed. When fillingthe pots with loose, fertile soil, leave enough space to placethe seed, then cover it with the remaining soil, as in thepicture below.

Large seed likepeach is planteddeeper, and cov-ered by more soil

Placing the polypots in the nurseryAfter seed is sown in the pots they are put into the nurs-

ery beds. A bed width of 1 metre is enough, the length isaccording to the number of pots needed. It's not necessary toprepare the soil of the beds as the good soil is already filledinto the pots. It is better if the floor underneath the pots ismade of stone or gravel.

Dig atrench and

line outroot slips

Refill the trench tobury the slips

Small seedis covered

with a thinlayer

of soil


To keep the pots upright in the bed, place stones, bricksor bamboo around the edge. In a 1 metre wide bed, you can fit18-20 regular small sized polypots (2 inch diameter) filledwith soil. If large size, (4 inch) 8-10 pots will fit in one line.

To allow more space in the bed, place a cross bar madeof bamboo every 6 lines of pots, and continue to place morepots the other side of it. When all are placed, water and placea thatch shade on top of the bed.

Cross bar placedevery 6 lines of pots Bed with

stone, bricksor bamboo on

the edge

Root pruning in the potsAs the seed germinates and the plant grows, its roots will

grow down into the soil in the pot. If the roots are allowed togrow too long and thick out of the holes in thepots, lifting the pots will be difficult and ifthe roots break the plant may die. So afterthe first month of growing, the potsshould be lifted to check for roots grow-ing out of the holes. If found, theyshould be cleanly cut and the pot re-turned to the bed. After the first pruning,pots should be checked every 2 weeks.Pruning the roots like this is good for theplant and means it can be planted easily.Not pruning can cause the plant to die.

Transplanting seedlings from bed to pot

If plants are to be transplanted frombed to pot, the seedling is ready at the4 leaf stage. First, water the bed welland then carefully lift the seedlingswith the help of a small stick.

Using the stick, make a hole inthe soil of the pot for the roots.

Making sure the roots of the seedlingare pointing downwards, place theseedling into the hole. The roots mustall be in the hole.

Finally, use the stick or fingers topress the hole closed around theroots, and give water.

For some days afterwards keep a shade over the bed, asthe seedlings need to be protected from the sun.

(g) Irrigating in the nurserySeedlings need the right amount of water to grow well.

With too little water seed will not germinate, and growingseedlings will dry out. Too much water and they will rot, andthe water is wasted. Mulch and shading reduce the amount ofwater needed by conserving the moisture. In the cold seasonit is best to water in the morning, and in the hot season waterin the evening or at night.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 6 - Home Nursery26

(g) Thatching over the nurserySmall seedlings need protection against heavy rain,

strong sun, frost and hail, etc. On hot, sunny days shadesshould be placed over the beds from around 11am to 3pm. Theshade should be about 50cm high. In the winter, or wheneverfrost is likely, shades are needed at night, and should be about25cm high.

To protectfrom the sunin summer,high shades

are needed inthe daytime.

To protect fromfrost in the win-ter, low shadesare needed at

night(h) Weeding in the nursery

Various weeds will grow in the nursery. These needcontinuous removal. Sometimes it's difficult to distinguishweeds from sown plants. By sowing in straight lines, seed-lings can be recognised after they germinate. Everything elsewill be weeds and can be carefully pulled, dried, and mulched

back on the beds.

Mrs Devi Gurung

æ

Æ


Mrs Devi Gurung

From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Gumi - 3, Shera vil-lage, and a member of"Chintan" Women'sGroup, Mrs Devi Gurunghas made her own homenursery. Now let's readabout her experience.

I learned about makinga home nursery from theHomestead Programme(JPP) and my local Women'sGroup. Now, in my nurseryI have seedlings for produc-ing fruit, firewood, fodder and the like. I have tree cotton,coffee, Bauhinia, bamboo, Acacia, papaya, Lucaena and soon. Some seedlings are in beds, some are in polypots, accord-ing to the species of plant. So now it's easy to plant them onmy land. For fertility in the nursery and the vegetable gardenI used the compost in the sweepings pit. And the waste waterpit provides enough water for irrigation. All together there are5 to 600 seedlings. Mainly I'll be planting them at home, but Iwill also swap some with friends in the group, and give someaway as well.

27

Gri

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Read On !Read On !Subjects Related to Home Nursery

Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chaptersHow to make and manage a home vegetable garden for perma-nence, ease and simplicity ? Information on doing less work formore production while also being able to produce a wide rangeof fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.

Four chapters on how to make various othernurseries :- Different types of plants need different types ofmanagement to grow them successfully. Information on how tobuild and manage the fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leafpots is given in these chapters.

Integrated Pest Management chapterThere are many types of pest and disease which affect farmcrops. In this chapter information is given about preventingthese problems using local resources.

Agroforestry chapter :- information about how tointegrate trees and crops by planting and managing trees onfarmland without decreasing farm yield and producing arange of other useful products is given in this chapter.

Waste Water chapter :- If you need extra water forthe home nursery, find information in this chapter about how tomake use of household and tapstand waste water for irrigation.

Liquid Manure chapter :- Use local plants to make aliquid for fertilizer and pest control from information in this chapter.

Th

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7 -

Hot

Bed

What is a

Bhim Regmi and his Hot Bed

Good, nutritious food is not only a need for everybody,it's a right. Many farmers grow vegetables, which helps toprovide us with many essential nutrients. But there are severalmonths when seeds won't grow because of the cold, and thekitchen garden stays empty. One method of raising vegetableseedlings even in cold weather is called the Hot Bed.

The hot bed is a way or providing extra heat to the soiland growing seedlings in the cold season, so seedlings can begrown ahead of time. This means that vegetables can begrown off season, even in cold climates. Read on, to find outhow to do this.

Hot Bed ?Hot Bed ?

k'l:tsf g+= ^ – tftf] g;{/L

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 7 - Hot Bed

HowHow

2 3

make aHot Bed ?

to make aHot Bed ?

In cold climates and at high altitudes, for several monthsover Winter and early Spring there is snow and frost, whichprevents seeds germinating and can kill young plants. For thisreason seedlings can't be grown until the time for frost haspast and the weather warms up. By making a hot bed, seed-lings can be grown even in the winter. This means that veg-etables can be produced 1 or 2 months earlier than usual.

Village-madeHot Bed

There are also economic benefits from this. If vegetablescan be raised off season, i.e. ahead of time, they can be sentearlier to the market when prices will be higher. For example,if in a normal season vegetables are 10 rupees a kilo, at off-season times the vegetables may be sold at 15-20 rupees.

Making the Hot Bed

• Choose a good site for the nursery. This must be easy toprotect and maintain, with plenty of sun.

• Dig a trench. The trench should be 1 metre wide, 50cmdeep, and as long as you need for the amount of plants tobe grown (a 1x1m hot bed is usually enough for severalfamilies to share seedlings grown for planting in their ownkitchen gardens).

• Place a 3 inch thick layer of straw or leaf litter in the bot-tom of the trench.

• On top of this place a 3 inch layer of raw, fresh cow orhorse dung, and wet well.

• On top of the dung place another 3 inch layer of straw orleaf litter.

• Then return a 3 inch layer of the soil dug from the trench.• Finally put a 3 inch layer of fine, fertile soil (which can be

made by mixing compost with the dug out soil, if it is suit-able).

WhyWhy



Materials Needed to make a Hot Bed

4 5

The seed will be sown into this layer of fine, fertile soil.In the Hot Bed we can sow seeds direct into the soil, or intoleaf pots filled with the same soil. After sowing the seed,cover the bed with a thin layer of finely chopped mulch.

Finally, the bed is covered with a sheet of plastic. Firstof all make a bamboo frame on which to hang the plastic.Bury the edges of the plastic in the soil around the bed, so aircannot get in.

bamboo

straw orleaf litter

seed

diggingand cut-ting tools

clearplastic

2 metres

rottedcompost

freshdung

1 basket 1 basket1 basket

1. Heat from the dung helps seeds to germinate

plasticsun

heatthin mulch

soil +compost

soil

straw fresh dung straw

50cm deep

2. The plastic helps to protect growingseeedlings from frost

plastic

sungerminating seedlings

seed

Inside shown through cross sectionHot BedHot Bed

Inside shown through cross section

heat



#

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6 7

how to make aHot Bed

how to make aHot BedLet's SeeLet's See

2

1

3

Species to grow in the hot bedMost types of vegetable can be grown in the hot bed.

Usually, summer crops are most suitable as these are the onesthat can be started for early planting after the winter.

season

plantingmethod

rainy sea-son plants

dry seasonplants

leaf pots

direct intothe bed

pumpkin,cucumber,gourds, beans,etc.

beans, peas,etc.

chillis, auber-gine, ladies'finger, sun-flower, etc.

tomatoes,broadleaf mus-tard, chard,lettuce, onion,cabbage, etc.

dig a trench50cm deep,

1 metre wide,and as long

as needed

In the bottom place a3 inch layer of straw

or leaf litter

On top of thisplace a 3 inchlayer of fresh

dung

rainy sea-son plants


The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 7 - Hot Bed8 9

4

6

5

7

8

9

On top ofthe dung

put anotherlayer ofstraw

On top ofthis put a

3 inchlayer of

the trenchsoil

Then put a 3inch layer offine, fertile

soil

Make linesin the soilto sow theseed into

Leaf pots withseed sown canalso be put inthe hot bed

Now coverthe wholebed with afine mulch



10

12

11

How tomaintaina Hot Bed

MaintenanceMaintenanceMake a

bamboo orstick

frame

Hang the plas-tic on this andbury the edges

in the soil

The plasticopened to weed

the nursery

From time to time the nursery needs maintaining :-

• when the sun is out the plastic can be folded back to irrigateand weed the nursery as required;

• replace the plastic in the evening, when the sun goes down;• heat from the dung warms the soil, and the plastic prevents

it quickly escaping;• when the danger of frost has passed the seedlings in the hot

bed can be transplanted into the kitchen garden

Mrs LaxmiThapa and

her Hot Bed



From time totime open the

hot bed to checkinside

At this timegiving water,

liquid manure,or weeding can

be done

Remove the plastic whenthe danger of frost is over.

Make a fence to protectagainst livestock

tomatoseedlings pumpkins

in leafpots

lettuceseedlings



When seedlings are ready

hot bed

seedlings

beds aremulched

kitchen gardenbeds

seedlings

When the danger of frost is passed, seedlings can betransplanted from the hot bed into the kitchen garden.First, water the plants well before transplanting. Waterthem again once they have been transplanted.


14Æ

Æ


Mrs TulisaraGyami

From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Lekh Pharsa-2,Purano Gaun village, anda member of "Creative"Women's Group, MrsTulisara Gyami has madeher own hot bed nursery.Now let's read about herexperience.

In our village, it's diffi-cult to grow vegetables in thewinter because of the cold atthat time. The frost kills theplants. That's why I made ahot bed, to grow off season vegetables. After I made the hotbed it was easy to grow vegetables earlier in the season. Assoon as I saw the first hot bed, I knew it would workbecause the morning after the day we made it, the heat hadwarmed up the inside and it was full of steam. Outside wewere shaking with cold, but inside the plastic seedlingsstarted to germinate very quickly. I used the bed for 3 or 4successive plantings into the garden. This made it easy togrow lots of beneficial vegetables 2 months sooner thannormal.

Mrs Tulisara Gyami

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Read On !

Subjects Related to the Hot Bed

Many types ofvegetable foroff-season pro-duction can begrown in the hotbed. Cucumber,pumpkin, beans,etc. can also begrown off season.You can learnhow to make leafpots from thischapter.

Leaf Potschapter Mixed Vegetable

Gardeningchapter


Plants grown inthe nursery canbe mixed withall sorts of oth-ers for planting.Information on amethod produc-ing more withless work isgiven in thischapter.

Where, when,and how to plantseedlings raisedin the nurserywith less workand more pro-duction ? Infor-mation on howto make a suc-cessful kitchengarden is givenin this chapter.

Hot Bedchapter

Read On !

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Air

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What is an

It's everyone'sresponsibility toplant trees andmake the Earthgreen. But becauseof lack of skills toraise plants, manyfarmers don't dothis importantwork. They may tryto do it, but oftenthe planting isn'tsuccessful. In thischapter we discussthe question of howto raise seedlings using local resources and less work. Thereare many types of nursery to raise different types of seedlings.Here, we learn about a new and quite different type of nurs-ery, called an Air Nursery.

An Air Nursery is a bed which is lifted above the ground,so there is empty air space between the bottom of the bed andthe ground below.

Ram and Lilawati Gharti's Air Nursery

Air Nursery ?Air Nursery ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 8 - Air Nursery

☞

HowHowmake anAir Nursery ?

to make anAir Nursery ?

2 3

Materials needed to make an Air NurseryThe main purpose of the air nursery is to produce a good

shape for seedlings' roots. It is mainly useful for those plantswhich develop a fast-growing tap root.

Seedlings are usually raised from seed sown in a nurserybed, or sown direct into polypots, or transplanted from one tothe other. But it's very easy to damage the roots as youngseedlings are transplanted from one place to another. Manyplants can dry out. In polypots, roots need pruning regularly,and if this is forgotten or not possible at the right time, theroots grow into the soil and when lifted can break and dam-age the plant. The air nursery is especially for species thatgrow these fast, long roots in the nursery.

A small airnursery canbe made in

the corner ofa kitchengarden

This chapter's Author :-Mrs Belmaya RanaLocal Coordinator, Gumi,Surkhet, Nepal

When to build an air nurseryThe air nursery is built whenever normal nurseries are

started. This is normally late winter for lower, warmer areas,and later in the spring for higher, cooler areas.

Building the Air NurseryOn the following pages the building method for the air

nursery is described, with pictures and text.

WhyWhy

diggingtools seed

straw orleaf litter

fertile soil

about 3 baskets

ropenails

stakes bamboo planks sticks


@

4 5

1

2

3

4

Dig holes at 4corners of a

square and drivein 4 strong stakes

Place strong sticksacross the uprights

Place smallersticks across

Add smallersticks and strawto close all holes

6

5

8

7

Strongly secure4 planks around

the top

Fill with fertilesoil

Plant seeds in lines

Cover the seedswith soil and

cover the soil witha light mulch

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 8 - Air Nursery6 7

Let's SeeLet's See

2

1

how to make anAir Nursery

How to makeDig in 4 stakes at the corners of a square, and between

50cm and 1 metre high, so they are strong and steady.Surround the top frame with planks or bamboo, and fill

with up to 6 inches of fine, fertile soil to make the nurserybed. Dig a round pit 50 cm deep and 50 cm in diameter un-derneath the nursery. The soil from this can be used this to fillthe nursery above. This pit then has a second use when linedwith plastic to make liquid manure in, and is shaded by thenursery above. Now the air nursery is ready to sow seeds in.After sowing, cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil andthen a fine mulch, and water the bed well. Seeds will germi-nate quicker if first soaked in warm water for 1-2 days.

Species to plant inthe Air Nursery

Making thehot bed in ashady spotbehind the

house

Making thepillars and

frame to holdthe bed

Plants which produce a fast grow-ing tap root are ideal for the air

nursery, such as:-Lucaena, Acacia, Bauhinia,

Dalbergia, Sesbania,Gliricidia, Flemengia,Calliendra, tree cotton,mango, papaya, walnut,

honey locust, etc.

how to make anAir Nursery


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4

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5

7

8

Use straw orleaf litter to

stop soilfrom falling

through

Enclose thespace withplanks, as

shown here

Inside this,put up to 6

inches of fer-tile soil

Make thesoil fine

and even

Make lines tosow the seeds

into

how to sow theseeds in the bed


9

10 11

10

Cover withmulch andwater well

and regularly

After 3months, show-ing seedlingsgrowing well

The rootsof a

papayagrown in

an airnursery

are shortand wellbunched

The rootsof a

papayagrown in

an airnursery

are shortand wellbunched

The top of thebed is well

mulched withleaf litter

Underneathis a pit for

making liq-uid manure

Ms ChandraPun shows

the roots of apapaya

grown in theair nursery


How tomaintain

an Air NurseryMaintenanceMaintenance

12 13

Both roots shown below belong to thepapaya plant. One is grown in a

polypot and the other in an air nursery.What difference can you see ?

In apolypot

In an airnursery

The roots are in afine root ball, easy

to dig out and plant

Because of the long tap root, diggingup is difficult and damages the plant

In an airnursery

In apolypot

This is how the plants in an air nursery grow well. Fromtime to time regular maintenance of watering and weeding isneeded, and liquid manure can be used.

Things to note :-Water will dry out faster than normal in the air nursery,

so watering is needed more often. In the hot season wateronce or twice a day, and in the cold season once every 2 daysis enough.

Here's a big, community airnursery to grow many seedlings

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 8 - Air Nursery14 15

So the roots will grow down as the leaves and stemsgrow up. As the fast-growing tap roots grow down, they meetthe base of the bed and grow into the air space. Here, theywill dry up and die, which stops the deep root growing - thisis automatic root pruning. Instead, many fine roots will growhigher up.

When this is done, it becomes much easier to dig upseedlings for planting out, and roots are not damaged. Noharm is done to the seedling. Just trim off the dead roots whenit is time to plant out.

A layered sys-tem with air

nursery on topand other plants

below to fitmore into asmall space.

Sunrise Farm,Kathmandu

æ

Æ


From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 2,and members of the "Don't be Alone"Farmers' Group, MrRam Bahadur Ghartiand Mrs LilawatiGharti have madetheir own AirNursery. Now let'shear about theirexperience.

At first we didn't believe a nursery could be in the air !But then the Homestead Programme (JPP) taught us and webuilt our own. We didn't think we had the materials to buildone but managed to find bits and pieces and eventually inonly half an hour we'd built an air nursery. If we'd knownhow to build it before it would've been much easier becauseit's a much better way of growing seedlings, to dig up withoutdamaging the roots. We made the nursery taller to protect theseedlings from being eaten by the chickens and pigs. It's justright for growing seedlings for planting on our own land, andwe give to friends as well. But I've said I'm not giving anynext year so they'll have to make their own nursery. They'veagreed to that, at least.

Mr Ram Bahadur Ghartiand Mrs Lilawati Gharti

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Read On !Subjects Related to the Air Nursery

Agroforestry, LivingFence, Fruit Orchard andSoil Conservation chapters

The air nursery is for growingstrong, healthy plants. Information onhow and where to plant fruit andmulti-purpose seedlings for better pro-duction and less work is given in thesechapters.

Home Nursery chapter

Around the homestead you need to plantmany different plants for different func-tions. Information on different nurseriesto grow various types of plants is givenin this chapter.

Good benefits can be had from the information in thisbook about making and using an air nursery. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !

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9 -

Lea

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What are

There are variousmethods to raise manydifferent species ofplant. Often, certainspecies cannot be trans-planted as small seed-lings, and they need tobe sown direct in thegarden or fields. Whenthese species are sown,such as beans, pump-kins, gourds and cu-cumbers, lack of carefor the small plantsmean that many die dueto pests, weeds, lack ofwater, etc., and are wasted. But by sowing in a Leaf Pot nurs-ery, the plants can get the necessary care and attention whenyoung, and be planted out when they are strong and healthy.This saves many seeds and plants from going to waste.

This method of using large leaves to make into pots,filling them with fertile soil and growing seedlings is called aLeaf Pot Nursery.

Leaf Pots ?Leaf Pots ?

Watering leaf pots in a nursery

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots

HowHowmakeLeaf Pots ?

to makeLeaf Pots ?

3

• For growing seedlings which can't be transplanted frombeds, such as some vegetables, fast growing trees or greenmanure seed plants, leaf pots can be used.

• Vegetables such as beans, pumpkin, cucumber, gourds, etc.cannot be transplanted bare-root, so these can be sown inleaf pots.

• Trees and green manure species, such as velvet bean,Sesbania, Crotalaria (such as sunhemp), lab lab bean, etc.,which are to be used for seed production and so need morecare and attention, can be started in leaf pots.

• When seedlings are growing in a leaf pot nursery, they canbe given better care. This helps them to grow well, andalso stops seed and seedlings being wasted.

Choose big, whole, unbroken leaves of the appropriatespecies. These leaves are rolled into a cone and stitched withbamboo pins. This will hold the soil well. After filling withfertile soil, the cones are sown with seed and covered withsoil the same as if using polypots.

WhyWhy

Materials Needed to make Leaf Pots

largeleaves

bamboostrips or rope seed

sticks

bambooposts

crowbarThis Booklet's Author :Chris Evans, advisor,Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepalwww.designedvisions.com

2

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots4 5

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4

Making a Standfor the Leaf Pots

1 metre

1 metre

Dig in 2 up-right stakes

Split the bam-boo and attachhorizontallybetween the 2uprights, tomake a gapwhich the leafpots can fit into.

Filled leaf potsare placed in arack made like

this

Making the Leaf Pots

twist

twist

Use leaves to fit the size of seed-ling grown. Big leaves will

make big pots for big seedlings,and small leaves for small pots

with small seedlings

Take both endsof the leaf andstart to twist

Twist the leafinto a cone

shape with oneend closed

bamboopin

Pin the leaf into acone shape as shown

here

twist

twist

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots6 7

Let's SeeLet's See

2

1

3

4

bamboopin

leaves formaking pots

2 potsready to fill

with soil

Put the rack for holding the leaf potsin the shade. Fill the pots with fertile

soil and place them in the rack

Leaf pot filled withfertile soil ready for

planting seed

Two seedsplanted in the

middle of the pot

how to makeLeaf Pots

how to makeLeaf Pots

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots

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5

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8

How tomaintainLeaf Pots

MaintenanceMaintenanceSeed is sown in the potsand covered with a finger

width of soil

Add watercarefully

A seedstartingto grow

These plants needwatering daily

Keeping the pots while seedlings growAfter sowing seed in the leaf pots, they need to be put in

a safe place. The pots can be half buried in a nursery bed, orin a hot bed, as necessary. Another method for keeping leafpots can be called a vertical nursery. This can only be usedfor cone-shaped leaf pots. A vertical nursery doesn't use upany land and can bemade next to thehouse or on the edgeof the courtyard.Seedlings will alsobe safe from chick-ens. See p. 4 for howto build the verticalnursery.

High outputfrom a small

area. Leafpots under anair nursery,

with a pit forliquid manure

at groundlevel.

9

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots10

Because they are in the air, leaf pots in a vertical nurserycan dry out quickly so need small amounts of water once ortwice a day. If placed in the shade, they will need less water.

Planting the Leaf PotWhen the seedling has grown to the 4 leaf stage it can be

planted out. At the place where it is to be planted, dig a smallhole and fill with compost. Without taking the seedling out ofthe pot, plant both to-gether in the hole. Bydoing this the roots of theseedling aren't disturbed.The leaf pot should becompletely buried. Afterplanting, add mulch andwater well.

Seedlings beingplanted with

their leaf pots

Æ

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From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Gumi - 3, Ratadadavillage, and a member of"Hariyali" women's group,Mrs Vishnumaya Shris hasmade her own leaf pots. Nowlet's hear what she says.


Mrs VishnumayaShris

Mrs Vishnumaya Shris

If we plant various typesof seed direct onto the landmany can die, or not growwell. So we make leaf pots,filling them with soil andsowing them with seeds suchas pumpkin, cucumber, beans, cow pea, bitter gourd, bottlegourd, etc., especially the climbing vegetables. We keep thepots in a vertical rack made from bamboo. We tie split bam-boo in between 2 upright posts which leaves a gap perfect forholding the leaf pots. The pots need watering every day.Seedlings grow faster than if sown direct in the field, and areready to plant out 2-3 weeks after sowing. We found thatthese plants suffer less from insect pests than others, perhapsbecause they're stronger. We share these skills in the group. Iteach to some, and learn from others.

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Read On !Subjects Related to Leaf Pots

This book provides enough information to be able tomake and grow plants in your own leaf pots. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Mixed VegetableGardening

chapter


Leaf pots arevery useful insuccessful veg-etable gardening.Information aboutthis and othereasy methods forhome-producinghealthy vegetablesat low cost isgiven in thischapter

With less weed-ing, watering andother work, andharvesting vari-ous types ofvegetables from3 weeks afterplanting, lastingup to 6 months.Information onthis easy tech-nique is given inthis chapter

Hot Bedchapter

This chapterdescibes howto use leaf potseedlings alongwith othervarieties in ahot bed togrow off sea-son vegetables

Leaf Pot chapter

Read On !

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Pro

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an Introductionan Introduction

'Fruit is the elixir of life''Fruit is the elixir of life'

Producing Fruit at Home Producing Fruit at Home

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home2 3

Did you know ...?• The reason why

people often like sweet food isbecause of the need for vitamin "C".Fruit has lots of vitamin C, and ripe fruit is usu-ally sweet, so we are programmed to like sweet things.That's why people like sugar products. But of course,there's no vitamin C in sugar !

• Eating a piece of fruit after a meal helps the intestine todigest the meal.

• Fruit is tasty, juicy and nutritous, and contains manyessential vitamins and minerals for our bodies.

• It is one of our responsibilities to plant fruit trees. That'swhy even if we only have a small piece of land, many ofus are keen to plant fruit trees.

In this Farmers' Handbook there is information aboutvarious methods of producing fruit. In this volume, Near theHouse (2), are chapters about the Fruit Nursery, Grafting,Budding and Stone Grafting. In the next volume, The Fields,are chapters about Air Layering, Top Grafting, Planting FruitTrees and Integrated Fruit Orchards.

This chapter gives additional information to help theother technical chapters be more effective. They are all con-nected together to give simple methods to successfully pro-duce more fruit at home.

To grow improved fruit varieties, it's possible to join local,wild varieties with their improved relatives. Information aboutwhich species to join, when to join them and which method isused to join them is given in the chart on the next 2 pages.

Grafting

Budding

Air Layering

Top Grafting

Cuttings

StoneGrafting

Grafting

Budding

StoneGrafting

Cuttings

Top Grafting

Air Layering

After this, on page 7, is information about the otherchapters related to fruit production.

Information about ImprovedFruit Varieties

Information about ImprovedFruit Varieties

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home

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1 32The fruits you wantto produce are in

these columns

The localspecies (root-stock) to join

them to

Here is information about which techniques to use, andwhen to use them (Northern Hemisphere)

Species of scion(branch)

Drawing Grafting Top Grafting

Peach

Plum

Almond

Apricot

Walnut

Apple

Pear

Citrus spp.

Persimon

Mango

Guava

Grape

Cherry

wild peach

wild peachor plum

wild peach

wild peachor apricot

wild walnut

wild apple

wild pear

Trifolate

local persimon

wild mango

guava

grape

wild cherry

Feb-MarchAug-Sept

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

March-April

Feb-MarchAug-Sept

Feb-MarchAug-Sept

Oct-Nov

Feb-March

June-July(stone grafting)

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Feb-March

Budding AirLayering

Cuttings StoneGrafting

June-July

June-July

June-July

June-July

June-July

June-July

June-July

June-July

June-July

Feb-April

Feb-April

Feb-April

Feb-April

Feb-March

May-June

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home6 7

Subjects Related to Fruit ProductionAn easy way to irrigate fruit trees

Bury a porous clay pot about50cm away from a newly

planted fruit seedling. Whenthis is filled with water, it

soaks out of the pot directlyto the root zone of the seed-

ling. Instead of a pot, thehardened shell of a bottlegourd can be used, with a

small hole made in the base.

bottle gourd

clay pot

fruit seedling

stone mulch

These chapters give different techniques to growfruit trees successfully in the villages.

Fruit Nursery chapterHow to grow root stock from local wild fruit seedfor grafting and budding on your own land.

Grafting & Budding chaptersProduce high quality and quick fruiting seedlingsat home with these 2 methods.

Stone Grafting chapterGraft improved mango onto local wild treesquickly and easily at home.

Air Layering chapterProduce good quality citrus, guava, lichi, pome-granate, etc. with this easy method.

Top Grafting chapterEasy methods to graft wild trees growing in thefields and forests to make productive fruit trees.

Fruit Tree Planting chapterHow to plant out high value fruit trees for bestproduction using local resources.

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterFruit and other multi-purpose trees in an orcharddesigned to give maximum yields quickly.

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To bind grafted fruit treesplastic tape is usually used. But MrLal Bahadur Buddha, a Farmers'Leader from Jajarkot district,Danagaun-2, Kalpat village in Ne-pal, has found a method whichdoen't need plastic for grafting,budding and top grafting work. Hevery carefully strips a thin layerfrom the surface of the Sisal plant (Agave spp.) and uses thisinstead to bind scion to rootstock (see picture). Using plasticyou need to be careful to cut it off after 3-4 months or it willstrangle the seedling. Not so with sisal - because it is organicit degrades and falls off by itself.

Lal Bahadur has for manyyears played a leading role infruit improvement in hisdistrict. He has even inventeda new method to graft walnut(see the Grafting chapter).When experts from the Horti-culture Station in Kathmandusaid that it is only possible toget a 25% success rate withwalnut, Lal was getting 80%with his own method. Hespends his time teaching otherfarmers his methods.

Farmers' Innovation -Plastic or Organic ?

Farmers' Innovation -Plastic or Organic ?

Lal B. BuddhaLal B. Buddha

'wisdom' has gotsomething aboutlong time, atleast a genera-tion, experienceto it - farmerinnnovationmay be better orknowledge or ?

Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery

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What is a

The fruit nursery is a place where local wild fruit seedis sown to grow seedlings. This means selecting from healthy,disease free species that grow wild or on farms, such as wildpear, peach, walnut, apple, etc. Branches (scion) or buds fromgood fruiting trees, which must also be healthy and diseaseresistant, can then be joined onto these seedlings while still inthe fruit nursery. This will produce high quality fruit treeswith strong, local roots. The work of joining 2 compatibleplants together in the fruit nursery is called grafting or bud-ding. Information about these methods is given in their ownchapters.

Fruit Nursery ?Fruit Nursery ?

Local fruit nursery, Panchkatya, Jajarkot

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery

This Chapter's Author :

HowHowmake aFruit Nursery ?

to make aFruit Nursery ?

2

• To grow im-proved fruit treesin your ownvillage.

• To make use ofthe local wildfruit trees.

• To grow fruittrees suited to thelocal climate andsoil.

• To be able toobtain fruit treeswhenever youneed.

• To save the costof buying fruittrees.

• To grow fruit trees which produce quickly.• To be able to generate income from local resources.

1. Time to build the nurseryThe best time to build the fruit nursery is in the Autumn

(October in the Northern hemisphere)

2. Materials neededThese are the materials needed to build a fruit nursery:

• seed : collect good viable seed of local, wild fruit trees,such as peach, plum, apricot, cherry, walnut, pear, etc.

• digging tools;• biomass : a basket each of well rotted compost, semi de-

composed biomass, and fresh green leaves.

Seven types of local plum

WhyWhy

Materials Needed to make a Fruit Nursery

seed diggingtools crowbar

semi-decomposedbiomass or dried

leaf litter green leaveswell rotted

compost

one basket one basketone basket

3

Chris Evans, advisor,Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepalwww.designedvisions.com

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Site SelectionIt's important to choose the right place for a nursery. A

site is needed where watering, checking, protecting, mulchingand composting and such daily maintenance will be easy.

Digging the bedThe bed for planting the seed can be as long as you need,

depending on the number of seeds you have to sow. First, diga trench about 6 inches wide and 6-8 inches deep, keeping theremoved soil close by. Then with a crow bar or pick axe,loosen up another 6-8 inches of soil in the bottom of thetrench, without removing it from the trench.

Now place a 2 inch layer of green leaves in the bottomof the trench. On top of this put a 2 inch layer of the soil dugout of the trench. Next, put a 2 inch layer of half decomposedor dried leaf litter. Cover this layer with another 2 inch layerof soil. Then put a 2 inch layer of the well rotted compost.Now put all the remaining soil that was dug out of the trenchto make a mound above the trench. The trench has now beenrefilled with the soil, green leaves, leaf litter and compost.

Cross section to show the fruitnursery trench

2-3 inches betweenlines of seed

fertile soil

seed

compost

soil

semi rotted compost

soil

green leaves

loosened soil

6-8

inch

es d

eep

6-8

inch

es d

e ep

trench 6-8 inches wide

mulch


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how to make aFruit NurseryLet's SeeLet's See how to make aFruit Nursery

21

36 7

Sowing seed in the nurseryNow the local, wild fruit seed, such as wild pear, apple,

peach, plum, apricot, walnut, etc. can be sown in the nursery.Along the heaped up bed make 2 shallow grooves 3-4 inchesapart, and place the seed into these grooves. The distancebetween each seed in the line should be the same as the sizeof the seed itself. Cover the seed with soil to a depth which isthe same thickness of the seed, and then cover with a 2-3 inchthick layer of mulch. For the mulch, use leaf litter, straw,pulled weeds, etc.

Sow the seeds asshown here.

distance between 2 seeds is the thickness of oneseed

3 in

chdi

stan

ce

distance between 2 seeds is the thickness of oneseed

3 in

chdi

stan

ce

spade

pick

leaf litter green leaves

compost

hook

Materialsneeded to makea fruit nursery

Size of thetrench

6-8 inchesdeep

6-8 inches wide

2m lo

ng

soil removedfrom trench

Dig out the trenchand leave the soil at

the edge


4

6

5

7

8

9

10

8 9

Dig down another 6-8inches to loosen the soilwithout taking it out of

the trench

Put a basket of greenleaves in the trench

Cover with a layer ofthe soil removed from

the trench

Then put a layer ofleaf litter

Cover this withmore soil

Now put in thecompost

Put in the rest of thesoil with compost to

make a mound


1211

13

10 11

How tomaintain

a Fruit NurseryMaintenanceMaintenance

Peachseed

For sowingdistance seeearlier p.6

Put onmulch

After sowing the seed the nursery needs good mainte-nance. Seed sown in the Autumn will germinate the nextSpring. In the months in between, the nursery should be wa-tered deeply every 2-3 weeks if it doesn't rain. This will helpthe seed to germinate well. After the seeds have germinated,the mulch helps to conserve moisture in the soil, and keepsdown weeds. Even so, irrigate and weed the nursery asneeded. Add more mulch if needed. All this helps the seed-lings to grow well.

Seedlings which germinate in the Spring may be bigenough to graft or bud the next Winter. If the seeds germinateslowly, or if weeding and irrigation is not done, the seedlingswill be a year slower to reach the size needed for grafting andbudding.

Graftedseedlings

completedin the nurs-ery (arrows

point towhere thegraft is)

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery12 13

Work needed while seedlings are grow-ing in the nursery

irrigation : the seedlings need water regularly.weeding : pull up any weeds that grow and use

them as mulch.mulch : keep a thick mulch on the bed

Pinching(removing the leaves)

In the late summerany lower leaves or smallbranches should be re-moved with secateurs ora sharp hook, and thegrowing tip also cut off.This makes a good shapeof the seedling ready forgrafting or budding. Bytaking out the tip theseedling will grow fatterrather than taller, andtaking out the side leavesand branches lowerdown leaves a clean stemwhich is easier to graft orbud. This work of pick-ing leaves and tips iscalled pinching.

Seedlings growingin the bed

One seed-ling

Its tip is removedand lower leavespicked (pinched)

Tip pinched

Lowerleaves

pinched

This seed-ling is

complete

Pinching

2

1

3

Pinching


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15

Subjects Related to the Fruit Nursery

This book gives enough information to be able to makeand manage your own Fruit Nursery. However, this informa-tion is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let'sread, learn and practice from other related chapters.

FruitNurserychapter

Grafting & Bud-ding chapters

Fruit Tree Plant-ing chapter

Integrated FruitOrchard chapter

To grow good fruit root stock you needto select good, healthy trees to produce seed.More information on seed saving is given inthis chapter.

Seed SavingChapter

Read On !Read On !

Seed Saving Chapter

æ

Æ

Mr Dhan BahadurMidun


From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Lekh Pharsa-2,Purano Gaun village, localteacher Mr Dhan BahadurMidun has made his ownfruit nursery. Now let'sread about his experience.

After the Homestead Pro-gramme started work in ourvillage I learned about fruitnurseries, and made one on myown land. I started by growing100-200 seedlings, and have gradually increased that numberwith experience. It was difficult at first without the knowl-edge but now I find it easy. Though we don't have any irriga-tion here, by using lots of compost and mulch the need forwater was much reduced, and what we saved in the wastewater pit has been enough. I've sold, exchanged and givenaway seedlings I raised here to friends in our village. I've alsoprovided other villages up to 2 days' walk away with seed-lings. Doing this I'm starting to understand that by applyingwork and investing in the right place at the right time, manybenefits can be gained.

Dhan Bahadur Midun

14

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2"

Grafting & Budding chapters

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapter

Fruit Tree Planting chapter

After raising good seedlings in the fruitnursery, if they're not planted well all thework can go to waste. Information on moreproductive planting is given in this chapter.

Plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees to give more and quicker ben-efits for less work. This is the IntegratedOrchard, and you can read about it in thischapter

Local peach, pear, walnut, etc. sown in afruit nursery can be grafted with cuttings orbuds of compatible improved trees after 1 to2 years. In these chapters, learn how to dothis method at home.

Th

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What is

Grafting ?Grafting ?

It can be difficult for farmers to earn their livelihoodsfrom growing only grain crops. That’s why it’s good to learnnew methods which increase production to farm our ownland. One method is by making a nursery to grow improvedfruit tree seedlings. This means you can grow tasty and nutri-tious fruit on your own land, and at the same time sell or tradeextra production to earn cash. There are many methods ofjoining local wild fruit tree rootstock to high producing im-proved varieties. One of those methods, which is detailed inthis chapter, is called grafting.

Grafting is a method of joining the cutting (scion) of animproved variety of fruit tree onto the root (rootstock) of alocal compatible variety.

Grafted peach trees ready for planting, Surkhet, Nepal

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 12 - Grafting

This Chapter's Author:Mr Bhuvan KhadkaHimalayan Permaculture Group,Surkhet, Nepal

Why do Grafting ? to doGrafting ?

2 3

• Grafted trees produce fruit quicker. A tree grown from seedmay take 8-10 years to fruit, but agrafted tree will only take 2-4 years.

• A tree grown from seed may producepoor tasting fruit. Grafting is done toimprove the taste and size of the fruit.

• A tree grown from seed may notproduce fruit the same as the treethe seed came from (mother tree).But a grafted tree will be just asgood as the tree the cutting (scion)came from.

• A grafted tree will continue to givethe same quality fruit for many years.

• Grafted fruit trees can be sold togive an income to the household.

• By producing your own seedlingsand fruit, you save money.

• Seedlings can be produced locally,saving time in searching for theright fruit trees to plant.

Cutting the root-stock in prepara-tion for grafting

Benefits of Grafting

How does grafting work ?All plants have tiny channels which take water and nu-

trients up to the leaves and down again. These channels areinside the bark but outside the woody part of the stem. Theyform a greenish band around the stem called the cambium.

WhyMaterials Needed to do Grafting

plasticcutting (scion)from a good

fruit tree

local, wildrootstock

secateurs

graftingknife or

sharp tool

HowHow

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 12 - Grafting4 5

13

2

1

To succeedat grafting,

thecambium of

the scionand the

rootstockmust be ex-

actly aligned

Cross section of thewood to be grafted

Scion

Rootstock

wood

bark

cambium(green)

wood

bark

Close upof

cambiumto be

joined

In a successful graft, the channelsin the cambium carrying nutrientsand water from the rootstock to thescion and back are continuous, not

broken.

Grafting Method

Preparing the rootstock for grafting

• A local, wild fruit tree seedling grownin the nursery or naturally in the forestis called the rootstock.

• For grafting, the rootstock is ideally thethickness of a pencil, but it can be alittle thinner or thicker than this (5-10mm).

• Leaves and branches should be pre-vented from growing from the rootstockon the first 4-6 inches from the ground.These can be carefully pinched off fromtime to time.

root-stock


2

3

4

3

1

2

6 7

Selecting the scion for grafting• To graft onto a local, wild rootstock, the branch cutting

from a good fruiting tree is needed.• This branch cutting is called a scion.• The scion sould be from a healthy, disease-free tree that

gives good fruit.• A one year old branch should be used as scion wood.• If the scion is to be brought from far away, a whole branch

should be cut. The cut end should be covered with mossand packed in sacking. Any buds should be unbroken, andthe cutting should not be exposed to the sun.

Cutting the scion

• There should be 3-5 live buds on thescion, which should be cut at a slant,just above the top bud.

Cutting the rootstock andgrafting the scion

• The way to prepare rootstock is described inthe Fruit Nursery chapter.

• On the day before grafting, water the root-stock well and mulch thickly.

• Using a sharp knife or similar tool, make a 1inch long slanting cut through the rootstock1-3 inches from the ground. The face of thecut should be completely flat.

Preparedrootstock

• Trim the scion so it has 3-5 buds. The scion should not bethicker than the rootstock.

• The scion should be the same diameter as the rootstock ifpossible. It can be thinner than the rootstock, but not thicker.

• Make a 1 inch long slanting cut atthe base of the scion, the samelength as the cut on the root-stock. The face of the cutshould be completely flat.

• Half way up the slantingcuts of both rootsock andscion cut a small nick intothe face of the cut edge (see also p.10, photo5 to 8).

• Join rootstock and scion together by insertingthe nicks on opposing faces of the rootstockand scion into each other.

• Push rootstock and scion together so that thecambium layers are in close contact at leaston one side of the join (if rootstock is largerthan scion), if not both sides (if rootstock andscion are the same size).

• The scion and rootstock should be held to-gether by the opposing nicks beinginterlinked with each other.

length ofscion

slanting cut

The scion shouldbe cut just above

the top bud toprevent too muchwood drying out


Let's SeeLet's See

2

1

3

8 9

3

1 2

6

4

5

5

Then wind theplastic tightly

upwards

Binding the GraftBind the joined rootstock and scion together so no air or

water can enter the wound.

Start bindingfrom belowthe wound

Bind theplastictightly

around thestem

See an alternative to using plastic on p.18

Windthe plas-

tic toabove

the join,then

wind itdownagain

Bind downto where the

plasticstarted

Tuck the end ofthe plastic so it

points downwards

Measuring a localrootstock 3-4 inches

from the base

Cut at themeasured place

Measure the scionfrom the good

fruiting tree to fitthe rootstock

how to doGrafting

how to doGrafting


4

6

5

7

8

9

10

11

10 11

Make a slanting cut 1 inchlong on the base of the scion.

Make a small nickabout half waydown the face.

Hold the scion in themouth to prevent

drying out.

Make a nick inthe same place

on the root-stock

Make thesame 1

inchslantingcut on

the root-stock

Rootstockwith nickclose up

Push the scionand rootstock

together so thatthe nicks on eachface insert into

each other.

Binding the graft withplastic is shown on p.8

Carefully bind thegraft tightly so no airor water can get in to

the wound.

This scionshown

sprouting2 weeks

after beinggrafted.


12

13

14

12 13

21

A stone mulch has beenplaced around a

seedling grafted directlyin the fields. ( )

Grafted seedlingsshown in the nursery.An arrow marks the

bound graft. ( )

A shoot sprouting from therootstock of the graft. This

should be pinched off.

The graft scar can be seen after plastic is removed

A graftedseedling showngrowing well inits permanent

place.

If the root-stock is

bigger thanthe scion.

It’s OK to graft asmall scion onto alarger rootstock.

One side of the cambiumof root stock and scion

must match exactly.


}

How tomaintain

a grafted seedling

14 15

Care needed after grafting

• The grafted seedlings need fencingagainst livestock, and should not betouched.

• They should be protected fromstrong sun, wind, hail, and heavyrain. Make a 50cm high thatchto place over them, and thenursery should be in a shelteredsite.

• The seedlings need regularwatering to keep the soil moist.

• After 4 months, when the scionhas sprouted well, the plasticcan be carefully removed.

Withoutprotection,

work iswasted

PinchingAny leaves or branches sprouting below the graft (from

the rootstock) should be pinched off with the fingers, other-wise they take valuable water and nutrients meant for abovethe graft. This is called pinching.

If the graft is unsuccessful, a single sprout from therootstock can be allowed to grow. This can be used to graftanother scion again next year.

Citrus root-stock is

grafted in theAutumn andkept underplastic until

Spring.

Compatible species and timing of grafting

Type of scion

1. Improvedpeach, plum,apricot, almond

2. Soft shelled walnut

3. Pear

4. Orange

5. Persimon

6. Apple

7. Cherry

Type of rootstockMonth

(NorthernHemisphere)

all can be graftedonto wild peach,plum or apricot

Jan./Feb., Sept.

local walnut March, April

wild pear Jan./Feb., Sept.

trifoliate Oct./Nov.

local persimon Jan./Feb.

wild apple,crabapple

Jan./Feb., Sept.

wild cherry Jan./Feb.



1

2

3

4

16 17

Lucaena

lemongrass

marigold coriander

comfrey

onion

comfrey

lemongrass

Grafted seedlingsshould be

protected fromlivestock

Around thefruit seedling,

plant com-panion plants

Lucaena

Grafted seedlingsshould be given

water and compost

Any leaves orbranches sprout-ing from belowthe graft should

be removed

These branchesare removed

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 12 - Grafting18

1

3

2

The method for grafting walnut is slightlydifferent to that given above. Let’s see :

Make a pointon the scion,

with one edgeslightly

longer thanthe other

How the scion is joinedonto the rootstock

shortedge

on thelowerside

longedge

on theupperside

When therootstock andscion fit per-

fectly, cut off therootstock abovethe graft. Thenbind it as in thenormal method.

This is done in the spring

The skin of the sisal (Agave) can beused to bind the graft. The skin is re-moved as shown here. More detailsabout this are given in chapter 10 -

Fruit Introduction

scionscion

root-stockroot-stock

æ

Æ


From Jajarkot district, Dhime -7, Dharnasi village in Nepal, MrShanta Bahadur Pun has doneplenty of grafting. Now let'sread about his experiences.

Shanta Bahadur Pun

After I learned grafting Ipracticed at home with a smalllocal, wild peach nursery. Ontothem I grafted improved peach,plum, apricot and almond. On such a small piece of land thisgave such a high production, and you can literally eat thefruits of this success within 3 years! In the spring, shades overthe beds are very important - this stops the hot sun from dry-ing out the newly grafted seedlings. Water needs to be givencarefully, at ground level. If you water from above, water canget inside and ruin the graft, and it can also shake the seed-lings and so break the graft. The cutting tools need to be sharpand clean - like in any operation. I’ve succeeded using justthe local ashi (hook), I don’t need a posh grafting knife. Atfirst the other farmers didn’t believe that it would work. Igrafted plants on my own farm, and sold them. Then theybelieved me. Nowadays all the farmers have small or largenurseries on their land.

Mr ShantaBahadur Pun

19

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

nsSubjects Related to GraftingThis book provides enough information for you to be

able to do your own grafting on fruit trees. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Fruit Nursery chapterHow to grow root stock from local wild fruitseed for grafting and budding on your own land.

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterInformation on how to plant fruit trees with variousother multi-purpose trees to give more and quickerbenefits for less work is given in this chapter.

Fruit Tree Planting chapterAfter raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery,if they're not planted well all the work can go towaste. Information is given in this chapter.

Read On !Read On !

Stone Grafting, Budding, Top Graftingand Air Layering chaptersInformation about various simple methodsof growing improved fruit varieties at home forplanting on the farm are given in these chapters.

Th

e F

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Nea

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, C

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3 -

Bu

dd

ing

What is

Fruit trees whichhave grown from seedmay not give goodfruit. There are vari-ous other ways tomake sure that treesfruit well. Dependingon the variety andseason there are differ-ent methods to im-prove fruit trees. Oneway is by taking alocal, wild fruit treeand transferring a budfrom a tasty, good andheavy-fruiting treeonto it. This is calledBudding. Budding isjust one of the tech-niques used to im-prove fruit trees so that they give more production.

This chapter gives information about where, when andhow to do budding, so you can do it at home to produceyour own good quality fruit seedlings.

Budding ?Budding ?

A one year old buddedpeach seedling

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 13 - Budding

HowHowdo Budding ?to do

Budding ?

2 3

Materials Needed todo Budding

• the tree produces good fruit• the tree fruits sooner• you don't need to wait for

other seasons and methods• to be able to produce good

trees in your own time

Benefits of Budding• to use time efficiently• to save having to buy fruit

seedlings• to increase farm production;• to develop new skills• to increase production from

less land

knife

plastic

sharp hooklocal, wildseedling

(rootstock)buds from agood fruiting

tree

1. Selecting bud wood for budding

The first thing to do in budding is to select good budsfrom the tree you want to propagate. If this is far away thenthe whole branch containing the bud should be cut andbrought. Don't bring abranch which doesn'thave good buds on it.Good buds can comefrom the current year'sgrowth, or from lastyear's wood.

2-3 goodbuds

The moresprouting budson a single leafaxil, the better.

Selecting buds froma good fruiting tree

When to do Budding ?Budding should be done in the early Summer when new

shoots are sprouting and sap is rising the most.

WhyWhy


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4 5

2. Cutting the selected bud

Make a cut throughthe bark to the woodabout half an inch abovethe selected bud. Takingcare not to damage thebud, cut from half aninch below the bud,upwards to the first cutas shown in the picture.

Carefully separate anywood that has been cut fromthe bark and bud (see thepicture at the top of the nextpage). Now the bud is ready.Put the bud in a bowl of water,so it can be carried withoutdrying out.

3. Preparing the bud

If there are leaves onthe budwood, thesecan be trimmed asshown here.

Carefully removeany woodfrom the bud

throw thisbit away

Now this bud isready to graft.

4. Preparing the rootstock

A compatible local, wild variety of seedling is called arootstock. The rootstock shouldn't have any disease orwounds. The rootstock should be prepared before the bud iscut, to save time. How to prepare rootstock is described in theFruit Nursery chapter. The rootstock seedling should be wellwatered and mulched the day before it is to be budded.

First make a horizon-tal cut in the bark, as

deep as the wood

Then make a verticalcut from the centre of

the first cut, downabout an inch, to makea "T" shaped wound.


Let's SeeLet's See

6 7

1

5

4

3

2

1 32

5. Joining the bud to the rootstock

To graft the bud from the improved tree, use your knifeto prise open the T-shaped wound, and slowly insert thebudwood downwards into the opening. The budwood shouldfit exactly into the inside of the T. If there is a small piece ofthe budwood left sticking out above the horizontal cut in therootstock, this should be cut off.

Cut off any budwood left outside

Part 6, binding the bud with plastic, iscontinued after the colour pictures .....

Selectedbud

Showing theline of thecut to re-

move the bud

Make the first horizontal cut halfan inch above the selected bud

Second cutfrom halfan inchbelow

Cut upwardsto remove

the bud

The removed budwith wood inside

how to doBudding

how to doBudding


6

11

10

9

8

7

8 9

Put the bud in abowl of water

Trim offhalf theleaves

from thebud

Woodremoved

Remove the wood from theinside of the bud to leave only

the bark

Then cutvertically

through thebark

First make a hori-zontal cut through

the bark

This leaves awound like the

English "T"

The bud tobe joined is

ready


12

1615

1413

10 11

1 42

65

3 Nowstart tojoin thebud and

rootstock

Prize open thebark and slowlyinsert the buddown into the

wound

The bud shouldbe inside thewound, flat

against the innerwood

See page 14 for an organic alternative to plastic

Now carefullybind the bud with

this plastic

Leave the budsticking out from

the plastic

6. Binding the bud

After inserting the bud use an inch-wide strip of thin plasticto bind it fairly tightly onto the rootstock. Cover the wound,

binding from the bottom to the top and back down again.

Don't cover the bud andleaves with the plastic,

leave them outside.

Finally, bind the tail ofthe plastic so it pointsdown to allow any rain

to run off

See page 14 for an organic alternative to plastic


1 2

How tomaintain

a budded seedlingMaintenanceMaintenance

12 13

How to tell if the budding is successful

Two weeks after the budding is done, gently pull at the leafstems on the bud. If the leaf comes away easily from the

base, even by just touching it, the budding has been success-ful. If the leaf does not come away even with a stronger tug,

and slowly dries up, then the budding has probably failedThen you can try again by grafting in the winter.

Removing the plastic

Whether the budding is successful ornot, the plastic needs to be gentlycut and removed after 3-4 weeksotherwise it will "strangle" thegrowing seedling. This can kill evena successful bud.

Things to do after budding is complete

Give plenty of water to the seedling immediately afterbudding. Keep the budded plants well mulched. Make athatch to shade the seedlings from the hot sun. Water and

weed the seedlings as necessary. Care-fully remove any buds that sproutbelow the newbud. In the autumnafter the buddingwas done, carefullycut off the top ofthe seedling justabove the new bud.

Planting the Seedling

If the seedling is deciduous (that is it drops its leaves inwinter) the budded seedling can be planted out in late win-ter. If the plant is evergreen it is usually planted in the sum-mer. A good place to plant such a valuable seedling is in anold pit latrine. Other-wise, dig a pit onemetre deep and onemetre wide, fill it withcompost and soil, andplant the seedlingthere. Full informationabout this is given inthe chapter Fruit TreePlanting.

Companionplants

water compost

mulch

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 13 - Budding14

An easy way to irrigate fruit trees

Bury a porous clay pot about 50cmaway from a newly planted fruitseedling. When this is filled withwater, it soaks out of the pot di-

rectly to the root zone of the seed-ling. Instead of a pot, the hardenedshell of a bottle gourd can be used,with a small hole made in the base.

Bottlegourd

clay pot

fruit seedling

stone mulch

Instead of PlasticYou can also use the skinof the sisal leaf (Agave) tobind the bud. As shownhere, carefully peel theskin from the leaf. See

chapter no: 10, Introduc-ing Home Fruit Produc-

tion for more details

æ

Æ

Mr Lal BahadurBudhathoki


From Nepal, Jajarkot district,Khalanga - 5, Pokhara village,Mr Lal Bahadur Budhathoki hasdone plenty of budding. Nowlet's hear about his experience.

Lal B. Budhathoki

I first learned about buddingfrom the Homestead Programme(JPP) and came home and startedbudding improved peach onto ourlocal, wild peaches. Budding is donein late June, and when other localfarmers saw, they were amazed that you could transfer just abud from one tree to another. I budded peach onto wild peach,and pear onto our local wild pear, but this wasn't as good as thepeach. Now the local Farmers' Group has started to do it. Eve-ryone thinks it's great, and it's cheap too. The budding is donein late June, and then the top is cut off in the Autumn to allowthe bud to grow on up. If it fails, it doesn't affect the tree andyou can graft again in the Winter. Also, if grafting is unsuccess-ful in the Winter you can do budding on the same plant in theSummer. Either way the seedling isn't wasted. We don't usefancy grafting knives - just a razor blade and ashi (local cuttinghook) are enough. The plastic is to keep out air and water, butneeds removing quickly, within the month.

15

Gri

hast

hi C

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unic

atio

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Fruit Nursery chapterHow to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed athome for grafting and budding on your own land.

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterInformation on how to plant fruit trees with variousother multi-purpose trees to give more and quickerbenefits for less work is given in this chapter

Fruit Tree Planting chapterAfter raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery,if they're not planted well all the work can go towaste. Information is given in this chapter.

Agroforestry chapterPlanting trees on farmland can bring farmers manybenefits. But you can't plant any type of tree, noranywhere. This chapter gives information on howto plant trees without affecting farm yield

Grafting, Top Grafting, Stone Grafting& Air Layering chapters

Here is more information about various simplemethods of growing improved fruit varieties athome for planting on the farm.

Read On !Read On !

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What is

In the tropics andsub-tropics, many farmerslike to plant mango trees.Demand for good fruit isincreasing, and farmersare understanding thebenefits of this. Farmerswant to plant mangos, butoften the seedlings aren'tavailable, or if they are,they're expensive. Butthere is an easy way ofproducing good qualitymango seedlings. This iscalled Stone Grafting.Using this method,mango seedlings can begrown quickly andcheaply at home, produc-ing good quality fruit. Grafted trees also are fast to producefruit. This means that poorer farmers can easily plant mangoswithout going into debt, and get faster benefits.

In this booklet you can learn how to do stone grafting forquick and easy mango production at home.

Grafted mango in fruit, Nepal

Stone Grafting ?Stone Grafting ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting

WhyWhy HowHowdo StoneGrafting ?

2 3

Materials Needed to do Stone Grafting

to doStone Grafting ?

Nowadays most mango grafting is done using the"Inarching" method. But this takes 2-3 years to produce a seed-ling, which is why mango seedlings are so expensive. Also, inNepal, the skilled grafters live in the south, so it is difficult toobtain mango seedlings in the poorer northern hill districts.Transport is expensive, and many seedlings can die during thejourney in the hot summer, when they are distributed. Seedlingscostings 2 or 3 times as much after they have been transportedfrom the nursery into more remote hill districts.

So there are many benefits from using stone grafting toproduce mango seedlings :-

This Booklet's Author :Chris EvansAppropriate Technology Asia, Nepal

• quick production - while it takes 2-3 years to produce aseedling for distribution with inarching, it takes 2 monthswith stone grafting;

• stone grafted seedlings are cheap to produce• stone grafting is an easy method• many seedlings can be produced in a small place, unlike

inarching• seedlings can be produced near to where they are to be

planted

When to do Stone Grafting ?Stone grafting is done in the early summer, at the time

when wild mangos are ripe and the tips of the branches havenew red shoots.

Good fruitingvariety of mango

(mother tree) large poly-thene pots (4

inch diameter)

cuttingtool

razorblade

local/wildmango seeds

thin plastic

secateurs

thickplastic

Where to do Stone Grafting ?A stone grafting nursery can be made at home on a small

plot to grow just a few plants, or on a big plot with 2-300plants. One square metre of nursery bed can contain about100 plants. For this, a well shaded spot is needed, protectedfrom livestock, and easy to visit for care and maintenance. Ifpossible, there should be good fruiting mango trees nearbyfrom which to take scion for grafting.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting4 5

1. Planting the Seed

How to do Stone Grafting

With stone grafting it is important tokeep note of the time when the rootstockgerminates. On the next page is a type of calendarshowing which work needs to be done, at what time.

plastic

a

b c

prepare scionon mother tree

preparingrootstock

when to do(a) and (b)

1312

1110

98

76

54

13

215

day

14

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tlo

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the

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scio

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• Fill the polypots with fertilesoil.

• Dig a trench for the nurserybed, about 4-6 inches deep. Thewidth and length of the trenchdepends on how many seedlings areto be produced.

• Lay out the thick plastic in the base ofthe trench.

• Place the filled polypots in the trench.• Collect ripe seed from healthy, disease-

free wild local mango trees. They ripenat just the right time for stone grafting.

• Sow the seed in the polypot and coverwith the soil.

• Watch for when the seed startsto germinate. Within a week,the first seeds will start togrow, but they won't allstart at the same time. Keepthe sprouted pots in oneplace.

Type

s of

wor

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to t h

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e po

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in 3

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a p

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how to doStone GraftingLet's SeeLet's See how to doStone Grafting

6 7

2

1

2. Preparing the ScionA scion needs to be cut and

brought from a healthy, good fruit-ing mango tree. This is called themother tree. Before the scion iscut it needs to be prepared whilestill on the mother tree, and thetime to do this depends on whenthe rootstock seed had sprouted in thenursery. Five to seven days after theseed has sprouted in the nursery, youneed to go to the mother tree and preparethe scion. However many seedlings in the nursery are5-7 days old, the same number of scions need to beprepared on the mother tree.

don't cutthe red tip

The third part of Stone Graft-ing is continued on p.11.

Preparing the ScionGo to the mother tree and se-

lect branches for scions. If thebranch has red sprouting tips, then itis suitable to use as a scion. Thebranch and tip should be healthy anddisease free. Now trim off the leavesaround the tip for a length of about 6inches, but don't trim the tip itself.

Local mangoseed plantedin polypotsfilled withfertile soil

Close up oflocal mango

seed planted inpolypots


#

8 9

3

4

65

8

9

7On the mother tree,leaves are trimmed

down to 6 inches fromthe red tips, but the tips

are not cut.

A scionprepared on the

mother treelooks like this.

After a weekthe scion iscut from themother tree.

The scion should immedi-ately be put in water, and

its leaves trimmed.

Make a 1 inch cut downthe centre of the local root-

stock with a razor blade.


10

11

12

10 11

Insert the pointed scion intothe rootstock

Bind with thin plastic

The grafted seedling is then put inside plastic.There are 2 methods :- for a single seedling

cover and tie with a plastic bag (left), or for awhole nursery, cover with a plastic sheet (right).

3. Cutting the Scion

The trimmed branch will be cut for use as a scion to jointo the rootstock, but not yet. It will be another week beforethis is done, and until that time the trimmed, red branch tipwill remain on the mother tree.

• After 7 days return to the mothertree to collect the scion.

• Using secateurs or a sharptool, cut the branch 6 inchesfrom the red tip. As soon as ithas been cut, put the scion ina glass of water. This is be-cause it is very soft and will other-wise dry out quickly.

• When the scion is in the glass,trim each leaf as shown. Thisalso reduces water loss.

• Now take the scion to the nurs-ery, where it should be graftedimmediately onto the rootstock.

4. Grafting the scion to therootstock

• By this time, the seedlings growing from the local, wildmango seed should be 12-14 days old. Their leaves andstem should be soft and red, like the scion on the mothertree.


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How to maintaina grafted seedlingMaintenance

Maintenance

12 13

a

a

b

f

e

c

d

c

c

b

f

e

c

d

Cut the top ofthe root stock to leaveit 3-4 inches high.

Make a 1 inch slitstraight down from thecentre of the top of the rootstock with arazor blade.

Trim both sides of the end of the scionto make a point, leaving the scion

about 3-4 inches long. The trimmedpoint should be 1 inch long.

Now carefully insert the point of thescion into the slit on the rootstock.

The rootstock and the scionshould be exactly fitting

Very carefully bind the root-stock and scion with a thin

plastic strip so that watercannot enter. The cut parts of

the rootstock and scion shouldbe completely covered.

Now the grafting work is complete

Care for the seedling after stone graftingAt first the grafted seedling is very weak. Even though it

may be well grafted, if it is not cared for properly the graftcan fail and all the work will be wasted. Care should be givenas described below.

The grafted seedlingsshould be watered

from below, not above.

• The seedling should not be touched or moved.• The seedling needs lots of water. However, water cannot be

given from above because the falling water will shake theseedling and the graft can break. Therefore, water should begiven from the bottom by pouring it into the trench where thepolypots are placed. This will seep into the polypots throughthe holes, and go directly to the roots. This is better for theseedling.

• The seedlings need to be kept in a moist environment. So coverthe nursery with plastic and bury the edges, like in the hot bednursery, so no air can get in. Only open when watering.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting14 15

Bury a porous clay pot about 50cmaway from the newly planted mango

seedling. When this is filled withwater, it soaks out of the pot directly

to the root zone of the seedling.Instead of a pot, the hardened shellof a bottle gourd can be used, with

a small hole made in the base.

Bottlegourd

clay pot

Mango seedling

stone mulch

• The seedlings should be well shaded.• Within 1-2 weeks you will know if the graft has been suc-

cessful or not. If not, the top will dry out and die.• If the graft is successful, the seedling can be planted out

into its permanent position after 2 months in the nursery.For this, a pit needs to be dug and composted beforehand.

• The mango may flower after a year, but it is not good toallow it to fruit for at least 3 years. During this time, theflowers should be removed to stop fruiting.

• How to plant fruit trees such as the mango is descibed inthe Fruit Tree Planting booklet.

æ

Æ

Mr IshwariPrasad Panti


From Nepal, Rupandehi dis-trict, Butwal town, Mr IshwariPrasad Panti is a horticultureexpert who has done lots ofstone grafting. Now let's hearabout his experience.

Mr Ishwari Prasad Panti

The first thing to pay atten-tion to in stone grafting is thenursery. The rootstock as well asthe mother tree need good care.When grafted, the seedlings should be under plastic, and inthe shade. In the full sun, all the work will be wasted. Toomuch wind can also dry out the seedlings. For the rootstock,plant ripe seed from wild, local mangos (which grow every-where) in the nursery. After the rootstock has germinated, it isgrafted when it is red. The scion from the mother tree shouldalso be red. One week before grafting the scion should betrimmed while still on the tree. The rootstock should be cut to3inches tall, and slit down the middle. The scion should bethe same size, and cut to a 1 inch point. Making sure theedges are matching, the scion is inserted into the rootstock.This method is very quick, and I can get a 65% success rate.It's also possible to stone graft even when the rootstock seedhas just split and the stem is just pushing out.

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

Read On !

Integrated Fruit Orchard bookletInformation is given in this booklet on how to plantfruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees,giving extra and quicker benefits for less work.

Fruit Tree Planting booklet

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, ifthey're not planted well all the work can go towaste. Information is given in this booklet.

Agroforestry bookletPlanting trees on farmland can bring farmers manybenefits. Different types of trees grow better indifferent places. This booklet gives information onhow to plant trees to increase farm diversity andproductivity, without affecting crop yield.

Subjects Related to Stone Grafting

Pit Latrine bookletA fruit tree grows best if planted in a big pit. If youhave an old pit latrine to plant in, you can doublethe benefits. In this booklet learn how to make ahygienic, cheap and productive pit latrine.

Read On !


The Fields

This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Bhuvan Khadka, Ms Hommaya Gurung,Mrs Deumaya RanaEdited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob JespersenTranslated from Nepali by Chris EvansProof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, AndyLangford, Looby MacnamaraPhotos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris EvansAddional photo credits are given in Volume FiveCover illustration: Mr Motilal PhaujaTyping: Chris EvansComputer Coordination: Layout Ltd., KathmanduPublished by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copiesThis Edition.........Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X.......This Volume : 99933-615-4-2

The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fourthof 5 volumes. There are 9 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are 40 techniquesand approaches in total.


C O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T S

Subject Chapter No:


Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1

Green Manures ............................................. 2

No-Till Farming ............................................ 3

Top Grafting .................................................. 4

Integrated Fruit Orchard ............................. 5

Fruit Tree Planting ....................................... 6

Agro-Forestry ................................................ 7

Air Layering .................................................. 8

Bamboo Cuttings .......................................... 9

Living Fence ................................................. 10

S.R.I. Rice Growing ...................................... 11

This is the fourth volume of a five volume production ofthe Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty techniques &approaches shown, of which nine are in this fourth volume. Inthis volume we introduce you to some of the methods used inthe fields. The titles of these are given on the previouscontents page.

This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provideinformation about sustainable farming techniques as well asbeing a resource to run literacy programmes. Informationabout such programmes and how the Handbook can be usedis provided in the fifth volume. As well as technicalinformation, a glossary of new and difficult words is alsoprovided in the fifth volume.


Aims

Background






Green Manures 2

No-Till Farming 3 Top Grafting 4

Integrated Fruit Orchard 5

Agro-Forestry 7Air Layering 8

Bamboo Cuttings 9

There are minor changes to this structure as appropriate.

TechniquesTechniques








Fruit Tree Planting 6

Living Fence 10

S.R.I. Rice Growing 11

Support for the production and printing of TheFarmer's Handbook has come from Methodist Releif &Development Fund (UK), ActionAidNepal, MSNepal,

GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project(HARP), ICIMOD. In this volume, Green Manures,Agro-Forestry and Zero Tillage chapters have been

supported by Helvetas Nepal



FundingSupport


addresses



Appropriate Technology AsiaP.O. Box 8975 EPC 849Kathmandu, Nepaltel: +977 1 [email protected]



Th

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2 -

Gre

en M

an

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s

What are

Green Manures ?Green Manures ?

Every farmer knowshow much work goesinto the production of abasket of compost andcarrying it to the fields.But it never seems thatthe farm productiongives an equal return forthe hard work that goesinto making and carry-

ing the compost. Green manures are a method of replacingthat basket of compost with a handful of seed. In this method,the plants that grow from the handful of seed are ploughedback into the soil. After a while in the soil, the plants rotdown to become compost. Plants used in this way are calledGreen Manures. It's a very good way of increasing the fertil-ity of the soil, and can give huge benefits for farmers. So let'sread about it here.

Sesbania beingploughed in as a greenmanure , Surkhet,Western Nepal

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 2 - Green Manures

WhyWhy grow GreenManures ?

32 3

• Reduce the need for artificial fertilizers - by using greenmanures the need to bring in fertilizers is reduced. By notusing fertilizers, costs are saved and the soil is not dam-aged. Also, production can be increased to feed the familyfor longer, or excess produce can be sold.

Benefits of Green Manures

• Increase Farm production - using green manures canincrease the production of grains, pulses, vegetables, fod-der, fuel, etc. grown on the farm.

Mr Thek B. Gurung ofGumi VDC - 4, Surkhet,

likes using Sesbania greenmanure on his fields

• Improve the quality ofcrops - crops grown withgreen manures are moretasty and nutritious than thosegrown with chemical fertiliz-ers.

• Improve the soil - where green manures have been regu-larly used the soil is softer, lighter and easier to work. As aresult, the soil has a greater capacity to absorb and storewater and nutrients.

• Protect the soil - by covering the soil, green manures protectit from the damaging effects of hot sun, wind and hard rain.

• Reducing weeds - green manures cover the ground and soreduce the work and cost of weeding.

• Decrease work and expense - less compost needs to becarried. By using green manures, the soil becomes looseand easier to plough or dig.

• Increase in micro-organisms and their activity in the soil- Beneficial micro-organisms live and work around theroots of green manure plants in the soil. They help theplants to catch and create nutrients in the soil. The fertilityisn't just for the plants, it helps to make the soil rich. Themicroorganisms help the plants and the soil, and in returnthe green manures help to protect the microorganisms frombeing damaged by the sun, wind, rain, leaching, etc.

• Increase biomass production in the fields - in an examplefrom Brazil in South America, where 40,000 farmers haveconverted to using green manures, they have calculated thatusing velvet bean as a green manure has produced 50 to140 tons per hectare of extra biomass. This is the equiva-lent of carrying up to 3000 loads of leaf litter! But the greenmanure biomass doesn't need to be carried from anywhere.Wherever the fields are, that's where the biomass is producedand, that's where it rots to form compost.


to grow GreenManures ?HowHow

4 5

There are 2 ways of using green manures :-1. When land is unused, or fallow between crops;2. While crops are still growing in the fields.

1. Using green manures as fallowWhen crop land is empty after crops have been har-

vested, green manure seeds can be sown as thickly as sowingwheat. When the green manure plants are about to flower theycan be cut and left, or ploughed into the soil.

2. Using green manures mixed with crops

This method is used mostly with maize growing. Aneasy method is to sow a green manure at the same time asmaize, and then dig it in when it is time to weed the maize(after 3-4 weeks). At this time green manure seeds can also besown, and the green manure is cut and mulched or ploughedin after the maize is harvested to provide even more fertility.

Green manures are easy to use, but it's important to notecertain things, such as :-• green manures can be used in all seasons;• which-ever type of green manure is being used, they will

give most benefit to the soil if cut and/or ploughed in atflowering time, before seed is set;

• climbing types of green manures can smother the crops theyare growing with. If so, the climbing stems need pullingdown from the crops.

Selecting which green manures to use.There are many plants which can be used as green ma-

nures. In particular, the type of green manure should be se-lected according to the type of crop it is growing with or inbetween. For a large plant like maize, a large green manurelike velvet bean or Sesbania should be used. For a short croplike many vegetables, smaller green manures such as mustardor buckwheat can be used.

Criteria for selection of green manures include :-

• plants are fleshy and soft• fast growing;• fast to decompose;• leguminous;• don't attract pests and diseases;• don't compete with crops;• provide nutrients needed in the soil (more information

about this is given on p.21)

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 2 - Green Manures6 7

Low altitude - mustard, peas, broad (fava) bean, fenugreek,tobacco, buckwheat, etc.

Mid altitude - mustard, peas, broad bean, fenugreek, buck-wheat, etc.

High altitude - mustard, peas, broad bean, buckwheat, etc.

Examples of winter-grown green manures

peas

tobacco

broad bean

hemp mustardsunhemp

Low altitude - mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp(Crotalaria), Sesbania, Chenapodium, fenu-greek, lab lab, velvet bean, jack bean, tobacco,etc.

Mid altitude - mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp(Crotalaria), Sesbania, Chenapodium, fenu-greek, lab lab, velvet bean, jack bean, tobacco,hemp, etc.

High altitude - mustard, mustard, buckwheat, amaranth,sunhemp (Crotalaria), Chenapodium, fenu-greek, tobacco, hemp, etc.

Examples of summer-grown green manures

amaranth

sunhemp

Chenapodiumtobacco

hemp

mustard

Examples of using green manures

Now we'll see some specific examples of green manures.On this page Sesbania is used with rice. On page 17 Sesbaniais used with maize, then on page 18 velvet bean is used withmaize, and on page 20 mustard is used with wheat.

Sesbania and RiceIn this method, Sesbania is sown

before rice is planted. As rice is sown intonurseries, all other paddy areas are fallow,which is when Sesbania can be grown.

How tosow

Sow the Sesbania as densely as wheat or mustardseed. Then lightly till to cover the seed with soil.

TimingSow after winter crop is harvested, or in theSpring. Sesbania will grow faster if the soil is keptmoist, so irrigate if possible. After 4-6 weeks, theSesbania will be 18-36 inches tall. Cut at groundlevel and plough in as the paddy are prepared forplanting rice.

Seed production of Sesbania

When Sesbania is being ploughed in during paddypreparation, transplant a few of the largest, thickest, healthiestplants onto the edges of the paddy - space at 2 metre intervalsalong the terrace edges. These will grow on to produce seedfor green manure use next year. The seed will be ready after 6to 7 monthsmustard

tobaccoChenapodium

buck-wheatbuck-wheat

amaranth

mustardhemp

broad bean


Let's SeeLet's See

8 9

Seed plants will grow at 2 metreintervals on the terrace edges.When between 1-1.5m tall,pinch out the tops. This helps tothicken the stem and preventsthe plant growing too tall, whenthe wind can blow them over.Pinching also produces morebranches, and so more seed.There's a picture of this on p.11.

After the Sesbania hasbeen cut and ploughed in, thepaddies are flooded, and rice isplanted. The fertility from therotting green manure is a goodfood for the rice.

Sesbania seed plantsgrowing on the terraces

Calendar for rice and Sesbania

paddy

terrace

nursery sow Sesb.

seed4-6 w

eeks

sow rice

seeds2-4

weeks

plough inSesbania

transplantseed plantson terraces

plant rice

3-4m

onths

6-7 months

harvestrice

harvestSesbania

seed

Sesbania issown as the

fallow is bro-ken

Sesbaniagerminatesin 6-10 days

Sesbania is thisbig after a

month. Fromnow it can beploughed in.

how to growGreen Manures

how to growGreen Manures


The Sesbaniais cut at itsbase before

ploughing in.

This makesploughing

easier

Land ready forplanting after

Sesbania has beenploughed in

The tips of the Sesbania seedplants are pinched out. This

makes more branches, and theplant has a stronger stem.

After the rice isharvested theSesbania seed

is ripening

The seedplants also

provide a fire-wood yield.

Seed is cleanedand stored for

next season


Sesbania or vel-vet bean is sownas the maize isweeded for the

first time

If maize is alsoweeded by hand

this is still thetime to sow green

manure

Sesbaniagrows

amongst themaize

The Sesbania is readyto plough in after the

maize is harvested

Velvet beangrowing as a

green manure

A Guatemalanfarmer inspecting

the velvet beanafter the maize has

been harvested

The velvet bean is cut at theroots when it starts to flower


Velvet beanflowers andseed pods

Velvet beanafter it has

been cut

This wild"weed" is also agood green ma-

nure plant

Sunhemp used asa green manure

with millet

White clover is sown as a green manure in afruit tree nursery. This keeps weeds down,

conserves water, and adds nitrogen to the soil.

Perennial white clover

Agroforestry on the ter-race edges and velvet beangreen manure in the maize

2 years before, the soil on thisGuatemalan farmer's fields wastoo poor for farming. After usingvelvet bean as a green manure,look how black the soil has be-come and how big the corn is

(also see p.22)


Sesbania roots

Broadbean roots

On the roots of legumeslike Sesbania, broad bean

and velvet bean, smallnodules can be seen. In-side these nodules are

micro-organisms called"rhizobium".

Rhizobium take nitrogen(a very important ele-ment for plant growth)from the air and makesit available for the plant

roots. When they areactive they are this pink

colour.

Sesbania and MaizeIn this method Sesbania is sown withmaize. There are 2 methods of sowingthe Sesbania as a green manure withmaize .

Method 1 :- Sowing Sesbania at the same time as maize.• The maize and Sesbania germinate together. The Sesbania

is dug or ploughed in when the maize is weeded after 3-4weeks, and the fertility from the Sesbania helps the maizecrop.

• Instead of Sesbania, many other types of green manure canbe used to provide nutrients for the maize.

Method 2 :- Sowing Sesbania when maize is being weeded• As maize is being weeded for the first time, 3-4 weeks

after sowing, sow Sesbania as thickly as you would sowwheat. While weeding, the Sesbania seed will be covered.

• After the maize has been harvested, the Sesbania is cut andploughed in as the land is being prepared for the next crop.

• The fertility from the Sesbania will benefit the next wintercrop.

Other green manure types can be used instead ofSesbania, but they need to be tall plants, (like maize), forexample sunhemp. See also velvet bean and maize, p. 18

Sesbania seed productionSow seeds on the terrace edges. Se-

lect as many of the best plants as areneeded for growing on to produce seed.


plough in,or cut andmulch, theSesbania

plough in,or cut andmulch, theSesbania

In this method, velvet bean is grown asa green manure with maize. Velvetbean is sown as the maize is weededfor the first time.

Calendar for maize and SesbaniaMethod 1.

sow maizeand

Sesbania

4-5 months harvestmaize

Method 2.

sowmaize

sowSesbania attime of first

weeding

harvestmaize

3-4 weeks

Velvet bean and maize

• Maize is weeded by hand or ploughed 3-4 weeks aftersowing. At this time, sow velvet bean seed 50cm apart. Theseed is covered with soil when weeding.

• The velvet bean will germinate quicker if it is soaked inwater for 2 days before sowing. While soaking the velvetbean seed, change the water twice a day.

• The velvet bean is a climing type and will grow into a largevine. If it starts to smother the maize before the maize isharvested, it should be pulled off the maize plants onto theground. After the maize is harvested, the velvet bean can beallowed to smother the standing maize stalks to put onextra biomass.

• After the maize has been harvested, the velvet bean is cutand ploughed in as the land is being prepared for the nextcrop, or cut and mulched if the land isto be fallow.

Velvet bean seed production• Plant velvet bean seed on the field edge,

under a suitable tree, and allow it to grow up thetree to produce seed. Don't let it climb on fruit trees as thelarge, thick vine can damage the fruiting of the tree.

• Velvet bean seed will be ready to harvest about 8-10months after sowing.

• Velvet bean seed is not edible for people.Edible climbingbeans can be used instead of velvet bean, such as lablab,Jack bean, etc. These can be allowed to produce a beancrop if timing is appropriate.

Calendar for maize and velvet bean

sowmaize

plough in,or cut andmulch, thevelvet bean

sow velvetbean at time

of firstweeding

harvestmaize

3-4 weeks


In the autumn compatible green manurescan be sown with winter crops. It is diffi-cult to grow green manures together withcrops like wheat or barley, so they areusually grown before the grain crops.

Mustard and Wheat

Timing• The green manure can be sown while land is fallow, after

harvesting the summer crop.• After harvesting the summer crop, such as rice or maize,

the land is ploughed as normal, and mustard is thicklysown.

• The mustard should be ploughed in as it starts to flower.• Then the winter wheat (or any winter crop) is sown.

Instead of mustard, buckwheat or fenugreek canalso be used in the same way as green manures.

Mustard isploughed in atflowering time

for use as agreen manure.Here, wheat is

then sown.

Calendar for wheat and mustard

sowmustard

about 3 weeks

plough inmustard,

sow wheat

harvestwheat

There are many other types of green manure that canbe used as well asthe above examples.

"I sowed sorghum as a green ma-nure. After a month I ploughed it in

and planted potatoes, and got 3times the production !"

Bhim B. Gautam, Gumi, Surkhet

Below is some information about which greenmanures have high amounts of particular nutrients

Type of greenmanure

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

buckwheatmustardtobaccoChenapodiumSesbaniabeans

lots

lotslots

lots

lots

lotslots lots

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 2 - Green Manures22

In 1998 Hurricane Mitch struck Central America, especiallyHonduras, Guatemala and Nica-ragua. Strong winds, torrentialrain, landslides and floods killedover 10,000 people and left300,000 others homeless.

But in the south of theLempira region there were nodisasters. No landslides, nodeaths, in fact 84 villages in theregion produced 2000 tonnes ofsurplus grain. To explain theseamazing facts, the government,along with local NGOs andfarmers studied the area andfound that the farmers there hadbeen implementing sustainable,organic agriculture practices thathad protected them from the dan-gers of natural disasters. Since thelast 30 years, over 10,000 farmersin these villages had been imple-menting soil conservation, terrace improvement, agroforestry, greenmanure and integrated pest management strategies to protect the steepslopes in their areas. Because of this, even a huge natural disaster likeHurricane Mitch wasn't able to cause them any serious damage.

Since the beginning of their experiences, the farmers ofLempira have been sharing their lessons with local farming

organisations and with farmers throughout the country and inneighbouring countries too.

A story about Hurricane "Mitch"A story about Hurricane "Mitch"

Farmer Yuwan Aguirrepulls back the thick mat ofbiomass resulting from avelvet bean green manurecrop. This has helped to

protect againts soil erosionand raise production.

æ

Æ

Mr DambarBahadur Regmi


Ms Hommaya GurungCoordinator, Himalayan Permaculture Group,Surkhet, Nepal

This chapter's author

From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 3, Mr DambarBahadur Regmi has growngreen manures since 1995.Now let's hear about hisexperience.

I've seen myself the benefitsof growing Sesbania green ma-nure with rice paddy. Ever since Istarted doing this, the productionof rice has increased steadily.Land that used to produce 960kgof rice can now produce up to 1400kg, which is pretty good forthis area. Also, I've spent less buying fertilizers from the sup-plier since using green manures. The soil has become softerand easier to plough, so you need to do less work and still getbetter crops. Rice that's grown this way tastes better, too, andthe mill owner tells us that there's less husk and more grain inmy rice and that of other farmers who've started using green

manures. Now I want to try using other typesof green manure as well as Sesbania.

Dambar Bahadur Regmi

23

Gri

hast

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omm

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nsSubjects Related to Green ManuresThis book provides enough information to be able to

grow your own green manures. However, this information isalso linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Compost chapterAs well as green manure, animal compost isalso useful for plant food, but needs to be pro-duced in a well managed way. This chaptershows how to produce a quick rotting, goodquality compost.

Kitchen Garden chapterHow to make and manage a home vegetablegarden for permanence, ease and simplicity ?This chapter shows how to produce a widerange of fresh vegetables by doing less work formore production.

Seed Saving chapterThis chapter gives information on methods toproduce and store various types of qualityseeds, including green manure seeds, at home.

Th

e F

arm

ers'

Han

db

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- "

Th

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ield

s", C

hap

ter

3 -

No-T

ill

Farm

ing

What is

No-Till Farming ?No-Till Farming ?In the 1960's

a Japanese agri-cultural scientistcalled MasonobuFukuoka startedto ask himselfhow he couldreduce the cost ofhis farming meth-ods. He saw mostcosts in plough-ing, weeding,fertilizing andtransplanting paddy in his rice-wheat system. He spent thenext 30 years experimenting to perfect his methods of reduc-ing farming costs in these areas. But now, using his experi-ence, we can develop similar systems in a much shorter time.His methods are also called "farming of the sages", becauseof the deep spiritual base to his philospohy, and the fact thatnature is regarded with godly respect. His methods are basedupon natural systems, and farming practiced without harmingnature.

Farming with nature can be practiced with any farmingsystem, but the methods descibed in this chapter are particu-larly related to the rice and wheat system.

Fields not ploughed for 6 years,Sunrise Farm, Kathmandu, Nepal

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 3 - No Till Farming-

ditto straw clay

WhyWhy do No-TillFarming ?

2 3

to do No-TillFarming ?

1

4

3

2

HowHow

Materials Needed for No-Till Farming

Ploughingis crazy !

Masonobu Fukuoka

I'm a soil'sfriend

There are 3 main reasons forploughing:-

If we can achieve these needswithout ploughing, then whyplough ? This was Fukuoka's idea.A plough is never used in theforest, but the soil is always softand fertile. In fact, the more youplough, the more ploughing isneeded, as weed seeds are brought tothe surface and germinate. Ploughingleaves the earth bare, leaving micro-organisms and nutrients to be dried outby the sun, washed away by the rain, and blown away bythe wind. That's why it's difficult for farmers to get goodproduction even after so much hard and expensive workploughing, weeding, etc.

Farming without tillage does no harm to the environment.Without tillage, the natural soil life will keep the soil loose andfertile by itself, which also greatly lightens the farmer's work,and reduces cost.

• to aerate the soil;• to reduce weeds;• to mix organic matter

in the soil.

There are examples of traditional no-till systems. Oneexample is before cutting rice, lentils are sown and grownwithout ploughing.

In a good mulching system crops are grown withoutdigging, and by using some green manures such as velvetbean, no-till systems have been developed. More informationabout these are given in the Mulching and Green Manureschapters.

In this chapter information is given about a no-tillmethod of growing rice and wheat.

wheat and rice seed

wheat straw

whiteclover seed

This is the start of Fukuoka's method:-

rice straw well rottedcompost

After harvesting summer rice, plough one last time.

Mulch the wheat and clover with the straw from the rice crop.

Thickly sow clover seed.

Sow wheat seed.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 3 - No Till Farming-$4 5

Let's SeeLet's See how to doNo-Till Farming

In this way, the wheat and clover germinate together.Wheat grows up above the clover, and clover grows on theground. Below the clover is the straw mulch.

Clover works as a green manure. By covering the soil, ithelps to smother weeds and conserve moisture. It also fixesnitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen made naturally like this does thesame work as urea fertilizer.

mulchstraw

weeding(if needed)

harvestwheat

sowrice

mulchstraw

restrictclover

(see p. 9)

harvestrice

sowclover

sowwheat

addcompost

This is a year's calendar ofwork for the no-till method

This is the best place tostart, and go round

clockwise

Materials needed:straw, grain and clo-

ver seed, compost.

clover seedclose up

how to doNo-Till Farming

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 3 - No-Till Farming6 7

Sowingwheat After wheat,

sow clover

Cover everythingwith rice straw

Spread alittle compost

Clover germinatingin the wheat

Here the wheat isripe and underneath

the clover is green

This shows thewheat growingwith clover un-

derneath

After wheatis cut, sowrice and

mulch withwheat straw

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 3 - No Till Farming-8 9

How tomaintain a

No-Till SystemClose up ofwheat and

clover grow-ing together.

After harvestingrice, the wheat is

sown withoutploughing.

Before sow-ing, soak

wheat andrice seed and

mix with pow-dered clay.

While mixing,spray with water

This makes a clay coataround the seed whichprotects it from birds.

Another method isshown on p.10.

As the wheat ripens, any weeds should be removed. Atfirst, more weeds will grow, but after the thick ground-coverof clover grows, and without tilling, weeds will reduce.

Sow rice after the wheat is harvested. As the rice grows,there is a danger that it will be smothered and prevented fromgrowing by the thick ground cover of clover. There are 3ways of preventing this :-

1. Flood the field for 10-12 days. This weakens the clover andthe rice can grow through and above it. Then drain thewater. The ground cover of clover will recover, and the ricewill have grown away from its competition.

In the summerrice is flowering,while underneathclover is doing the

weed control.


The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 3 - No Till Farming-10

2. If there is a shortage of water as the rice is germinating,allow livestock to graze the clover. But only allow thisonce, for a short time, and then remove the livestock. Theywill eat down the clover, so the rice can grow up and away.The clover will again recover as the ground layer.

3. After sowing the rice, the clover can also be cut. It can beused as a fodder for livestock, or as a mulch. Then add thewheat straw mulch, and weed as necessary.

Another method ofcoating seed withclay. Here, clay ismade into a thickpaste, mixed withrice or wheat seed,and pressed through

a 5mm seive.

Try your own researchThere are many ways of working with nature to

reduce work such as ploughing, weeding, etc. The mostimportant thing is to understand the principles of themethods. Instead of wheat, barley or oats can be used.Timing will be different for different places and climates.It may be better to sow the rice before the wheat is cut, orsow wheat before rice is cut. This method may seem diffi-cult at first, but this is no reason to give up. Try it out firston a small plot, and increase the area as experience grows.

æ

Æ

Mrs SanumaiyaShrestha

Mrs SanumaiyaShrestha lives at SunriseFarm in Sita Paila-4,Kathmandu, Nepal. Shehas experience in no-tillfarming, so let's hear herstory.

Mrs Sanumaiya Shrestha

I really like the no tillmethod. Wheat and cloverare sown together and cov-ered with the rice straw,which also helps to protectthem from birds. Then, if there's no rain, we may need toirrigate. Rice is sown in just the same way, without having toraise the seedlings in a nursery. The day before sowing eitherrice or wheat, I soak the seeds to help them germinate quicker.As soon as rice is cut, I sow the wheat, and as soon as thewheat is cut, I sow the rice. Sometimes a little weeding maybe needed, but not often. There's more weeds at the begin-ning, but much less later on. Now all the work of digging issaved. Before, we did all the digging and the yieldwas the same, and now we get the same yield with-out the digging. Doing less work to get the sameyield must be a good method, isn't it?


11

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Subjects Related to No-Till FarmingThis book provides enough information for you to be

able to try your own No-Till Farming. However, this informa-tion is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let'sread, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Agroforestry chapterOnly when there's a plentiful supply of fodderfrom the land can the straw from grain crops beused for mulch in a no-till method. In this chap-ter, read about how to integrate trees on farms .

Mulching chapterMulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds downand conserves water. This chapter shows how tomulch the soil while still growing other crops.

Green Manures chapterBy sowing green manures with crops, fertil-ity is increased and with less work there aremore benefits. Learn how in this chapter.

Read On !Read On !


Th

e F

arm

ers'

Ha

nd

bo

ok

- "

Th

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ield

s",

Ch

ap

ter

4 -

Agro

fore

stry

What is

Agroforestry ?Agroforestry ?

Trees with fields in between: plentiful, secure productivity

Agroforestry is a sysem where farm crops are mixedwith trees to supply fodder, fuel, leaf litter, medicinal herbs,fruit, timber, etc.

Conventionally, farmers have only grown a single cropon one field. Also, there is a belief that crops cannot grow wellin the shade of nearby trees, so trees will often be cleared fromcropland. In the days when there was plenty of forest near tothe village, there was no shortage of fuel, fodder, etc. But now,overcutting of fodder, firewood, timber, etc., and grazing live-stock, has destroyed the forests. So farm yields have becomelower and lower. More landslides have been an extra problem.By planting agroforestry, farm needs for fodder, timber, fuel,etc. can be met as well as protecting the environment.

In this chapter, information is given on how to establishagroforestry, and how to manage it to increase farm yield.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry

WhyWhy doAgroforestry ?

2 3

2

3

1

2

3

1

Benefits from Agroforestry

• By planting agroforestry, yields of fodder, firewood, tim-ber, fruit, herbs, etc. can be increased.

• Tree roots prevent soil from being washed away. Trees'leaves provide organic matter for soil organisms. Thisincreases the fertility in the soil, and so trees have morenutrients to grow. Trees protect the soil, and the soil givesnutrients to the trees. This cycle works to protect soil lifeand natural fertility.

• Because daily needs of fodder, fuel, leaf litter, etc. are metfrom the land, the forest is used less, and so is conserved.

• The farm economy is stronger.

Agroforestry helps to make thehomestead self reliant

• Livestock needs are met more easily.

• Trees protect the soil from the harmful effects of strong sun,wind and heavy rain, and conserve moisture in the soil.

With no trees, moisture in the air blows away.

When trees are on the land, the moisturecollects on the leaves, and

drips onto the ground.

• When agroforestry is on your own land then timber, fruit,herbal medicines, firewood, fodder, etc. don't need to bepurchased. Livestock are also easier to raise for income,and overall the home economy is strengthened.

• By producing daily needs of fodder, fuel, timber, etc. onthe farm, less time is spent going to the forest.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry %

HowHow to doAgroforestry ?

Materials Needed for Agroforestry

This Chapter's Authors :Ms Hommaya GurungMr Buvan Khadka

4 5

Where to grow Agroforestry ?• on terrace risers and edges• on the edges of fields and farm boundaries• on the edges of paths• according to the shape of the landscape

seedlings

seeds

sharp hook,machete, etc.

secateurs

saw

cuttings

What type of tree toplant in agroforestry ?

Trees with smallleaves that don't

overshade the land,e.g. Lucaena,

Flemengia, Acacia.

Trees which droptheir leaves in win-ter, e.g. mulberry,

Melia.

Trees which can bepruned to a desired

shape, e.g. mulberry,Lucaena, Bauhinia,

peach, plum.

Plants which are good,nutritious fodder for live-stock, e.g. napier grasss,

most legumes, lemongrass, etc.

Multi-purpose treeswhich give many ben-efits such as fodder,

timber, firewood,medicine, bee forage,

fruit, etc.

Trees which don'tcompete withground crops.

Trees which havedeep roots that aren'tdamaged by plough-

ing, e.g most leg-umes, Melia.

Nitrogen-fixing treeswhich increase nitro-

gen in the soil.Himalayan Permaculture Group,Surkhet, Nepal

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry6 7

How are plants established in Agroforestry ?

• By planting cuttings, e.g. mulberry, napier grass, sugarcane, some Ficus;

• By raising seedlings in nurseries, eg. coffee, Melia, peach,etc. Trees with fast growing tap roots, such as lucaena,bauhinia (most legumes), tree cotton, papaya, walnut etc.are best raised in an Air nursery. For more informationabout this, see the chapter Air Nursery.

• By planting root slips, e.g. broom grass, cardamon, lemongrass, comfrey, vetiver grass, etc.;

• protecting seedlings naturally regenerated on the land;• By air layering, e.g. orange, pomegranite, guava;• By direct sowing, e.g. sunhemp, Sesbania.

It is easy to grow many of the useful, good quality andmulti-purpose plants needed for agroforestry by yourselves,on your own farm. Once you've decided the types of plantneeded, the seeds or cuttings need collecting at the right time.Then they can be raised in the appropriate nursery, at home.

Air nursery

Normal nursery

Nursery forcuttings

Design of Agroforestry SystemsThe following principles need to be applied when planning

and establishing a farm or a community agroforestry system.

• DiversityJust as there are many types and sizes of tree and shrubmixed in a forest, so our agroforestry should also be madeup of a wide range of species, to make them sustainablymost productive.

• Layers (stacking)In the forest, all plants are different. Some are small, sometall, some middle sized - this is called stacking. A stackedsystem means that more productive plants can fit into asmaller space without competing. For example, in theground layer, pineapple and lemon grass can be grown.Above them, napier grass, sugar cane and coffee can grow.Above them, Lucaena, mullberry and tree cotton can grow.Even higher still, papaya, pear and peach can be grow.Highest of all, Melia, Dalbergia, Neem, and other timbertrees can grow. They will also serve as a useful windbreak.

StackedAgroforestrytop layer of

big trees

mid canopylayer

lower canopylayer

shrub layer

groundlayer

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry8

Let's SeeLet's See how to doAgroforestry

how to doAgroforestry

9

• Beneficial RelationshipsIt is important to consider the relationship between the

species in different layers of agroforestry, and the field crops.Without a good relationship between the field crops and thetree systems, some crops may not grow well, such as in theshade. Then, companion plants can be used. For example,mustard and maize do not grow well close to tree crops. Buttaro, cardamon, ginger and tumeric do grow well, and they cantolerate both the trees and field crops. So by planting the com-panion crop in between, the best yields from all can be as-sured, without competition and drop in yield.

• MicroclimateThe climate inside and around the agroforestry system is

different to the surrounding climate. There are areas of differ-ent moisture, temperature, and light levels. These are calledmicroclimates. Species need selecting according to their need.

There are different types ofmicroclimate in agroforestry Up high there is

more light and wind

On the ground ismore moisture

On the ground isless sun and wind

Areas withagroforestry and

forest are pro-ductive, pro-

tected in a sus-tainable way.

On steep slopes, farming with the plough is difficult.But with agroforestry on the terrace edges, the risk oferosion is less, and extra benefits of fodder, fuel, tim-

ber, etc. can be produced close to the village.


When startingagroforestry, the

right species needsto be planted in the

right place

In this highmountain area,fruit trees andfodder grasses

are seen growingtogether on ter-

race edges

In Tatta village,Jajarkot district,

Nepal, tradi-tional

agroforestrypractice has

covered farm-land with pro-ductive trees.

By planting tumericbetween trees and

crops, competition isreduced.

By digging a ditch between lines oftrees and crops, the tree roots arecut. This also stops the trees com-

peting with the crops

The ditch is also used for irriga-tion and collecting leaf biomass


A 2 year oldagroforestry,

showing"stacking"of different

species

The same land ayear later

This picture shows various types ofsmall and large trees and shrubs

planted together

sugarcane

taro

papaya

Lucaena

Melia

tree cotton

pineapple

mulberry

banana

Adhatoranapier grass

Competition be-tween the trees

and maize is seenhere. The solutionto this problem isgiven on pages 11

and 21.

People say thatcrops can'tgrow in the

shade of trees,but here the

wheat is grow-ing well !


The branchesof Dalbergia arebeing pruned toproduce good

timber.

A third ofthe trees' topbranches areleft, and theremaining

are pruned.

Lots of fire-wood can beproduced on

your own landby agroforestry

Plenty of fod-der and litter

can also be pro-duced at home.

This savesmuch time and

labour.


1

2

3

1

5

4

2

3

5

4

Leaves from theDalbergia prunings can

be used as a mulch.

These leaves con-serve soil moisture,

and rot down tobecome compost.

• CyclingThe benefits of extra production and soil improvement

from agroforestry are the result of cycling. This cycle needs torun continuously. Livestock are fed and bedded with fodder,straw, etc. from the agroforestry, and compost is returned tothe fields. Leaf biomass can also be cut and mulched directlyto the land. Work like this should be done regularly. If thecycle isn't completed, the trees will use all the moisture andfertility, and the soil will become depleted of nutrients for thecrops. As a result, crop production can decrease, and farmerswill lose out. So to manage agroforestry sustainably and pro-ductively, it is essential to run this cycle.

Cycle Tree leaves arecut and mulched

on the landFodder and leaf

litter are given tolivestock to pro-

duce compost.

Compostgoes back on

the fields.

Excess nutrients aretaken up by the roots of

the trees below the crops.

Treesuse thenutri-ents togrow.


How tomaintain

Agroforestry

Management after establishing agroforestry

Agroforestry planted on terrace edges pro-vides nearby fodder. The fodder can be fed to

livestock or mulched directly on the land.

To manage agroforestry, the trees and shrubs should becut from time to time. Any dead or useless branches andtrunks should be cut and removed for use. So, management ofagroforestry is mainly harvesting of products. Collection offodder, leaf litter, firewood, etc. is beneficial to the trees, aswell as to the annual crops. If this work isn't done in the rightway, the agroforestry system will not help to increase produc-tion and benefit the land. So it is very important to manageagroforestry in the right way.

Timing of pruning in agroforestry

(a) Winter (b) Summer

Deciduous trees, which drop all theirleaves at one time, are best pruned over winter.Evergreen trees are best pruned in the summer.Some of these can be pruned twice a year. In thewinter, crops need more sun, and in the summerthey need good air movement. So many treesand shrubs, especially those which cause moreshade, should be pruned at these times so theyprovide production as well as to provide goodconditions for the annual crops, based on theirneeds, and the needs of the tree crops.

Things to considerwhen pruning

• Use sharp tools;• Don't split the bark;• Try not to leave

wounds on the sunnyside of trees;

• Prune small branchesand deformed trunksof timber trees;

• Prune fodder andbiomass plants lowdown in the winter,and higher up in thesummer.



Management for mulch and leaf litterThe leaves of Adhatora, Melia, castor, etc. make excel-

lent mulch. Such trees and shrubs can be cut at least twice ayear. Depending on the trees and crops around, they can becut low down, or higher up. The plants should be able tosprout again after cutting.

Fodder grass managementFodder grasses planted or regenerated in the agroforestry

should be cut to feed livestock, or mulched directly on the land.This should be done in a way which doesn't harm the crops.

Here Lucaenaplanted in

agroforestry iscut and the

leaves mulcheddirectly on the

land.

Fodder tree managementFodder trees should not be allowed to grow straight up.

They are managed by cutting once or twice a year to producemaximum biomass. They should be cut according to the sea-son to provide shade or sun, according to the needs of thefield crops. They can be fed to livestock, or mulched directlyon the land.

Management for firewoodTrees grown for fruit, timber, biomass or fodder will also

provide firewood when they are pruned. Dead, diseased ordamaged trees and branches should be regularly removed andcan be used for firewood.

This diagram shows amethod to control thegrowth of tree roots. Bydigging a trench alongthe line of trees, theroots are preventedfrom competing withcrops. See also the pic-ture on p.11.

Timber managementTrees planted for timber

should be allowed to growup straight. The top one thirdof the tree should be leftuncut, while the lower twothirds pruned of all sidebranches. The pruningshould clean, otherwise dis-ease can enter the wounds.When large branches are cut, plaster the wounds with freshcow dung. Pruning can take place once or twice a year.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry 23

Subjects Related to Agroforestry

This chapter provides enough information for you to beable to grow yourown agroforestrysystem at home.However, thisinformation is

also linked toother methods. For

extra benefits let's read, learnand practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Improved Stove chapterAgroforestry produces nearby fuel for the stove

Nutrition chapterNutritious plants can also be grown in agroforestry

Home Nursery chapterPlants for agroforestry can be produced easily at home

Seed Saving chapterHow to produce various types of good quality seed at home

æææææ

From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and amember of "Hariyali" women'sgroup Mrs Belmaya Rana has doneagroforestry on her own land. Nowlet's hear about her experience.

Mrs BelmayaRana


Mrs Belmaya Rana

At first we had hard times withoutthe knowledge of agroforestry. We hadto go far for fodder and firewood. Thiswasted a lot of time. I learned aboutagroforestry from the Homestead Pro-gramme (JPP) and designed my land. I've planted mulberry,Lucaena, Bauhinia, fruit trees, chillies and lots of otherplants. In all, there are 56 species of useful trees and shrubs inmy agroforestry system. The trees are all arranged in layers,all species are mixed up together. Before, 60kg of the mustardI grew was used to trade for chillies. Now I grow enough ofboth and have extra of both to trade. Now I have time to cutfodder as well as doing the housework. There's enough fodderon my own land for my 4 goats and 4 cows. I grow enoughfruit for the family, and sell extra for cash. The trees don'taffect the rice, but it did affect the mustard and maize, so Iplanted taro, ginger and tumeric against the trees in someparts, and dug trenches to cut the tree roots in others.

22ÆÆÆÆÆ

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Mulching chapterProduce plenty of biomass for mulching to conserve soil

Integrated Pest Management chapterGrow plants in agroforestry which help in pest control

Compost chapterNearby fodder and biomass makes making compost easier

Liquid Manure chapterGrow plants to make liquid manure to control farm pests

Living Fence chapterA living fence is agroforestry on the farm boundary

Fruit production chaptersEasy methods of producing, planting and managing fruit trees

Forest Management chapterForest is protected by using agroforestry to supply farm needs

Kitchen Garden chapterAgroforestry helps protect and supply the kitchen garden

Beekeeping chapterMany plants for bee food can be grown in agroforestry

Livestock management chapterAgroforestry crops make keeping livestock much easier

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What is an

Integrated Orchard ?Integrated Orchard ?An or-

chard is aplanted andmanaged areaof fruit trees.A well man-aged orchardwill givebenefits topeople'shealth, theirincome, andthe environ-ment. There are ways of improving an orchard with smallinputs which can greatly increase its productivity. To get morebenefits, the orchard should be managed in a sustainable way.To get more production and easy maintenance, the orchardshould be like a forest. The orchard can be rich, fertile andsustainable, just like a forest. One of the forest's qualities isits diversity. So our orchards should also contain a great vari-ety of plants, and then they can be more productive and sus-tainable, like the forest.

So, an integrated orchard is a diverse mix of fruit andmulti-purpose plants growing together. In this chapter,weshow how to design and manage an integrated orchard forquick and sustainable production.

Kamal Pun (right) and his orchard, Jajarkot

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard

WhyWhy make anIntegrated Orchard ?

2 3

HowHow to make anIntegrated Orchard ?

1

Benefits of the Integrated Orchard• Other trees can be planted in between the fruit trees;• These other trees can provide fodder, fuel, timber, medi-

cines, nectar, vegetables and other useful products;• More production from less land;• Soil and water conservation;• Degraded land can be regenerated;• Pests and diseases are more easily and cheaply controlled;• Farm production increases annually;• There's a quick return on investment;• As well as cash income, the integrated orchard also pro-

vides many basic resources for other farming systems.

Conventional farming education usually recommends anorchard of one variety. In a mango orchard, there are onlymango trees, and in an apple orchard, only apple trees. Plant-ing in this way leaves much wasted space in between thetrees, and much work goes into maintaining these emptyspaces. But if the spaces are ploughed to grow annual crops,then the fruit trees' roots may be damaged and production willbe lower. So the answer is to plant perennial crops of usefultrees and shrubs in between the fruit trees.

Species' selection and planting design

Good quality species should be chosen for the orchard.Species should be appropriate for the climate and landscape.The size of the different plants when they are mature shouldalso be considered. According to size, 4 or 5 layers of treesand shrubs can be recognised :-

Upper canopy trees :- these are the biggest trees, andusually take the longest time to produce fruit. They are alsousually the longest lived. Fruit trees in this group includemango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, chestnut, butternut, pecan,etc. Multi-purpose trees include soapnut, neem, toon, mauwa,etc. These trees should be planted 10-12 metres apart.

But planting trees at this spacing leaves 10-12 metres ofspace in between, which is wasted if nothing else is planted.Farming tilled crops may damage the trees when they areploughed. So it is best to plant smaller trees in between.

1Upper canopy

trees

10-12 metres10-12 metres


The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard4 5

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

5

Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot,persimon, cherry, etc. can be seen as mid-canopy trees. Theycan be planted 5-6 metres apart, in between the upper canopytrees. They will fruit sooner than the bigger trees, and usuallydo not live so long.

Mid-canopy trees

Upper canopy trees

But even planted like this, 5-6 metres of lend is leftempty. Other trees can still be planted in between.

Lower canopy trees :- orange, lemon, banana, custardapple, sea buckthorn, coffee, papaya, mulberry, etc. are smalltrees. They can be planted in between, 3 metres apart.

But even 3 metres is a lot of empty space. Even smallershrubs can be planted in between.

Lower canopy trees

5-6 metres5-6 metres

3 metres3 metres

Shrub layer :- After the smaller trees, shrubs like pineap-ple, cardamon, napier grass, lemon grass, blackcurrant, goose-berry, etc. have their turn. They can be planted 1-1.5 metresapart. They are fast to produce, and only live a few years.

Ground layer :- finally, as a ground cover to increaseproductivity even more, various types of sweet potato, taro,beans, peanuts, clover, comfrey, ginger, tumeric, etc. can beplanted. Wild plants like wormwood and nettle can also beencouraged. They help to make the soil fertile. But thegroundcover plants may need controlling if they harm theyoung trees. When the trees are bigger, climbing plants suchas grapes, passion fruit, jasmine, yam, pepper and rattan canbe planted. But these should not be allowed to climb on thefruit trees, or they will reduce the trees' fruiting ability.

Shrub layer

Ground layer

Note :- These pictures show how small and large trees andshrubs can be designed into the integrated orchard. Whenestablishing the orchard, plants can either be planted all at thesame time, or gradually, as time and labour allow.


Let's SeeLet's SeeThe orchard needs fencing to protect against livestock.

Temporarily, thorny branches such as Acacia, blackthorn,wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, etc. can be cut and made intoa fence. A living fence of planted trees and shrubs givesother benefits, and is a more productive and longer-term wayof protecting the orchard.

Protecting the orchard

On the edge of the orchard,the living fence gives pro-tection and production.

The integrated orchard looks like a forest,but the trees and shrubs have more use.

Farmers visitto learn the

methods

how to make anIntegrated Orchard

how to make anIntegrated Orchard

A living fence, or hedge, can be made of thorny speciessuch as cactus, sisal, wild pear, hawthorn, some of the Aca-cias, Prosopis, sea buckthorn, honey locust, etc. Some canform a fence within 2-3 years, and give other products, too.Fodder, firewood, fruit, medicines, nectar, etc. can all begathered from the fence. After several years, even timber forconstruction can be produced. The chapter Living Fencegives more information about this.


Above is fruit,below ginger, tu-meric, pineapple,etc. all producing

benefits

Marigolds areseen planted inthe ground layer.These wereplanted to helpwith pest control,and now self-seed.

On big trees, vineplants such aspepper, betel,

grape and pas-sion fruit can

climb up.

No space is emptyin the integrated

orchard


How tomaintain an

Integrated OrchardCoffee trees in theorchard needshade to fruit

well, so are best inthe lower level,

underneath biggertrees.

In 1989 this landwas bare. Then,

Mr SuryaAdhikari started

his integratedorchard, and now

see ! (in 1999)

For an integrated orchard planted in this way, mainte-nance is mainly harvesting. The succession of productionfrom the orchard is described below.

Not just fruit treesAll the above species produce fruit. But once the shape

and size of the tree is understood, any type of useful andmulti-purpose tree or shrub can be fitted into any of the lay-ers. Plants for fodder, timber, herbal medicines, fibre, etc. canbe added to provide their particular type of benefit, accordingto the land and the needs of the farmer or community.

1st year :- sugar cane, various vegetables,fodder grass from weeding.

2nd year :- the above, plus banana, carda-mon, ginger, tumeric, broomgrass, currants, etc. start produc-ing.

3rd year :- all the above, plus pineapple, coffee, papaya, seabuckthorn, etc. start to produce.

4th year :- all the above, plus grafted apple, peach, plum,apricot, pear, orange, etc. start to produce.

5th year :- all the above, plus grafted mango, walnut, lychee,chestnut, etc. start to bear fruit.

Trees that have grown from seed will produce fruit moreslowly, such as soapnut, butternut, hazel, etc. They will startto produce fruit after 8-10 years.



A w

ell establishedIntegrated F

ruitO

rchard

sugarcane

Lucaena m

ango

drumstick

pear

papaya

pineappleguava

napier grasscoffee

bananaginger

tumeric

taro

Tillage in the orchardIf annual crops are needed to be grown between the fruit

and multi-purpose trees, the trees can be planted in linesspaced wider apart, as in the photo below. This is the samebasic design as for an agroforestry system. Terrace improve-ment is also a result. But you should not plough near the rootsof the fruit trees.

When the trees are bigger, livestock can be grazed in thearea from time to time. Because the integrated orchard ismade up of many layers of multi-purpose trees, there is a highproduction from a small space. By planting in this way, pro-duction will gradually increase as time goes on.

Ground crops can be grownbetween the lines of trees andshrubs of the integrated or-

chard. There are more than 50species of plants in this picture.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard

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15

Subjects Related to the Integrated Orchard

Read On !Read On !

This book provides enough information for you to beable to design and maintain your own integrated orchard.However, this information is also linked to other methods.For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from otherrelated chapters.

Grafting, Budding, Stone Grafting,Top Grafting & Air Layering chapters

Information about various easy methodsto grow tasty and good-yielding fruit varietiesat home for planting on the farm are given inthese chapters.

Five Chapters on how to make vari-ous Nurseries

For planting a variety of plants in an inte-grated orchard, different types of nursery areneeded to grow them. Information on how tobuild and manage the home nursery, fruit nurs-ery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given inthese chapters.

æææææ

Mr Kamal PunFarmers'ExperienceFarmers'Experience

From Jajarkot district, Dandagaun -3, Kalpat village in Nepal, MrKamal Pun has planted an inte-grated orchard on his own land.Now let's read about his experiences.

Kamal Pun

Since I took training in how tomake an integrated orchard, I'vebeen making my own orchard athome. My land is steep and dry, andwas a bare grazing area for every-one's cattle. I made a design andbegan planting seedlings by layer.Now, I have mango, banana, orange,papaya, grapefruit, coffee, peach, plum, apricot, lychee andmany more. On the ground are pineapple, napier grass, lemongrass, and others. I have grain crops and fruit, and both producewell. I also grow seedlings for sale. I keep livestock, and there'senough fodder from the orchard to feed them from the manytypes of local fodder trees that are planted there. Before, therewas no production from this bare slope. But last year I earnedalmost $1000 from my farm. I've been able to pay off all myloans, buy cloth, medicine, etc., and still have some left toinvest. Now I want to buy another piece of land with the in-come. This orchard has been seen by many local farmers as amodel. I've been teaching them how it's done - they come frommany villages in the district. ÆÆÆÆÆ14

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A

Fruit Tree Planting chapterAfter raising good seedlings in the fruit

nursery, if they're not planted well all thework can go to waste. Information on moreproductive planting is given in this chapter.

Fruit Nursery chapterHow to grow root stock from local wild

fruit seed for grafting and budding apple, peach,plum, apricot, walnut, etc. on your own land.

Agroforestry chapterPlanting trees on farmland can bring farm-

ers many benefits. But you can't plant any typeof tree, nor anywhere. This chapter gives infor-mation on how to plant trees without affectingfarm yield.

Living Fence chapterThe orchard also needs a fence. By

planting a fence made of trees, the productionfrom the orchard can be increased even more.This chapter gives information about makingand managing a living fence.

A-frame chapterAn easy method of mapping out contours

for soil and water conservation on sloping landis descibed in this chapter.

What is

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Fruit is astore of goodness.It is juicy, tastyand nutritious,and it holds vita-mins essential forour health andwell being. So it'sour duty to plantfruit trees. Allover the worldpeople haveplanted fruit trees,since early times.Even if peoplehave only a smallpiece of land theyshow interest in planting fruit trees. But if you don't have theskills and knowledge to plant and care for fruit trees they candie, or at best be less productive. So all the effort that wentinto acquiring and planting fruit trees goes to waste.

In this book we can learn about how to plant and main-tain fruit trees to get the best production using local resourcesand with minimum work.

Fruit Tree Planting ?Fruit Tree Planting ?

Comfrey and garlic as companionplants under a young apple tree

Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree PlantingFarmers' Handbook, "The Fields"

plantfruit trees ?

to plantfruit trees ?

• it is tasty and nutritious;• if you eat fruit after a meal the food is easier for the body

to digest;• fruit is like wealth which you can sell or exchange;• after you plant a fruit tree it only requires a small amount

of maintenance, and will last for many years (it is peren-nial);

• because they are perennial, fruit trees help to protect thesoil and the environment.

• fruit trees give nectar to bees, give firewood from pruning,habitat for birds and wildlife, and many other benefits.

In order to get these benefits, the first important thing isto plant the fruit tree well. Only then will fruit trees give theirbenefits to people and the community.

Apricot

Apple

Choosing the right places to plant fruit trees

• protection from animals• easy maintainance• shelter from the wind

• enough room to grow• suitable good soil

• in old pit latrines• on the edge of the house's yard

• terrace edges• on the edges of fields

Many types of fruit trees canbe seen planted in the fields

Below are good places to plant fruit trees:

2 3

WhyWhy HowHowThere are many types of benefit from fruit, for example:-

Apricot

Pear

PlumPlum

When selecting where to plant a fruit tree, you need toconsider the following needs:


??

Materials needed to plant a fruit tree

rotted compost leaf litter green biomas

one basket

diggingtools

oil seed cake

fruit tree

Companion Plants

garlicmarigold

corian-der

onion

vegetable seedlings

legumes

comfreyseeds

one basketone basket

Preparing the PitIf you're planting the fruit tree in an old pit latrine, then

your pit is already prepared. If not, you need to select a goodplace and dig a pit. The pit should be at least 3 feet deep (ifyou have deep soil, then 4 feet is even better). The pit shouldbe 3 feet wide.

In the bottom of the pit, put 6-8 inches of green biomass,then cover it with soil that has been dug out of the pit. Thenput a 12-18 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomas mixedwith un-rotted animal compost and soil. Then put in a layer ofwell rotted compost mixed with soil. All the dug soil shouldbe put back in the pit until it is heaped above the pit, which isnow ready for planting.

If you have a problem with ants or termites, mix oil seedcake (such as mustard) with the soil. One part of cake shouldbe mixed with 10 parts of soil.

Planting the Fruit TreeWhen you plant the fruit tree in the prepared pit, first

remove as much soil and compost as is needed for the size ofthe roots. The roots should be open, and point downwards.When the soil has been returned around the roots and filledin, tread on the soil to press it down. Around the pit make ashallow trench to collect water. Lastly, put down rotted com-post covered with mulch. If you don't have enough biomass,use rocks to cover the soil.

After doing allthese things the

tree will grow well.

Where aremy helping

friends ?

Like people,trees don'tlike to be

alone

4 5

legumes


1

2

Companion PlantingVarious plants can be planted around the fruit tree which

help it to grow even better and give more production. This iscalled companion planting.

Garlic, onion, marigold, basil, mint, lemon grass, nastur-tium, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill, tansy and wormwoodare some examples of companion plants. There are manybenefits of planting them with the fruit tree.

Benefits of Companion Planting

• Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests

• They attract beneficial insects

• They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc.

• They can be cut and used as a mulch

• They can be stacked densely in different layers

• They help to balance the environment

• They help to conserve soil moisture

• They help to prevent weeds from growing

Companion planting helps the fruit tree,but doesn't take much extra work

The pit shouldbe one metrewide and at

least one metredeep.

trench aroundthe pit

soil and rottedcompost

half-rottedcompost and soil

soil

green biomas

how to plantfruit trees

how to plantfruit trees

Cross Sectionof the Pit

Cross Sectionof the Pit

6 7

Let's SeeLet's See


3

45

6

Trim off thefruit tree'slong roots.

Make a trencharound the pit

to collect water.

Don't squash theroots while planting

the fruit tree.

Pull the treeupward as youfill in the soil

so that theroots all point

downward.

8 9

7


A grafted fruittree can flower

when verysmall....

....but this makes the youngtree weak, so you should re-

move the flowers for 1-2 years.

How to Care forthe Fruit Tree

What the Fruit Tree needs :-

• Fertility

• Water

Companionplanting also helps toprovide these three needs. However,extra maintenance brings extra yields.Compost:- It's good to provide compost once a year, in earlySpring.Water:- If there's a rainy season, and if the fruit tree is dor-mant over winter, you don't need water then. But if there is adry season when the tree is growing and fruiting, irrigationwill make a big difference.

Don't put water andcompost right next to thestem of the tree, because theroots that feed grow furtheraway. So water and com-post need to be put in acircle away from the tree.

rottedcompost

Different types ofcompanion plantseen beneath a

mango tree.

10 11

8

9


Where to put Water and Compost

• Protection from damaging pests• Protection from damaging pests


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After getting yourgrafted fruit treefrom the nursery,

cut the top off.This helps to formgood side branch-

ing.

Bud

To keep your fruittree healthy and givingthe best production,branches should bepruned once a yearwhen the tree is notgrowing (it is dormant).Dead or diseasedbranches should be cutimmediately. Anybranch touching an-other, or competing forlight and space, shouldbe cut. Use a sharp toolfor this. After cutting large branches,cover the wound with fresh cow dung.

Cut at aslant

Cut just abovea healthy budto prevent too

much wooddying.

Each year asthe treestarts to

grow, putcompost

around un-der the drip

line.

12 13

Pruning the Fruit Tree


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Cut out dead,diseased and

unwantedbranches.

This is how itlooks after un-

wanted branchesare removed.

Big branches should be cut with a saw, andsmall branches with a sharp hook or secateurs.

A good way of irrigating youngfruit trees is given in the "Introduc-tion to Fruit Production" chapter.

14 15

æ

ÆÆÆÆÆ


Dil Bahadur Bucha

From Ratadada village,Gumi - 3, Surkhet, in Nepal,Mr Dil Bahadur Bucha hashad plenty of experience atplanting fruit trees. This iswhat he says.

You can get good productionfrom planting fruit trees on emptyland. And you don't have to plantevery year like grains, but you canstill get production each year. Fruit trees are good for keepingbees, so you can get more honey too. I dig a pit a metre wideand a metre deep and in that mix biomass and then good, rottedcompost as the pit is refilled. It's important that the roots of thefruit tree are well spaced and pointing down as you plant it. Ifyou get air on the roots the tree can die, so stamp the soil welldown on top. I mulch with waste biomass and put rocks on top.That way the moisture is kept in the soil, and I don't need towater so much. Around the pit I plant comfrey and lemon grassfor future mulch, so I need less compost. There are lots of ben-efits from fruit trees, you can even plant pineapple underneath.Now I have mango, pear and peach growing, and the lime isstarting to fruit.

Mr Dil BahadurBucha

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

Read OnRead OnSubjects linked to Fruit Tree Planting

To see how to integrate fruit tree planting with othertechniques, read these chapters in the Farmers' Handbook.

Fruit Nursery chapterIn this chapter learn how to make a nursery andgrow your own fruit rootstock at home forgrafting and budding.

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterYou can plant many varieties of trees to getmore production, and faster too. This is ex-plained in this chapter.

Agroforestry chapterFarmers can get lots of benefits from plantingtrees on their land, but you can't just plant themanywhere. In this chapter, learn how to integratetrees without affecting your crop production.

Pit Latrine chapterA fruit tree grows best if planted in a big pit. Ifyou have an old pit latrine to plant in, you candouble the benefits. In this chapter learn how tomake a hygienic, cheap and productive pit latrine.

Fa

rmer

s' H

an

db

oo

k "

Th

e F

ield

s",

Ch

ap

ter

7 -

To

p G

raft

ing

What is

Top Grafting ?Top Grafting ?Many people would like to plant

fruit trees, but often can't find goodtypes. Sometimes the seedlings maycost too much, if you have limitedincome. But difficulty in findinggood fruit trees shouldn't stop youtrying to get them - the solution to theproblem can be found. Raisingrootstock seedlings in the nurserymay take 2-3 years. After grafting, itwill take a few more years beforethey bear fruit. So let's learn an eveneasier way to grow grafted fruit trees.This is called Top Grafting (or topworking).

Top grafting is a method ofgrafting cuttings (scion) fromimproved fruit trees onto appropriatetypes of wild trees which are alreadygrowing in the fields and forests,without needing a nursery. This method is very cheap andeasy, and produces good quality fruit trees which give fruitquickly.

Pear, top graftedonto a wild pear tree

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 7 - Top Grafting

WhyWhy doTop Grafting ?

2 3

HowHowMaterials Needed to do Top Grafting

to doTop Grafting ?

• You can grow fruit trees on your own land• You don't have to make a nursery• Many types of less useful wild fruit species

can be made into improved varieties• Trees will fruit sooner and give more fruit than

otherwise• Waste resources can be made into useful ones;• Fruit trees can be grown easily in the forest

You can eat the fruits ofyour labour with fruit trees

plastic

sawrootstock

Healthy, diseasefree, wild fruittrees are called

rootstock.

sharptools secateurs

knife

scion

A cuttingfrom agood fruitingtree is calleda scion.


!

4 5

The methods of top grafting are very similar to that ofgrafting. But while grafting is normally done in a special fruitnursery, top grafting can be done directly on the farmland orin the forest, wherever the appropriate wild fruit trees arefound.

Which types can you top graft onto ?

Local Type What to graft

peach, plum, apricot, almond

Local Type

Local peach

Wild pear

Wild apple(crabapple)

Wild cherry

pear

apple

cherry

What to graft

plum

pear

apple

cherry

apricot

All plants have tiny channels which take water and nutri-ents up to the leaves and down again. These channels areinside the bark but outside the woody part of the stem. Theyform a greenish band around the stem called the cambium.

seen fromabove

wood

cambium

bark

Cross sectionof the inside of

a wild tree

Close-up ofthe cut endof the Scion

wood barkcambium(green)

Cambiumsplits when

bark ispeeled

wood

pith

How does grafting work ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 7 - Top Grafting6 7

To succeed attop grafting,the cambiumof the scion

and the root-stock mustbe exactlymatched

ScionR

oots

tock

Scio

n

This is how thecambiums are

joined

cambium(green)

cambium (green)

Where to Top Graft ?On farmland, grazing land, or in the forest, wherever

there are suitable wild fruit trees, such as wild peach, wildpear, wild apricot, etc.

When to Top Graft ?Top grafting is usually done when trees have lost their

leaves, in the winter. In lower, warmer places this may be inJanuary (Northern Hemisphere). In higher, colder places thismay be February or March. It is best to top graft about 2-3

weeks before new leaves sprout on the trees.

Top Grafting Method

1. Selecting and preparing the rootstock

• Top grafting can be done on any appropriate local wildfruit tree. The tree shouldbe strong, healthy andfree of disease.

• The cut should be straight and clean.

• After selecting the tree tograft onto, clear awaybrush and weeds fromaround the base, and cutoff any small branchesgrowing from the base.

• Cut down the tree anywhere between 4 inches up to 3feet high above the ground, according to need and theshape of the land.


Let's SeeLet's See

1

The scion is selected from a good fruiting tree. Thescion is about pencil thickness, or the thickness of yourlittle finger.

2. Choosing and selecting the scion

3. Grafting the scionThere are 3 ways to graft

shown in this chapter. They areshown with photos on thefollowing pages.

4. Binding the graftPlastic is used to bind the

scion to the rootstock so air andwater can't get into the graft. If avery large rootstock is used, aseparate piece of plastic is neededto cover the cut section while thescion is bound. This is shown on page 11, photos 6 and 7.

Let's see the 3 methods of top grafting

On the next 7 pages, 3 methods of top grafting are shown.The first method is called bark top grafting, and is on the first4 pages. After this, the second method is called tongue topgrafting, and is shown on 1 page. The third method is calledsplit top grafting and this is shown on 2 pages.

Selecting therootstock

Cutting therootstock

Method 1.

Bark TopGrafting

The cutsection iscleaned

how to doTop Grafting

how to doTop Grafting


2

3

4

6

5

7

From thetop, make a

1-2 inch longvertical cutin the bark.

The scionshould

have 3-5buds on it.

Make a 1-2 inchslanting cut on the

lower end of the scion

Insert the cutend of the scion

into the barkthrough the

vertical cut onthe rootstock.

On a bigrootstock, 2,

3 or morescion can be

grafted.

Spread a pieceof plastic overthe top, and

bind the sciononto the

rootstock withanother piece.

Bind tight soair and watercannot get in.


8

9

2

1

3

12 13

Finally put anotherpiece of plastic over

the top, and bindthis on as well.

This showswhere care is

needed to bind well

Now, graftingwork is finished

on this tree.

When therootstock is

small, as here,only one scion

should begrafted.

The cut on the root-stock and the scionare both slanting andan inch long. In thecentre ofeach cutedge, make a smallnick (tongue). These 2nicks will insert into eachother to hold the graft.

The cambium layerunder the bark of the

rootstock andscion should beexactly aligned

(see p. 5,6)

Bind the graft withplastic, as in theother methods.

scion

tonguerootstockrootstock

tongue

scion

TongueTop

Grafting

Method 2.


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]]] ]]]

4

5

2

1

3

14 15

4Method 3.

Cleft Top Grafting

Make a cleft inthe middle ofthe cut stem.

Place a sharp toolin the cleft,

taking care not tosplit the stem.

Make an inch-long cut on both

sides of the scion .

the cu

t is 1 in

ch lo

ng

the cu

t is 1 in

ch lo

ng

Insert thesharpened

scion into thecleft. The

cambium ofthe root stock

and scion mustbe exactlymatched.

Finished topgrafting

Bind thegraft withplastic, as

in theother

methods.


6

7

16 17

How tomaintain a

top grafted seedling

After Top Grafting is successful

An improvedpear grafted

onto a wild pearrootstock hassprouted well.

After 4 months,the plastic is

removed. Theseedling is

protected fromlivestock.

Apricot, 2years after

it wasgrafted

onto a localpeach

Aftercare for the grafted tree

• Protect the grafted tree from livestock• Make a round trench around the plant, and use this to give

water and compost. Water as necessary, whenever possible• Mulch thickly around the stem• Plant companion plants around the tree• Pinch or cut off any branches that sprout below the grafted

branch

A grafted fruit treeorchard in Jajarkot, Nepal

Here, vegetablesare grown under

the fruit trees.

After Top Grafting is successful MaintenanceMaintenance


Various plants, such as garlic, onion, marigold, basil,mint, lemon grass, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill and worm-wood can be planted around the fruit tree, which help it togrow well and give better production.

• Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests

• They attract beneficial insects

• They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc.

• They can be cut and used as a mulch

• They can be stacked densely in different layers

• They help to balance the environment

• They help to conserve soil moisture

• They prevent too many weeds from growing

Companion Planting

Benefits of Companion Planting

There is more information about this inthe Fruit Tree Planting Method chapter

Protect the tree from livestock

Darn ! I'd loveto peck at thoseleaves, but no

chanceHow toeat it ?

Make a small trench around the grafted tree.Use this to give water and compost as needed.

There is more information about this inthe Fruit Tree Planting Method chapter

Give water and compost

water compost


Now your fruit treecan grow well. Tohelp it more, pruneit once a year in thewinter. Give it abasket of compostat the same time.

Maintenance needed each year

compostcompost

Pruning the tree

Remove any branches that sprout from therootstock. More information about pruning is

given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.

On a big tree, many scions can be grafted

Top grafted branches are shown

One branch from therootstock is left

uncut at first. Thishelps to pull waterand nutrients from

the roots for the newgrafts. After the

grafts have sproutedwell, this branch can

be cut off.

Manyscions canbe grafted

onto atrunk in this way.


Grafting and Budding chapters

Information about varioussimple methods to grow improvedfruit varieties at home for plantingon the farm are given in these chap-ters.

Subjects Related to Top GraftingThis book provides enough information for you to be

able to do your own top grafting on fruit trees. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Grafting andBuddingchapters

Fruit Nurserychapter

IntegratedFruit Orchardchapter

Fruit TreePlanting chapter

Top Graftingchapter

Agroforestrychapter

22 23

æææææ

ÆÆÆÆÆ

Mr Tek BahadurKhadka


From Jajarkot district,Khalanga -5, Pokhora village inNepal, Mr Tek BahadurKhadka has done plenty of topgrafting. Now let's read abouthis experiences.

Tek Bahadur Khadka

I work for the HomesteadProgramme (JPP) in 6 VDCs ofJajarkot district. At first I didn't thinkthis method would work, but aftertraining and starting work, I like it alot. I now teach this in the villages. Istarted by top grafting pear onto the wild pear that growshere. At first we used to cut these wild pear down as wethought they were useless. Now we top graft them and havemade a fruiting orchard out of the forest. Before, you'd seejust a few pear trees in the village. Now there are hundreds oftrees, and everyone knows how to do top grafting - even inplaces where I've never been to teach. And it turns the wildpear into a useful tree. You don't have to buy fruit seedlings,and they fruit quickly. Everyone likes the method in thevillages, it's so easy. You don't need any strange tools, and cando it in your own village area.

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns


Information is given in this chapter abouthow to plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees to give more and quicker benefitsfor less work.

Fruit Tree Planting chapterAfter raising good seedlings in the fruit

nursery, if they're not planted well all the workcan go to waste. Information about fruit treeplanting is given in this chapter.

Agroforestry chapter

Planting trees on farmland can bringfarmers many benefits. But you can't plant anytype of tree, nor anywhere. This chapter givesinformation on how to plant trees withoutaffecting farm yield.

Fruit Nursery chapter

In this chapter learn how to make a nurs-ery and grow your own fruit rootstock at homefor grafting and budding.

Fa

rmer

s' H

an

db

oo

k "

Th

e F

ield

s",

Ch

ap

ter

8 -

Air

LA

yer

ing

What is

Air Layering ?Air Layering ?

Everyone likes toeat tasty fruit. Andeveryone who plantsan orchard looks for-ward to tasting thefruits of their work. Itis our responsibility toplant fruit trees, whichgive the family nutri-tion as well as increas-ing farm production. So people want to plant fruit trees, eventhose with just a little land. There are many ways that farmerscan grow good quality fruit trees at home at very low cost.The more methods are known, the more choices farmers haveto improve their farm production.

In this chapter we talk about another easy and successfulmethod of propagating fruit trees, which is called Air Layer-ing. Air layering is a simple way of propagating fruit treeseedlings from their branches.

Hommaya Gurungplants a guava

seedling made by airlayering.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 8 - Air Layering

WhyWhy doAir Layering ?

2 3

HowHow

Materials Needed to do Air Layering

to doAir Layering ?

This Chapter's AuthorMrs Deumaya RanaDahachaur-4, Surkhet.

There are 2 problems with planting fruit trees from seed.The first is that a tree grown from seed willl take a long timeto produce fruit. It may take 8-10 years. The second problemis that although the seed may be taken from a very good tree,producing excellent fruit, the new tree may not produce goodfruit. By air layering a tree, we can guarantee that it will pro-duce fruit sooner, and the fruit will be as good as the treefrom which the branch was taken.

Species which can be Air LayeredMost of the citrus varieties - orange, lemon, lime, grape-

fruit, kumquat, etc. Also, pomegranite, lychee, guava, starfruit, custard apple, plum, and pear. There may be other varie-ties that you know in your local area.

Time to do Air Layering ?In low-lying, hotter climates, air layering can be done

from late winter through to spring. The higher and cooleryou go, normally the later air lay-ering can be done. Theseason can go on throughspring and even into earlysummer. The time to do air layer-ing is normally the same time aswhen fruit trees start to grow new leaves.

knife

tree moss

string

fertile soil

hook,etc.

plastic

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 8 - Air Layering4 5

1

3

2 4

Choosing the branch to air layerThe branch to be air layered should be healthy and free

of disease, and at least one year old.

A branchchosen tobe air lay-

ered

Then, away from the tip, cut the bark from around thestem of the branch.

Make 2 cleancuts around

the branch oneinch apart,and take off

the bark onlybetween the 2

cuts.

2 cuts aroundthe branchbark

peeledoff

1 inch inbetween

the 2 cuts

One inchof bark

taken off

After removing the bark, wrap around a handful of treemoss, or a ball of soil mixed with ash and cow dung.

Preparing ahandful of

moss


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5

6

6 7

7

8

Spread outthe moss

between thehands.

Wrap themoss aroundthe cut sec-

tion to makea ball.

moss

Wrap the right size ofplastic around the moss.

string

plastic

Tie the ends of the plasticaround the moss, so air and

water cannot get in.

A completedair layering

string


9

12

11

10

8 9

When air layering, always make sure the endof the plastic is pointing down, otherwise wa-ter can get in, and the air layering may fail.

The branch is then planted in the summer,6-8 weeks after binding.

Inside theplastic, whiteroots can be

seen.

Rootsseen as

the plas-tic is

removed

This branch isready for planting

roots

To plant the air lay-ered branch, cut thebranch just below

the moss ball

Before cut-ting andtransplant-ing, makesure the placeto plant theseedling isprepared


13

14

10 11

After cutting,remove just theplastic, andplant thebranch with themoss still at-tached.

See the moss still at-tached to the roots.

Planting the branch

• Dig a pit a metre deep and a metre wide.• Fill the pit as shown in the picture below.• Carefully plant the new seedling, taking care not to damage

the roots, and cover with soil just above the moss ball.• Put a thick mulch around the seedling.• Water well into the ditch around the pit.• Plant companion plants around the seedling, such as garlic,

onion, marigold, comfrey, basil, coriander, nasturtium,wormwood, tansy, lemon grass, etc. More informationabout this is given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.

Trench dugaround the pit.

soil andcompost

soil and partlydecomposed

compost

soil

green biomass

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 8 - Air Layering12 13

How to care foran air layered

seedling

12

Put waterand com-post only

in thetrench

around theseedling

A good way of irrigating the seedling isgiven in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.

Protectthe seed-ling fromlivestock.


After

plantingthe seed-

ling, mulch

it well and

plant suit-able com

-panionplants

around it.

Com

pan

ion

Pla

ntin

g

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 8 - Air Layering○

○

○

○○

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14 15

Subjects Related to Air LayeringThis chapter provides enough information for you to be

able to do your own Air Layering on fruit trees. However, thisinformation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefitslet's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Air Layeringchapter

Fruit TreePlantingchapter

Integrated FruitOrchard chapter

Agroforestrychapter

æææææ

Mrs PabisaraGharti


From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Gumi - 6, and a mem-ber of "Peoples's Awareness"women's group, MrsPabisara Gharti has experi-ence with Air Layering onher own land. Now let's hearabout her experience.

Mrs Pabisara Gharti andher air layered orange

I learned about air layeringfrom the Homestead Pro-gramme (JPP). To make thecutting, I peeled the bark fromaround the branch, covered itwith a ball of moss, and wrapped it in plastic. Easy. Rootsgrow from the cut section in about 2-3 months. Then, I cut thebranch and planted it with its new roots. I made the air layer-ing in February, and planted it out in June. A seedling made inthis way fruits much quicker than when planted from seed. Ifound this method easier and more successful than othermethods, so we've been planting lots of fruit trees made thisthis way, and will be planting more this year. Why shouldn'teveryone do this type of work, that is easyand gives good benefits ? ÆÆÆÆÆ

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns


Agroforestry chapter

Fruit Tree Planting chapterAfter raising good seedlings in

the fruit nursery, if they're not plantedwell all the work can go to waste.Information about more productiveplanting is given in this chapter.

Farmers can get many benefitsfrom planting trees on their land, butyou can't plant them just anywhere.In this chapter, learn how to integratetrees on the farm without affectingyour crop production.

Related Subjects

Information on how to plant fruittrees with various other multi-purposetrees to give more and faster benefitsfor less work is given in this chapter.

Farm

ers'

Han

db

ook

"T

he

Fie

lds"

, C

hap

ter

9 -

Bam

boo C

utt

ings

What is a

Bamboo Cutting ?Bamboo Cutting ?

Bamboo is an extremely useful plant which has beenused for hundreds of years in society. When its shoot isyoung, it can be eaten as a vegetable. When the stem isstrong, it can be used to build houses. That's why there's aNepali saying that goes "when young, a vegetable; whenmature, a house". In the villages, they also say that bamboocan be used for anything, except as a plough share. The tradi-tional way of propagating bamboo is by digging up the rootand transplanting a section to a new place. But this involves alot of difficult work, takes much time, and many other plantscan be damaged as it is transplanted.

So in this chapter, we show an easy and quick way ofpropagating many more bamboo than was previously possible.

Mrs Myasu Garanja's bamboo,which she planted from a cutting

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings

WhyWhy make abamboo cutting ?

2 3

HowHow

Materials Needed to make bamboo cuttings

to make abamboo cutting ?

This Chapter's AuthorMr Laxman RanaCommunity Service Group,Dahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal

Planting a bamboo from cuttings gives more benefitsfrom less work. In less time, many more cuttings can beplanted, saving work for farmers.

The traditional way of digging up bamboo with its rootscauses damage to other plants, and much soil needs to bemoved. So by using cuttings, this damage is also prevented.

Benefits ofBamboo cuttings

• It's a quik and easy method• With less work, many

cuttings can be planted• One bamboo branch can

make many cuttings• The original clump isn't

damaged by makingcuttings

Which bamboo can be used to make cuttings ?There are many types of bamboo, from hot, tropical, low

lying areas to cold, high altitude areas. Most types can beused, except cane bamboo, and bamboo which has only avery small hole, or no hole in the middle.

1-2 year oldbamboo

sharptool

waterrocks

sawoil seed

cake

diggingtools

leaf litter compost

fresh cowdung

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings4 5

5

34

2

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

1

Things to consider when selecting the cutting

• the bamboo should be between 1-2 years old• the bamboo should be healthy and free of

disease

In hotter, lowland areas, cuttings are takenfrom mid-winter (mid January in N.Hemisphere) forup to 1 month. In hilly, cooler areas, the time startsup to one month later, until late spring (April).

A successful cutting will sprout within 3 months.

Method of cuttingConsidering the above points, the first stage is to select

the bamboo for cutting.

Things to consider when cutting the bamboo

• Be careful not to damage the chosenbamboo as you fell it

• Also be careful not to damage nearbybamboo stems

• Use sharp tools (axes, machete, hook, etc.)• As soon as the branch is felled, immedi-

ately cut off the tip from 1 inch diameter,otherwise this drains its capacity to regenerate

• Use the base and tip for something else

Time to plant

Length of time to sprouting

The tip is young andsoft, so is not able toregenerate from cuttings

The mid section,from nodes 5 - 12, issuitable for cuttings -it has a good capac-ity to regenerate.

The base section up to the4th node is also not goodfor use as cuttings


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6 7

55

5

5

1

2

3

4

2

1

3

3

3

4 4

4

4

44

Selecting cuttingsafter the branch is

felled

As soon as the branch isfelled, the tip is immedi-

ately cut off

Select and cut the cuttings as descibed below.The numbers below match with the numbers onthe diagram on page 7.

There should be no damage or disease on the cuttings.

Only leave 3 branches on each node of the cutting.

The mid branch of these 3 should be about 18 incheslong and have 3-5 nodes (if the distance between nodesis long, there may be 3 nodes, if the distance is short,there may be 5 nodes).

The other 2 side branches of the node are cut shorter, tohave 2-3 nodes in total.

Other, smaller branches are cut off.

Selecting andtrimming thenodes on the

cutting

cuthere

cuthere

cuthere

3 branches on thenode of the cutting

node of the cutting

This is how it looks after thecutting has been trimmed

cuthere


Use a sharp tool to trim offeither side of the node.

While doing this,be careful not tosplit the bark.

Fill the hollowends of the cuttingwith soil and com-post. If there is arisk of termites,mix oil seed cakewith the soil to fillthe hollows. Useone part of oil seedcake to 5 parts soil

or compost mix. This will protect the cutting againsttermites, ants and other soil-living pests.

If the bark splits like this,the cutting may not grow.

Fill the hollowends with light,

fertile soil.When the hollowsare filled, cap theends with fresh

cow dung.


Where to plant the cutting ?• The cutting can be planted direct in the corners

and edges of fields.• It can also be planted in the fence, river banks, in

gulleys and areas of soil erosion.• The cuttings can also be temporarily planted in a

nursery, and transplanted out when roots havedeveloped.

Planting thecuttings in a pit The length of the pit

depends on the lengthof the cutting

To bury thecutting, dig apit 18 inches(50cm) deep

and 18inches wide.

Before planting the cut-ting, put 3-4 inches of fer-

tile soil in the bottom.

If there's a risk of termites, mix oil seed cake withthe fertile soil in the bottom of the pit

Place the cuttingin the pit.

If oil seed cake is needed,mix it with all the soilcovering the cutting.

Soil and oilseed cake

is mixed tocover thecutting

Then fill in the pit with soil. Leave themiddle branch of the node sticking out

of the pit a few inches.


xf“ufsf] 6'Kkf b]vfpg]

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

12 13

Then mulch the pit with leaf litterand cover with small rocks.

add a pot of water

tip of the middle branch

rocksleaf litter

Finally, soak thepit with a pot ofwater. The mulchof leaves androcks will con-serve moisture. Even so, it's best to water thecutting 2-3 times a week in the dry season, ifpossible.

If there were no bambooneither would there be flute

And without nature, there'd be no culture

A newly sprouted cutting

The cuttingwill sprout

3-4 weeks afterplanting,

Roots growing


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How tomaintain

a bamboo cutting

14 15

• The cutting should be protected from livestock. People alsoshouldn't step where the cutting is planted.

• Water the cutting 2-3 times a week if possible.• The bamboo grown from cuttings can be harvested for use

after it is 3 years old.

Uses of bamboo

• Important household items like baskets, winnowing trays,etc. are made from bamboo

• Craft industries using bamboo provide many people withemployment

• Local bamboo can replace timber and plastics bought infrom the outside, which helps to make the communitymore self reliant

• This also saves money• It's using a local resource• Bamboo helps in erosion control and

soil conservation• Once planted, bamboo lasts many years• From the cradle to the grave, bamboo is

an essential part of daily life

bamboo utensils

a plane made from bamboo


æ

Mrs MayasuGaranja


From Nepal, Surkhet dis-trict, Dahachaur - 3, and amember of "Evergreen"women's group, MrsMayasu Garanja hasplanted many bamboocuttings. Now let's readabout her experiences.

Mrs Mayasu Garanja

I leaned how to makebamboo cuttings from theHomestead Programme (JPP).At first it was difficult withoutknowing, but after training I found it easy to grow bamboofrom cuttings. First you need a branch which is 1-2 years old.This is cut into sections, each with a node in the middle andhollow on either side. You fill the hollow ends with fertilesoil, and cap the ends with cow dung. Plant this cutting in apit, mulch well and add water. I've found the best time to dothis is mid-January to mid-March. It's so useful to plant bam-boo like this. You can make so many things from bamboo -baskets, trays, etc., all useful in the house. If you have bam-boo in your fields it saves having to buy lots of things fromoutside. Now, with this method we can plant lots of cuttingsand so grow lots of bamboo, because it's such an easymethod.

Æ

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○

○

○

○

○

○

Subjects Related to Bamboo CuttingsThis book provides enough information for you to be

able to make your own bamboo cuttings. However, this infor-mation is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let'sread, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Bamboo Cuttingschapter

Soil Conservationand Improvement

chapterLiving Fence

chapter

Bamboo isvery useful

f o r soil conservation.In this chapter, wedescribe the nature ofsoil, how to protectexisting soil, and showhow to regeneratedamaged soil making itinto into productiveland again.

Plantingbamboo, as

well as other usefultrees and shrubs, helpsto protect the land aswell as providing manyother important benefits.Information about plant-ing and maintaining aliving fence is given inthis chapter.

Farm

ers'

Han

db

ook

"T

he

Fie

lds"

, C

hap

ter

10 -

Liv

ing F

ence

What is a

A Living Fence is a fence made of living trees andshrubs. Made from thorny or non-thorny plants, it can also becalled a green fence, or hedge.

There are many ways of using a barrier to prevent harm-ful pests from coming onto the land. Everyone knows thatstone and mud, bricks, barbed wire, bamboo, or even cutbranches can be used to make a fence. But the most produc-tive form of barrier is the living fence, because as well asbeing a barrier, it can also produce many other benefits for thehome.

In this chapter, information is given about making andmanaging a living fence.

A living fence along a path, Nepal

Living Fence ?Living Fence ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 10 - Living Fence

WhyWhy make aLiving Fence ?

2 3

HowHow

Materials Needed to make a Living Fence

to make aLiving Fence ?

This Chapter's Author:Mr Bhuvan Khadka

• Crops are protected against harmful pests.• The living fence can act as a windbreak.• As well as protecting the land, various products such as

fodder, firewood, medicines, timber, nectar, etc. can betaken from the living fence.

• Beneficial animals such as predator insects can also find aplace to live in the living fence.

• The living fence saves money.• It prevents soil erosion.• It can prevent terraces from collapsing• It can be used where materials for fencing are not found,

e.g. plentiful rocks, barbed wire, large branches or trees, etc.

Benefits of the Living Fence

According to your location and its climate, landscape,soil, etc. there are many plants that can be used for a livingfence. Planted on the edges of the land, the living fence pro-tects against harm from the outside, including the wind.Within the farm, living fences are useful along edges such aspathways and edges of fields or terraces. They can give shadeand shelter, as well as other useful farm produce. The kitchengarden can be protected by a living fence, and even separatevegetable or nursery beds can have their own small livingfences.

Where to make a living fence ?

seeds sharp cut-ting tools

diggingtools

cuttingsleaf litter

seedlings

Himalayan Permaculture Group,Surkhet, Nepal

So, as well as using the live fence for protection, it can alsobe used to increase farm production. If a fence has tree cottonin it, for example, this is even a cash crop. Citrus varietiessuch as orange, lime, lemon, etc. can make very good fences.They also produce valuable fruit, and are goodfor bees.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 10 - Living Fence4 5

Let's SeeLet's SeeLet's SeeLet's See how to make aliving fenceMany types of plant can be grown in home-made nurser-

ies and planted in the fence when they are large. Many spe-cies grow from burying branches in the soil like cuttings. Thefence can also be planted with suitable seedlings collectedfrom the forest. Different methods for growing seedlings aredescibed in the Home Nursery chapter.

By collecting seed and cuttings from around the commu-nity and local forest, and making home nurseries, we cangrow small, large, climbing vine, or any type of seedling. Inthe living fence it is good to have as many thorny plants aspossible, such as blackberry, Berberris, babool (Acacianilotica), baer (Aeglis), blackthorn, hawthorn, honey locust,mesquite (Prosopis),khayer (Acacia cat-echu), etc. Thornyplants are mainlyuseful around theboundary of the farm.

Choosing what to plant in the living fence

Living plantsmake a fence andalso give variousother products

A young livingfence on theedge of a field.

At high alti-tude, castor inthe fence pro-duces lots ofbiomass.

how to make aliving fence

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 10 - Living Fence

%

6 7

A fence can also beplanted within the

farm. Here, varioususeful trees are

planted along theedge of a path.

Within the farmand on the edge of

paths, usefulplants like worm-wood, Lucaena,lemon grass andmarigold havebeen planted.

The fence shadesthe path as wellas giving other

products.

Ipomea (morningglory) is grown

easily from directcuttings, andwoven into athick, strong

fence.

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 10 - Living Fence8 9

Lemon grasshelps to stopweeds fromgrowing intothe kitchengarden, andcan be cutfor mulch

In Britain, willowbranches are denselyplanted. They sprout

and are woven to-gether to make a

strong fence

Things to consider when making a living fenceAfter planting seed, seedlings or cuttings in the living

fence, mulch thickly with straw, leaf litter, etc. This controlsthe weeds, and allow the plants to grow well. Weeds needremoving, and the plants should be watered if possible. Re-place any plants that die.

Once the plants have grown, there is not much mainte-nance. Well planned harvesting of products from the fence is theonly maintenance that is needed. Cutting or pruning brancheswill give yields of fodder, firewood, mulch material, etc. If thereis too much shade, branches can be cut to let in more sun.

Firewood collected onlyfrom the living fence

MaintenanceMaintenanceHow to

maintain aLiving Fence

The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 10 - Living Fence10

The kitchen garden needs a good fence around it toprotect against strong sun and wind, livestock, weeds andother harmful things. Inside the kitchen garden, each vegeta-ble bed can be surrounded by small fences of comfrey, lemongrass, basil, marigold, wormwood, and Adhatora which pro-tect against invasive weeds and even flying insect pests.There are other beneficial yields of mulch material, fodder,flowers, etc. This can also be called edge farming or com-panion planting.

Biomass cut from the livingfence helps to increase yields

from the land

Mulch fromoutside

Mulchfromedge

plants

Mulch fromagroforestry

water

æ

Æ

Mrs KhagisaraGharti


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 3, Ratadada village,and a member of "Hariyali"women's group, MrsKhagisara Gharti has plantedher own living fence. Nowlet's hear what she says.

Mrs Khagisara Gharti

It's been 5-6 years since Iplanted our living fence. Ilearned it from the Homesteadprogramme (JPP). There aremany benefits from the fence.I'm always cutting fodder andbedding, firewood and so onfrom the fence. Leaves can be cut and mulched directly on thesoil, or carried to the livestock and used as bedding or fodder.Because it's in your own fence, it's close and only takes amoment to cut and gather. It takes a few years to start produc-ing well, but now this method has saved me a lot of time. I'veplanted mulberry, Lucaena, tree cotton, Ipomea, Melia, andthe like in the fence. If any gaps appear, I plant somethingelse to fill it straight away.

11

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Subjects Related to Living FenceThis chapter provides enough information for you to be

able to make your own Living Fence. However, this informa-tion is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let'sread, learn and practice from other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

Agroforestry chapterPlanting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits.But you can't plant just any tree, anywhere. This chapter givesinformation on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield.

Chapters on how to make various nurseriesDifferent types of nursery are needed to grow a variety ofdifferent plants. Information on how to build and managethe home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leafpots is given in these chapters.

Mulching chapterMulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down and con-serves water. Information on how to mulch the soil is givenin this chapter.

Livestock Management chapterIn this chapter information is given about producing foddernear the house and other easy methods to improve manage-ment and health of livestock.

It has become difficultto increase production fromtraditional rice farming. Itneeds extra labour and a lotof compost. Farming withmodern methods is alsoexpensive in outside inputs.With conventional methods,only by using expensivechemical fertilisers, pesti-cides and hybrid seed canfarmers increase their pro-duction.

It is increasingly diffi-cult for ordinary farmers toafford all these things. It isalso known that usingchemicals is harmful to theenvironment

A clump of rice grown withthe SRI method. This hasgrown from a single seed.

So here we are demonstrating a new method of growingrice which can use local seed and organic compost, while stillincreasing rice production. This method is called “System ofRice Intensification” (S.R.I.), and in this chapter we de-scribe the principles and methods of SRI.

What isS.R.I. ?What isS.R.I. ?

The Farmers’ Handbook “The Fields” Booklet 11 - SRI Rice Cultivation

SRI involves four major changes from conventional riceproduction:

1. The seedlings grown in the nursery beds are transplantedafter just 8-10 days, or at the 2-leaf stage.

2. Seedlings are transplanted singly, not in a bunch.3. Seedlings are transplanted at a wide spacing, from 20 to

50 cm apart.4. Much less water is kept on the paddies.

1. The seedlings grown in the nursery beds are transplantedafter just 8-10 days, or at the 2-leafstage. It is the biological age of theseedling which is important rather thanthe number of days. In warmer areasthe 2 leaf stage is reached in just 8-10days. This may take 3 or even 4 weeksin colder areas. The old seed case isstill attached to the plant at this stage.Such a small seedling should be trans-planted with much care not to disturbthe roots, and when planting, the rootsshould be pointing down, not bent upwards as often happenswhen planting quickly. When are left pointing upwards, theability of the plant to grow and seed well is reduced. Whenthe seedling is planted small, it can grow without being dis-turbed, its roots grow bigger and so it can produce bettergrain.

2


do SRI ?WhyWhyBenefits of practicing SRI

2-leaf seedlings

♦ rice production increased♦ less water needed♦ less seed needed♦ no extra external inputs needed♦ can use local/traditional seed♦ due to better soil and water management:

- less pests & disease- better quality grain- more fertile soil

At Sunrise Farm in Kathmandu, Nepal, rice seed issown in old egg boxes filled with soil. This means less

root disturbance when planting the seedlings.3

do SRI ?How toHow to


2. Single seedlings are transplanted. In the conventional ortraditional method, a bunch of 3-6 seedlings are planted to-gether in a clump. This leads to competition between theroots, and later the leaves. Single seedlings do not competeand they can get more access to nutrients and water.

Conventional method SRI method

4 5

4. After transplanting, much less water should be allowedonto the paddy. In the conventional method, paddies are keptflooded only to control weeds in the rice. But this means thatless air is allowed in the soil. When the soil is waterlogged,scientists have found that up to 75% of roots can die. Whenthere is too much water, the roots do not grow well. In SRI,out once the seedlings are established, water is managed tokeep the soil moist and sometimes even dry. This promotesgood root growth, so the plant can find plenty of nutrientsfrom a bigger area.

paddy withthe rightmoisture

left right

alwayswet

sometimesdry,

sometimeswet

3. Seedlings are planted at wide spacing. There can be be-tween 20 to 50 cm between single seedlings. Seedlings thatare in clumps and planted close together suffer from competi-tion (as in 2. above). They will compete for water, nutrientsand light. Planting far apart means that each seedling has lotsof light and plenty of space to obtain nutrients and water.Also, when single seedlings are spaced wide apart much lessseed is needed. If the conventional method needs 100 kg perhectare of seed, with SRI only 7 kg of seed is needed to planta hectare.

On the left, as in the conven-tional method, the soil is alwayswet, air can’t get in the soil, soroots can’t grow well and there-fore find less nutrients. On theright, with the right moisture,

roots can grow well and so canfind more nutrients.

paddy withtoo wet soil


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Seedlings areplanted when

they are 8-10 daysold (in warm areas)or whenever the 2-leaf stage isreached. At thistime the rice seedhusk is usually stillattached to theseedling.

Taking the above 4 differences into account, theSRI method is described below

As in the traditional paddy rice cultivation, first sow theseeds in a nursery, but sowing more thinly makes it

easier to transplant the small seedlings later on.

When transplant-ing the 2-leaf

seedlings great caremust be taken not todamage the roots, orexpose them to the sun.The seedlings should beplanted as soon as pos-sible - if possible within15-20 minutes of up-rooting. 2-leaved seedlings being

lifted from the nursery.

A rake isused to markout plantingdistances.The distancebetweenteeth of therake be-comes theplantingdistance ofthe seedlings

4 When planting the seedlings, the roots should pointdownwards, not be bent upwards.

2

Shyam’s rake hasholes on the hori-

zontal bar at differ-ent distances. Thismeans he can set

different widths tomark out his plant-

ing distances.

3

1


Gam

ini B

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itage

For up to 2 weeks, as the seedlings are establishing , thepaddy should be kept wet. After this, water should be

managed to allow just the right amount of moisture. Onceevery 1-2 weeks the soil can be allowed to completely dryout, even crack. In the monsoon season, rain should beenough to satisfy water needs. If irrigation is needed, floodthe field once in the evening, allow it to soak in overnight,then drain off any excess water. When the rice flowers, morewater can be allowed to flood the field. From 3-4 weeks be-fore harvest, no irrigation should be done & the field drained.

CompostGood organic fertilizer for the soil is crucial for the

success of SRI, to give good root growth. Because plants arefar apart, mulch can also be added. Mulching will also helpcontrol the weeds. Green manures can also be used. For ex-ample, before planting rice, sesbania can be grown andploughed into the soil. Mustard can also be sown with thetransplanting to control weeds, and be dug in at time of firstweeding.

5

Gamini Batuwitage

Fields under SRI, one month after planting

Plant the seedlingssingly, one-by-one.

The distance betweenseedlings can be 20 to50cm. Farmers can re-search this themselves tofind which distance isbest for management andyield. Some farmersprefer 40cm, some 30, etc.

Gam

ini Batuw

itage

Theroots oftheseed-lingshouldpointdown-wards

Gam

ini B

atuw

itage

8 9

The seedlings arethen planted ac-cording to themarks of the rake,anywhere between20-50cm.

6

The Farmers’ Handbook “The Fields” Booklet 11 - SRI Rice CultivationThe Farmers’ Handbook “The Fields” Booklet 11 - SRI Rice Cultivation


Weeding Because seedlings are small and planted far apart, for upto 1 month the crop may look very poor. But at this time,most development is going on in the roots. In the secondmonth, tillering starts and in the third month the above-soilplant grows very fast and becomes a thick clump. Most workis needed at planting because the seedlings are small and needgreat care. But as experience grows, this work can be donefaster. Weeding takes more work than traditional paddy culti-vation, but production increases as a result. Mulching andgreen manures can reduce the amount of weeding needed.

Riceseedlings

Mustard greenmanure seen

close-up

At Sunrise Farm, after planting the rice agreen manure of mustard is sown. This helpsto control weeds, and after 2-3 weeks is dugin, which helps to aerate the soil as well as

providing a source of nutrients.

In SRI because the soil is not saturated with water, andseedlings are further apart, more work is required in weed-ing. The first weeding should be done about 10 days to 2weeks after transplanting. The next weeding may be 2weeks later. At least 3-4 weedings will be needed, but inSRI the more weeding is done, the better the rice productionwill be. Uprooted weeds should be left to rot on the soil.

Plant-ing time

After 1month

After 6weeks

After 2months

2-leafseedling

A little leafgrowth,

more rootgrowth

Rootgrowth

only Now the leavesstart to grow

fastTypicalgrowth pat-

tern in S.R.I.planted rice

1110 The Farmers’ Handbook “The Fields”The Farmers’ Handbook “The Fields”

The Farmers’ Handbook “The Fields” Booklet 11 - SRI Rice Cultivation12

Rice, plantedas single seed-lings at 40cmdistance, isstarting to

ripen.

After the SRI rice has been planted, green manures likeSesbania, mustard or buckwheat can be sown and then be dug intothe soil. Any form of mulch can be also be laid down. Either ofthese will help to control weeds as well as add fertility to the soil.

13

Rice plants inSRI method

On the leftis a rice

plant grownwith the SRIprinciples.

On the rightis a plant

grown withthe conven-

tionalmethod.

A machinefor weeding

between rowsof paddy.

This can onlybe used whenthe paddy is

flooded, or atleast very

wet.


Joel

ibar

ison

199

8

Comparison between conventional and SRI methods

No: seedlings per clump

No: tillers per seedling

No: seeds per tiller

No: seeds per plant

Yield (tonne/Ha)

Conventionalmethod

SRImethod

4

8.3

114

824

2.0

1

55

189

5858

7.3

14

Paddy managed under SRIhas shown good increasesin yield. Double yields arenot difficult to achieve, andsome farmers haveachieved up to 4 times theirnormal yield. To try outSRI, start experimentingwith the above ideas on asmall area of your land. Ifyou find good results, in-crease the area. Form anetwork with other farmersand research/developmentorganisations, so morepeople can try and share

experiences. Keep good records of inputs and outputs, andany new approaches which work well for you, in your area.

A large, multi-tillered clump ofrice from a single seedling


This booklet was produced with the participation of the SRIGroup-Nepal, an alliance of (I)NGOs and individuals interested to

research, evaluate and network SRI practice in Nepal.http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sri-nepal

[email protected] homepage (International) - http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/

My experience since 2001 has shown methat although SRI requires more thoughtand work in some areas, the benefitsmore than compensate for this. But I alsothink that once we get more practice anddevelope a habit of planting this way, jobs like planting seedlings andweeding, which take more time at the moment, will become quicker aswe get more experienced. You should take care not to put too muchwater on the fields. I use more mulch to control weeds. You shouldn’tweed late - this makes it more difficult later. Before if we weeded twice,with SRI we weed 3 or 4 times. I’ve used green manures of mustard andSesbania. This keeps the soil more loose and makes weeding easier.With mustard I got a benefit of some greens to eat as well asthe weed control and soil improvement. So overallI’ve seen that with extra work, the fruits aremore abundant!

Mr Shyam Shrestha, owner andmanager of Sunrise Farm, Sita Pailaon the outski-rts of Kathmandu inNepal, has been growing rice usingthe SRI principles since 2001. Nowlet’s hear about his experience.

Mr ShyamShresthaMr ShyamShrestha

Shyam Shrestha

15

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Subjects Related to SRIGood benefits can be had from the information in this

book about SRI. However, this information is also linked toother methods. For extra benefits let’s read, learn and practicefrom other related chapters.

Read On !Read On !

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Agro-Forestry chapter - how to plant and manage treeson farmland to increase and diversify farm yield

Compost chapter - information on how to makegood compost quickly is given in this chapter

Seed Saving chapter - information on methods to pro-duce and store various quality seeds at home

Mulching chapter - how to grow more crops withless work while keeping the soil covered

GreenManures

MulchingSeed Saving

Compost

Agro-Forestry

Green Manures chapter - use green manures to addfertility to the soil and produce more crops


Forest, Soil, &Other Topics

This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, Mrs Malati LakoulEdited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob JespersenTranslated from Nepali by Chris EvansProof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, AndyLangford, Looby MacnamaraPhotos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris EvansAddional photo credits are given at the end of this VolumeCover illustration: Mr Motilal PhaujaTyping: Chris EvansComputer Coordination: Graphics Edge, KathmanduPublished by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copiesThis Edition.........Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X.......This Volume : 99933-615-5-0

The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fifthof 5 volumes. There are 5 techniques and several miscellaneous topics presented here. In fivevolumes there are 40 techniques and approaches in total.


C O N T E N T SC O N T E N T SC O N T E N T S

Subject Chapter No:


Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1Forest Management ...................................... 2Soil Conservation and improvement ............ 3

A-Frame ........................................................ 4Community Fund .......................................... 5Land Design .................................................. 6Glossary ......................................................... 7Practical Literacy .......................................... 8Acknowledgements ....................................... 9Introduction to Permaculture....................... 10

Grihasthi Publications' resources ................ 11

ls;fgsf] xft]lstfa – o; efusf] kl/ro

This is the fifth volume of a five volume production ofthe Farmers' Handbook. In all, there are forty techniques &approaches shown, of which six are in this fifth volume.Because this is the final volume, its design is slightly differentto the previous 4 volumes. At the start of this volume weintroduce you to some of the techniques used in communityforests, and for regenerating land. The chapter on LandDesign then summarises all the chapters in this Farmers'Handbook. Finally, there are some miscellaneous topics.

This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provideinformation about sustainable farming techniques as well asbeing a resource to run literacy programmes. Informationabout such programmes and how the Handbook can be usedis provided in this volume. As well as technical information, aglossary of new and difficult words is also provided in thisvolume.


Aims

Background





?

Thank YouWe would like to say a big thanks to all the friends who

helped us to complete this Farmers' Handbook. Apart fromthose named and pictured here, there are countless others

who have supported us throughout the task.

So on behalf of the Farmers'Handbook, here's a

very, very big Thank You !From the Producers and Designers

Chris Evans Jakob Jespersen

Forest Management 2

Grihasthi Publications' resources 11

Introduction to Permaculture 10

Picture Acknowledgements 9

Practical Literacy 8

Glossary 7

Land Design 6

Community Fund 5

A-Frame 4

Soil Conservation and Improvement 3

Techniques

Various farmers'groups have helped todevelop and evaluatethe Handbook. It isfor such groups thatthe Handbook hasbeen produced.

Printer

Proofreader

Proofreader

Computersupport

system

scioncambium

Techniques

Proofreader

Proofreader

Support for the production and printing of The Farmer'sHandbook has come from ActionAidNepal, MSNepal,

Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), GTZ Foodfor Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP). In

this volume, the chapter on "Soil Conservation andImprovement'' has been supported by Helvetas Nepal



FundingSupport


addresses



Appropriate Technology AsiaP.O. Box 8975 EPC 849Kathmandu, Nepaltel: +977 1 [email protected]



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What is

Forest Manage-ment is the way thatforests and the treeswithin them are pro-tected and used to pro-vide forest products andother benefits. In orderto manage a forest, thedifferent objectives mustbe decided upon, and awork plan is made ac-cording to this. Just likeany farm management, the work plan to manage a forestmeans what work to do, where, when, and how. Before start-ing forest management, the capacity and working process ofthose who are to do the work and benefit from it (user group)should be considered. This may be a community, family,individual, or other organisation which will work in and ben-efit from the forest.

In Nepal, community forest is a resource of primaryimportance. That's why it's very important for communitiesand user groups to learn about forest management. In thischapter, information is given in particular about communityand private forest mangement.

The forest we keep, keeps us.

Forest Management ?Forest Management ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 2 - Forest Management

WhyWhy do ForestManagement ?

2 3


Hari Prasad DhunganaFederation of Community Forest Users' Groups, Nepal

HowHow to do ForestManagement ?

Most people already know that the forest gives themmany direct and indirect benefits. Daily needs such as fodder,firewood, leaf litter, timber, and various herbal medicines areavailable in the forest. The forest not only protects and im-proves the environment around settlements, it even helps toprovide us with safe, clean drinking water.

This is something that people have come to understandsince early days. It is also why forest management has beenpart of the local community for a long time.

But for many reasons, the forest has been disappearingbefore our eyes. As population has continued to increase, onone hand more forest resources are needed, yet on the other

hand, population pressure has decreasedthe forest area and had a bad affect onthe environment. With efficient andappropriate ways of conserving anddeveloping forest products such as treesand medicinal herbs, the well-being andproductivity of the family and commu-nity can increase, and poverty will de-crease.

Background

A very important factor together with "how" to manageforests is "who" is managing them. Considering this, theNepali government has made various regulations. The ForestDepartment, together with non-government and other organi-sations have participated in developing a set of regulations tohelp forest user groups manage their own forests.

The forest law covers the management and use of reli-gious forests, leasehold forests, government managed forestsand protected forests. However, community forest and privateforest are considered to be the most important types of forest.

In recent years, the amount of community managedforest has increased greatly. However, user groups have stillnot been able to realise the benefits of truly sustainable forestmanagement.

Over time, there have been many ways that the foresthas been protected, developed and its products distributedamongst its users in homes and villages. These managementmethods have been improved in different places and at differ-ent times, but there is still room for improvement. We shouldnow use the lessons of experience, and take forest manage-ment forward to cater for the increasing population.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 2 - Forest Management4 5

This is where national forest has come under a localmanagement plan, and has been handed over from the districtforest office to a village committee responsible for the imple-mentation of the management plan.

This is where trees and forest on any private, registeredland may be managed.

By planting trees on farm land, forest products are broughtcloser to the home. This saves time and helps to protect the

forest. Read the Agroforestry chapter to learn more.

Things to consider in forest management

The forest can be managed for various objectives. Themain objective of managing community forest is often tosustainably provide for the needs of firewood, fodder, timber,etc. in the community. Management of private forest may, forexample, be for the maximum output of good quality timber.There may be many other objectives in forest management.Just as the objectives are different, the management work inthe forest will also be different.

Community Forest

Private Forest

Objectives of forest management

Some details of registering community and private forestare give on page 14.

Needs and abilities of the community or individualThe different needs of a community or individual will

determine why and how to manage the forest. In communityforestry, the needs and hopes of the community are mostimportant. But individual or family needs usually take prior-ity in private forests.

In managing a community forest, the opinions of allusers of the forest are important to create the managementplan. This may include religious or cultural reasons for pro-tecting or using the forest.

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What is a Forest Management Plan ?A forest management plan is a written or understood

agreement for a programme of work in the forest, in terms ofwho does it, and where, when and how the work is done. Incommunity forestry terms this can also be called an "actionplan", and can include issues relevant to national forest law.


The condition of the forest will differ in different places.Factors such as types and species of trees and shrubs, soil type,moisture, fertility, and aspect all cause great diversity, andaffect productivity in the forest. While preparing the forestmanagement plan, an evaluation of the growing stock of pro-ductive trees and shrubs, and their growth rates is an importantstep. Keeping good records of this will enable the user group toestimate the amount of products which can be sustainablygathered from the forest area.

Forest Site Conditions

Here you can seethe trees, but it'snot a good forest.

There are noplants in the

ground layer, sothis space has no

productivity.

There are manytypes of plants

in a good forest.

Important re-sources such as

soil are lostwithout theforest cover.

Finding the resources to manage the forestThere are various resources needed in the process of

forest management. For example, if making a plantation, orother activities, there must be good public participation toform the users' group committee, and agree on the manage-ment plan. This can be called the human resource. It costs toproduce seedlings to plant, and there are many other visibleand invisible costs that the people managing the forest willneed to bear. These human, financial and physical resourceshave a big affect on management work in the forest.

8 9

In this communityforest, unwanted

species have just beencut back, and usefulthinnings harvested.

The same area 1 yearlater, the forest has

grown back well. After awhile it will be cut backagain. Such work im-

proves the forest..

Naturally regener-ated seedlings usually

grow better thanplanted seedlings.

planted

naturally regenerated

In a productiveand truly sustain-able forest there

are many types oftrees and shrubs

which fill alllayers of the for-est, from ground

layer to uppercanopy.


Bare ground, clear glades in the forest, and even terraceedges in fields can all be planted with useful trees. Appropri-ate non-timber and medicinal plants which are needed by thehousehold and community can be chosen and planted, as wellas trees grown for timber. These can be grown in a nursery, orwild plants can be collected from the forest and planted. Tolearn about species selection, planting distance, propagationand planting methods, you should seek technical advice fromthe relevant places, such as the local district forest office orappropriate NGO, and request extra training.

Work in the Forest

Plantation

Plant more use-ful plants inbare areas ofthe forest.

Weeding and FireControl

Clear weeds from around newly planted or regeneratedseedlings to help them grow, and protect the area from theharmful effects of fire and free-range livestock. Some treesmay suffer more from fire, while slow growing plants suffermore from weed competition. This work protects trees frompests and diseases, and helps the seedlings to grow faster.

Forest killersThinning

Thinning practice is different depending on the differentobjectives of the forest management plan. For example, if theobjective is only firewood production, trees can be growncloser together. But for good quality timber, the lowerbranches of selected trees may need pruning. Some types offodder tree are best cut in different ways at different times ofthe year. To make space for more valuable species, less usefultrees and shrubs can be gradually cleared. For example, ifthere is too much pine, this can be thinned out and other moreuseful or desired species planted in the gaps.

If many branches regrow from the stumps of cut trees(coppicing), a good tree can be grown by selecting the bestone or two stems and cutting the remainder.


More information about this is given in the Soil Conser-vation and Improvement, Integrated Orchard, andAgroforestry chapters.

Final HarvestFodder trees may be cut several times a year, or once

every 2 years, after which they will regrow. Harvesting timbermeans felling the whole tree. Some herbal medicines comefrom harvesting roots, some from fruit, or flowers, or bark,etc. In this way benefits are harvested according to the man-agement plan. The management should include planning andpreparation for future rotations of crops.

By selecting andthinning, useful

products areharvested as wellas improving theremaining forest.

If the futureregrowth of the for-

est is part of themanagement plan, itcan be sustainable.

For sustainable harvesting from the forest, productsshould not all be harvested at the same time. Once an estimatehas been made of the growing stock and growth rates, accord-ing to this a fixed proportion of the growth can be harvested.This will help to improve the forest without over-harvesting.

Registering a Community ForestAccording to the current forest law in Nepal, community

forest is given priority for development. The forest user com-mittee is givenresponsibility forprotection of anddistribution ofproducts from thecommunity forest.The local commu-nity forms the usergroup to manage allthis responsibility.

• The community shouldform a users' committee which can make an applica-tion to the District Forest Office.

• Taking advice from the Forest Office and/or related NGOs,the committee should prepare a clear, simple constitution.

• After registering the constitution at the forest office, aforest management plan is made.

• When the plan is approved, the forest is handed over to thecommunity.

• It's a good idea to take advice from related organisations fortechnical and management advice while managing the forest.

Bhaisepati Women's

Community Forest

Saibu-4, Bhaisepati, 1998


Registering a Private ForestFarmers' land is often left unused, for example because

they do not have the time or other resources to farm it. Byplanting trees, or by protecting naturally regenerated trees onsuch wasteland, or even on existing farmland, it is possible tomake a private forest.• Output from the private forest goes to the landowner. When

the private forest is registered, these products can be soldor traded .

• To register the forest, the land and its distribution of treesshould be described in the application to the forest office.

• The forest office will check your application against whatis on the land, then issue you a certificate of registration forthe private forest.

• Once the forest is registered, you do not need to go throughany other process of registry in order to sell products fromthe forest.

Mr Surya Adhikari ofBegnas, Nepal, changed thisland from bare ground to arich, diverse food forest. Aswell as producing fodder,

firewood, etc. for the home,he also produces fruit for

cash income.

æ

Mr AmmarBahadur Gurung


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 4, Mr AmmarBahadur Gurung is the Vice-Chairman of "Longlake Com-munity Forest". Now let'sread about his experiences.

Ammar Bahadur Gurung

Our local forest was verygood up until 1980. After that,people stopped caring. Live-stock were let loose into theforest, and people cut whereverthey liked. That led to morelandslides and floods, and evenwhole houses were washed away. Then, in 1994 this forestwas handed over to the community as Lampokhari Com-munity Forest. It is 9 hectares in area. After making a forestmanagement plan, various rules were made. Livestockaren't allowed in, and the forest is opened twice a year tocut fodder and firewood, which isn't allowed any othertime. Each person pays 2 rupees to be allowed to cut aload. Because of laws like this, the forest has grown anddeveloped very well. Dead and badly shaped branches aretaken out, and dead trees can be bought and cut for timber.The cash income from sale of forest resources goes into thelocal community fund.Æ

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Subjects Related to Forest Management

Read On !Read On !

This book provides much of the information needed tohelp manage your own forest. However, this information isalso linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,learn and practice from other related chapters.

Agroforestry chapterPlanting trees on farmland can bring farmersmany benefits. But you can't plant any type of treejust anywhere. This chapter gives information onhow to plant trees without affecting farm yield.

Living Fence chapterBy planting a fence made of trees, production canbe much more than just a barrier. This chaptertells how to make and manage a living fence.

Integrated Fruit Orchard chapterInformation on how to plant fruit trees with variousother multi-purpose trees to give more and quickerbenefits for less work is given in this chapter.

Soil Conservation and Improve-ment chapter

Information is given about the nature of soil, how toprotect existing soil, and lots of ideas about how toregenerate damaged soil into productive land again.

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Soil

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What is

All plantlife needs soilto germinate,grow and liveits life. If thesoil and soilmanagement isgood, farmproductionwill also begood. Thecondition ofour environ-ment, societyand economy all depend on the health of the soil. If the soilcan be kept fertile, production increases, the local economy isstrong, and society is safe.

Just like skin covers our bodies, so soil covers the Earth.Just like our bodies are damaged if our skin is broken, orwounded, so the Earth is harmed, and production decreases ifthe soil is damaged or washed away. If the soil is damaged,the farming community also suffers great harm. So we needto understand the needs of soil, and what can damage it. Thischapter also gives information on how soil can be sustainablyprotected and improved.

Bare land becomes greener as thesoil recovers in Surkhet, Nepal

Soil Conservation& Improvement ?Soil Conservation& Improvement ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement2 3

21

3

Different climates have different types of soils . Often,one type of climate will also have many different types ofsoil. But whatever the soil, they all have similar ingredients inthem. Such as :-

• mineral particles - these forms the main part of soil• air• moisture (water)• animal life (visible and microscopic)• roots of living plants• organic matter (dead plants and animals that are in the

process of being broken down)

Fertile soil givesgood production

for all thefarm's crops

The ingredients listed above are found in all soils in agreater or lesser amount. When they are in the right amount,the soil is naturally fertile.

The roots of the plantin picture 1 are shownclose up in picture 2.This is shown evencloser in picture 3.

air

mineralparticle

root

root hair(this takes upnutrients and

water for the plant)

Everything else is soil water, or moisture. In thewater are many nutrients, and countless micro-scopic organisms are also active in this water.

organicmatter

Soil and its NeedsSoil and its Needs



2

1

4

3

According to the soil type, thesedifferent elements are present in dif-ferent amounts. For example, let'scompare sandy and clay soils.

Sandy Soil• mineral particles are large• air spaces between the mineral

particles are large• lots of air in the soil

As a result of this :-• soil is light and well aerated• the soil doesn't hold water, and

dries out faster• nutrients are washed out quickly

Clay Soil• mineral particles are small• space between the particles is

small• less air in the soil

As a result of this :-• the soil is heavy• as soon as it rains, the soil is

saturated and stays wet for a longtime. But when it dries, the soil isvery hard

• nutrients are held in the soil but ifthere is less air in the soil, plantscan't get the nutrients so easily

Testing Soil

Put a handful ofsoil in a jar of

water and shakewell. Leave it to

settle for 4-5days. The dif-ferent types ofmineral parti-cles will settleinto separate

layers

1. Organic matter2. Clay particles3. Loam particles4. Sand particles

Needs of the soilWhat is needed to protect and maintain fertility in the soil ?

The contents of the soil descibed above - air, minerals,organic matter, living roots, moisture and living organisms -are all essential in the right quantities for healthy soil. Whenthey are all present, soil is naturally self-fertile. Adding theright quantities as needed also maintains the quality of thesoil. But if any one ingredient is present in a lesser or greateramount than normal, the quality of the soil can be harmed, orit can also be improved.

All the different ingredi-ents in the soil work together tohelp plants to grow. But moreimportant than these minerals, living roots, organic matter,etc. are the living organisms in the soil. In particular, the tiny,invisible organisms, such as bacteria,and fungi play a hugerole in maintaining and increasing soil fertility. These arecollectively called micro-organisms.

A small wound on theskin of the Earth.....

..... can make a big landslide.This should be prevented

from starting.


Actually, micro-organisms are probably the most impor-tant life on our planet. Living in one teaspoon of fertile forestsoil there are 2 billion micro-organisms. Larger organisms,and many types of fungi are also responsible for breakingdown dead plants and animals. This forms organic matter.Then, the smaller micro-organisms - mainly bacteria andfungi - take the organic matter and change it so plant roots(the root hairs) can absorb the nutrients, as we cook breadfrom flour. Even if there is plenty of organic matter in thesoil, without the work of micro-organisms, this cannot betaken up by the roots of living plants until it is "cooked".

Leaves and branches, dead animals, etc. fall on the soiland are broken down. Micro-organisms eat them. Then, it istheir waste in the soil which plant roots absorb as nutrients.This allows the plants to grow and continue the cycle of life.

Cycle of nutrientsand the work ofmicro-organisms

Soil organismsbreak down

organic matter

organic matter ismade into nutrients

Soil life and micro-organisms

Plants take thenutrients and

grow

micro-organismseat the nutrients and

excrete them aswaste

Soil fertilitySoil fertility

Life in the Soil

earthworm

Larger organisms which can be seen willbreak down larger pieces of organic matter,and help to get air into the soil. The smaller

micro-organisms eat their waste.

fungi

When soil is left bare, it can be damaged very easily.Many things can damage bare soil, such as :-• sun :- strong sun will dry out the soil. Dry soil hardens and

cracks the soil. Micro-organisms will die in dry, hard soil.• water :- when it rains on bare soil, the top layer will set

hard. On slopes, the topsoil is washed away downhill.• wind :- wind will dry out all the moisture from bare soil,

and can actually blow the top soil away.

Plants absorb the waste frommicro-organisms

bacteria

How soil is damaged


On these 2 pages the effects of mulching and not mulch-ing are compared together. The left page diagram (a) showswhat happens with no mulch on the soil, while the right pagediagram shows the example of a mulched soil. The top diagramshows water 1 lost to evaporation, 2 running off the soil, and3 soaking into the soil. The cycle below each drawing alsoshows the effects of mulching or not mulching on soil quality.

Cultivated, un-mulched soil

Rain washesaway fertilesoil, more

water is lostto the sun,less nutri-

ents are heldin the soil,plants are

weak.

Comparing soil with and without mulch

a

rain

sun

weak plant1

23

less soil life less moisture small roots

b soilploughed,left bare

lessorganicmatter

less airin soil

lessmoisture

fewerearthwormshard soil

difficult tocultivate

more needto plough

Spiral ofdestruction

rain

sun

weak plant

less soil life less moisture small roots

Protected from the sun, wind and rain, the organic matter,soil moisture and beneficial micro-organisms all benefit frommulching the soil. You need to consider where resources formulching can be found, such as leaf litter, straw, etc. Leavescan be brought from the forest, but this takes time. To producemore resources for mulching, its best to use Agroforestry anda Living Fence - see these chapters for more details. Learnmore about the methods and benefits of mulching in theMulching chapter.

1

2

3rain

sunstrongplant

moresoil life more

moisture bigger roots

rain

sunstrongplant

moresoil life more

moisture bigger roots

a

b

Mulched, un-cultivated soil

Soil is deep,fertile, andwell pro-

tected. Moremoisture,

more soil life,plants are

healthy andstrong.

Spiral ofproductivity

healthysoil

lots ofplants

lots ofmulch

moremoisture

richersoil

moreearthworms

softersoil

roots growdeeper


• Chemical fertilizers :- these harm the soil micro-organisms and so cause the soil structure and nutrientuptake to be damaged.

• Artificial poisons :- as well as killing pests, these kill manybeneficial insects and organisms which work in the soil.

• Big, heavy machinery :- big machines such as tractorscompress the soil so that there is less air space. Theydestroy the structure of the soil, as well as damaging soilorganisms.

• Large livestock :- on wet soil, the feet of large livestocksuch as cows and buffaloes also compress the soil anddamage soil structure.

Nutrient management for plant growthSymptoms of lack of certain nutrients

nitrogen

potassium

magnesium

manganese

phosphate

lack of

Other things which damage the soil

Symptoms seen on mature leaves

Leaves yellow, starting from tips

Leaves die from the edges

Leaves yellow between the veins

Grey/white spots on fruit and grain

Leaves and stems turn red colour

Symptoms seen on young leaves lack of

Yellow spots on leaves & veins yellow

Yellow spots on leaves & veins green

Grey spots on seed, pods and fruit

Newest leaves die back or have white tips

sulphur

iron

manganese

copper

So, what to do if nutrient deficiencies are recognised bythese symptoms ? The chart below gives examples of plantswhich accumulate greater amounts than usual of certainnutrients. These can be used in mulch, compost or liquidmanure so those nutrients which are lacking can be added tothe soil. They are called dynamic accumulators.

plantmustardbuckwheatcarrot (leaf)comfreylegumesmarigoldnettleamaranth

The main thing to consider in soil conservationand improvement :-

We need to understand what benefits the soil as well aswhat that damages the soil, and plan our work according to this.

There are 3 main strategies :-

contains lots ofphosphate, nitrogen, iron

phosphate

potassium, magnesium

nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, iron

nitrogen

phosphate

nitrogen, potassium, iron, sulphur, copper

nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, manganese

1. We need to feed the soil micro-organisms, and allow agood habitat for them to live and work in.

2. The soil should not be bare. We need to keep it covered asmuch as possible. Especially, take care to cover and protectthe soil when there is strong sun, rain and wind.

3. Stop water from running off down a slope for any distance -it runs faster, and carries off much soil and nutrients with it.


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Methods of soil conservation and improvement ?1. For the micro-organisms :- mulching, good compost,

liquid manure, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation.2. To cover the soil :- mulching, green manures (when land is

fallow), agroforestry, afforestation, etc.3. To stop water running off :- mulching, green manures,

agroforestry, afforestation, use A-frame to make contourditches, terrace maintenance.

CompostMulching

A-FrameGreenmanures

Agro-forestry

Liquidmanure

Read about howthese methods

improve the soilin each chapter

In this chapter, up till now we have read about soil,what it needs and how we can increase its fertility.

Now, we look more at regeneration of damaged soil.

Let's SeeLet's See how to conserveand improve the soilhow to conserveand improve the soil

Bare land becomesdried out and

wounds start toappear on theEarth's skin.

These woundscan be healed by

protecting theland and planting

extra trees.

In 1989, this landwas bare - 13

years later it is arich, fertile anddiverse orchard.

CompostMulching

A-Frame

LiquidmanureAgro-

forestry

Greenmanures

DoublediggingDoubledigging

k'l:tsf g+= # – df6f]sf] ;+/If0f / ;'wf/k'l:tsf g+= # – df6f]sf] ;+/If0f / ;'wf/14 15

4

10

10

9

5

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The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement

Bare and unproductiveland on the river edge....

....whenprotected, canproduce manyof a farmer's

needs.

Outside the wall theland is degraded,while inside has

grown green

Here seedlingshave been planted

and the siteprotected

Napiergrass

planted

After 1 year theNapier is bigenough to cut

for fodder

Ipomea (MorningGlory) planted onthe river bank toprevent erosion


11

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A high altitudeResource

Centre farmbeing started in

1990 inJajarkot, Nepal

The canal, madeusing an A-

frame, allowsthe water to

infiltrate the soil

This means bareland improves

very quickly (thispicture in 1993)

Maize stalks areused to strengthen

the terrace andstop soil erosion

Repair of Damaged Land

Up until now in this chapter, information has been givento assist in good soil management. If there is good soil on thefarm, it is not difficult to maintain and increase soil quality.Where soil has become degraded, the difficult work is toimprove it again. But this is very important work - nocommunity can claim it is poor as long as it has degradedland in its region , because they can improve productivitysimply by repairing this land.

All the things discussed above will help in the repair ofdamaged soil. But before putting much work into landregeneration, we should first understand how nature does the job.

This is a poorvillage. No

forest, no soil, nowealth.

But the abilityto improve theland is in thecommunity's

hands. Naturealso wants to

improve itself.


Soil Improvement and SuccessionImproving the soil doesn't take so much work. It's often

enough just to prevent it degrading. Left alone, soil willgradually improve itself, in a process called succession. Forexample, when any bare land is protected, special groundcover plants called pioneers will start to grow first. They willstart the soil improvement process. Then, larger shrubs andtrees will start to grow. Eventually, a mature forest willdevelop, and the soil will get a new life.

So the first need for improving the soil is protection. Theeasiest type of protection is a "community fence" - thecommunity decides to protect an area of land, and preventlivestock going into it. After that, stone walls, thorny brush, etc.can be used to make a fence. Most difficult is the individualprotection of trees, by surrounding them with thorny branches.

Communally protected landgrows through succession

A walled area

Each tree is protectedby thorny branches

The seeds of many pioneer plants are already in the soil.Many types of fruit, such as Ficus, mulberry, etc. are eaten bybirds and spread on the land through their manure.

We can speed up this process by providing perches overa bare area for birds to sit on. Bury tall posts on a contourline, and tie string between them. Under the string wherebirds sit, the seed they carry will germinate.

On bare land, it's much easier to work with nature. Witha few years' protection, naturewill plant the best speciesto improve the soil.Then people can plantthe larger species theyneed, such as walnut, oak,etc., and they will survive,and grow much better.

This improvement doesn't cost much and the land willimprove sustainably. The right plants will grow according tosite and climate. Making a plantation on a bare site is veryexpensive, and more trees will fail. It's much cheaper andmore effective to use succession for soil improvement.

Land improvement - who benefits?The aim of improving community land is to prevent

erosion, and produce more fodder, firewood, etc. But wemust consider who benefits from this work. There aremany examples where resource-poor people gain lessthan they should. So we must make sure from early onthat benefits from land improvement are shared equally

amongst the community.


1

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Whenland is bare, thereare no benefits excepta few handfuls of grass forlivestock. In fact, the soil will be

degrading in the opposite direction. Atfirst it's most important to protect the site.

By allowing natural plants to grow thesoil will improve by itself.

Succession on bare land

When anarea is protectedfrom grazing, within 1-2 years grasses and smallshrubs will start to grow. Thesecover the soil, conserve moisture, and start

to improve the soil. Livestock must be fed athome. Grasses which grow on the

protected site can be used asfodder for them.

Afteranother 1-2 yearsother seed will bebrought to the land by thewind or by birds, and start togrow. As well as providing fodder,these shrubs and trees can also provide smallfirewood.

Within 3-4 yearssmall trees willstart to grow on the land.The soil will have improvedwell by this time. Now wecan start planting large types oftree. In between, smaller, shade loving species suchas coffee, pineapple, cardamon, medicinal herbs, etc. can

be planted.

Eventually, bothnature and thecommunity can providefor more of their needs.Nature is protected, andhuman benefits also increase. Whennature and the community work together, suchbenefits are sustainable.


One piece of land improvement

A stone wallprotects the landwhere seedlings

have been planted

Some trees willgrow easily from

cuttings whenplanted at the right

time. These areFicus cuttings.

After just 2years, the

area is greenand

productive

It is important to prevent water from running off a bareslope. This can be done by using an A-frame to mark outcontour ditches, or swales. This is described in the A-Framechapter. Let's see how the A-frame can be used.

The A-frame is used to mark horizontal lines.These make swales for soil improvement.

Swales made withthe A-frame hold

water, soil andnutrients on the

land. These can beused by growingplants, instead of

being washedaway.


1

3

2

The distance between swalesdepends on the steepness ofthe slope. The steeper theslope, the closer together theswales should be. In diagram1 the slope is steeper, and theswales are dug deeper andmore narrow. In diagram 2the slope is less steep, swalesare less deep, and wider. Indiagram 3 the soil dug fromthe swale is put above ratherthan below the ditch. This canbe used to make terraces forcultivation as the soil accumulates above the ditch.

Instead of diggingswales, rocks or

branches can be laidout on the contour

lines marked by theA-frame to preventsoil erosion. Smallshrubs can also be

planted. Their rootswill bind the soil andwon't fall over andcause more erosion,as big trees may do.

Planting of fodderspecies will

increase compostproduction....

....or the trees can becut and leaves put

directly on the land(mulching).

Soil will collect abovetrees planted like this, andslowly level land will be

formed for easier farming.

By stopping soilerosion in this way,hill farmers can canmake their own land

more fertile andproductive.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement

ç ç26 27

• livestock compost• compost made of sweepings from the house and yard• legumes to fix nitrogen• earthworms• silt from ponds, streams, etc.• silt and dust collected from the run-off of the first rains• deep-rooting trees to cycle fertility• mulch using leaf litter to cover the soil• dead insects, birds, etc• soil and leaves blown in by the wind• human excrement• laying turf• green manures• rotation cropping• keeping land fallow• no-tillage, to allow natural soil fertility

Ways to increase soil fertility

If farmers can use as many of these various localresources as possible to increase fertility, they can help toprotect and improve the soil themselves. In this way they canincrease production locally and make the homestead strongand productive.

The soil is our life.Protect it and be happy !!!

Mr Surya PrasadAdhikari


From Nepal, Kaski district,Lekhnath - 10, Begnas vil-lage, Mr Surya PrasadAdhikari has worked toimprove the soil on his ownfarm. Now let's read abouthis experiences.

Surya Prasad Adhikari

I started my mixedorchard in 1988. My aim wasto work with nature to improvethe soil and make it moreproductive. The area is 1.5acres, and it was completelybare and degraded, with hardlyany grass. First I plantedseedlings and mulched all theland with leaves and compost. In the second year I sowedlegumes and planted bananas. I cut the bananas and usedthem for mulch. Then I planted oranges, pineapple, foddertrees, broom grass, and so on. In total there are 55 species I'veplanted. It's all protected from livestock. The annualproduction has increased each year, and I even sell seedlingswhich grow there. There are 800 fruiting coffee seedlings,and I sell oranges and pineapple too. I produce all the fodderand firewood needed at home as well.

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Subjects Related to Soil Conservationand Improvement

Read On !Read On !

Mulching chapterMulching protects and improves the soil

Compost chapterMake good compost for the soil faster and easier

Living Fence chapterMake not just a fence, but a productive part of the farm

Forest Management chapterGood forest management is essential for the soil

Agroforestry chapterPlant more trees on farmland to increase productionwithout affecting yields of field crops

A-frame chapterAn easy method of saving soil and water on sloping land

Green Manures chapterA method of increasing soil fertility and crop production

Sweepings Pit chapterMake great compost from domestic waste resources

Double Digging chapterDig twice as deep to get 4 x the vegetable production

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 4 - A-Frame4 5

1 32

1

3

2

4

Let's SeeLet's See

These pictures show how the A-Frame is puttogether. More details are given along with

the colour photos.

The A-Frame is constructed by joining the legs, levelstick and string as in drawings 1, 2 and 3 above. It is NOTessential that the long sticks which make the legs of the A-frame are exactly the same length, nor that the middle stick isexactly horizontal. It doesn't matter if lengths are different, orif the sticks are not exactly straight. As in the drawing below,some A-frames can be more uneven, but they all do the samework.

The most important part of the A-frame, so it can markout contours accurately, is the relationship between thestring and the horizontal stick. The way that this is done

is shown in detail in colour photos 7 to 14

Now the A-Frame is ready to use

how to makean A-Frame

Lay the sticks outin the shape of theEnglish letter "A"

To join the piecesuse nails or string

how to makean A-Frame

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What is a

A CommunityFund can be started byvillage men and womenagreeing to make agroup, and collectingmoney from all themembers of the groupaccording to their capac-ity. When the group hasan objective of makingloans and charging inter-est as needed from thisfund, this is usuallycalled a savings andloans group. Thesegroups can be made upof men and women, some are made up of women only. Themembers of the group discuss and decide on when to meet andhow much money to collect. Usually they meet once a month,on the first Saturday, or any other day they decide on. Every-one agrees to pay an equal amount, which can increase overtime. Members can then take a loan according to their needs. Arate of interest is payable on the loan, which increases thefund. This has proved to be very successful in allowing com-munities to control and improve their own local economy.

Controlling your own finance

Community Fund ?Community Fund ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 5 - Community Fund

WhyWhy make aCommunity Fund ?


HowHow

Materials Needed to make a Community Fund

2 3

to make aCommunity Fund ?

Mrs Malati LakoulWorld Education,Kathmandu, Nepal

• protection from the high interest rates of merchants• to have access to funds at times of emergency• to be able to pay for family committments, such as wed-

dings, school fees, funerals, etc.• to be able to take loans easily whenever needed• so that marginal families with minimum incomes can get

access to credit and cash• to make managing the household's finances easier

Discussing the business of the Community Fund

In this chapter, first we'll look at selecting the group andhow it manages itself. Then we'll look at examples of simpleways of keeping and managing accounts. Finally, we'll brieflylook at some good ways of investing the fund, and see casestudies of successful women's groups and their funds.

Where does savings money come from ?

• from a certain percentage of income taken at the start,before any spending (produce, save, and then spend)

• from increasing the fund by income-earning work• from giving up being lazy and improving work habits• reducing unnecessary expenses• reducing consumption of damaging items such as alcohol

and cigarettes• from community or social work, such as festivals, cultural

programmes, bulk buying and marketing, etc.

"piggy bank"

moneytrustingfriends

accountsbooks

pens

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 5 - Community Fund4 5

How to start a group

The variousresponsibilities ofthe groupshould bedivided up, sothat savingsand creditgroups can man-age themselveseffectively. Noteveryone has the sameskills, and it should be decided and agreed who is best to dowhich job.

• able to lead the group• able to manage the group successfully• able to listen, and understand inputs from the group• able to explain about the group and how it works to other

people and groups.

Things to consider when selecting members

Group leader (Chairperson)

Treasurer• able to read and write• able to keep accounts

Secretary• able to read and write• able to explain about the group to

others• able to network with other groups

Goodleadership

The groupchooses the chair-person, treasurerand secretary byconsensus,election, or bywhatevermethod is ap-propriate. Forexample, here are 2methods of selecting the posts:

Method 1

The group selects people with the right qualities to playthe leadership roles, who then state whether they wish to havethe post. When there is consensus and everyone agrees, theposts are given.

Method 2

A selection of suitable candidates are presented orpresent themselves. There is a vote, and whoever gets themost votes gets the post.

How to keep the group's accounts ?

The keeping of the group's accounts means the group cankeep a record of funds saved, loans given and interest earned,so the total amount of the fund is always known. The treasurerhas the responsibility to keep the accounts clear and transpar-ent. On the following pages are samples of a group's accounts.

Choosing the group's leaders

Groupparticipation


Keeping the group's accounts

To keep accounts of the group's savings, the chairpersonrecords the names and savings of the group members, witheach signing their name against the account. Everybodywatches as accounts are written, and the accounts are read outas well. Below is an example of the records kept.

Savings and loans pass book

It's best to have a pass book for each member of thegroup. This can be copied from any other group or organisa-tion who are keeping similar accounts. An example of theway accounts can be kept of savings and loans is given below.

S.No:

Date Name Item In-come

Loantaken

Loanleft torepay

Amountin

bank

Amountin

Group

Signature

1. 1.4.01 Lastmonth’s

items

200/-

2. 1.4.01 Dhanmaya April’ssaving

10/-

3. 1.4.01

1.4.01

1.4.01

Sunmaya April’ssaving

10/-

210/-

220/-

15.

21.

Sita

Phulmaya April’ssaving

April’ssaving

400/-

note : due to lack of space not all accounts are written. AfterDhanmaya and Sunmaya there are another 12 members

whose savings are not shown, but the method is the same.

Here, the accounts of members 16 to 20 are not shown

340/-

Group LedgerMonth April

Phulmaya is the Treasurer

S.No:

Date Item Loantaken

Signature

1. 1.4.01

2. 1.5.01

Savingsdeposited

TotalSavings

3. 1.6.01

April

May

June

10/-

10/-

10/-

-

-

-

10/-

20/-

30/-

Savings Passbook

S.No:

Date Item

1. 1.4.01 April 180/-

Loantaken

Interestto pay

Paid back

Loan Interest

Signature

Leftto

pay

Loans Passbook

9/-

Saving andloan passbook

Group ledger


Providing loans from the fund

• Decide what type of work loans can be given for.• Decide the amount of interest to charge, depending on the

type of loan.• Decide how and when the loan will be repaid.• Prioritise which types of loan are available.• Discuss and decide regularly how to keep the group and its

finances running well.

Coordinating the group's activities

1.The group meets regularly to make decisions.2.Work is divided among the

group.3.Bylaws are made :-

• how much to save ? (permember)

• when to save it ? (monthly, etc.)All decisions are recorded.

Usually, the groupmembers will meet

once a month.

There are benefits to thegroup and the individual.

4. Managing the fund's ledger :• How much does each member

have?• How much loan have they

taken?• How much is kept in the bank ?

8. Plan for thefuture. Discusshow to get accessto relevant tech-niques and re-sources to makeprogrammesconnected toareas of health,education, farm-ing, etc.

7. When will loan repayment start ?• How will the loan be paid off ?• When will the loan be paid off ?

6. Agree interest rates :• How much interest is charged

on different types of loan ?

5. Keeping the savings :• Hold formal meetings;• Provide details of accounts to

the group.

By using the loan tostart a business, the

local economy benefits,while loan repayment

also increases the fund.

weaving

fruit

skillstraining

vegetablegrowing

shop


Joining in community work related to the fund

Why should anactive and well runsavings group only

manage a fund ?They can also beinvolved in com-munity work such

as maintainingpaths, drinking

water systems andplantations.

Women's ability and awarenessincreases. They can participate in making

decisions about various communityissues along with the men.

A success story of a community fund

In 1994 in Gauripara village in Bardiya district, of West-ern Nepal, the women started a savings and credit group. Atfirst the members raised 5 rupees a month and invested this invarious activities. They grew a potato crop, and raised pigssuccessfully. Then they rented some land and grew rice,which also produced well. Now they have started to build acommunity hall, and plan to open a community shop. Eventhough they invested this much, as of 2000 they still had over50,000/- rupees left in the fund. Now this active and success-ful group also advises and teaches other groups.

Members of Gauripara Group

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

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Mrs PurnakalaGharti


From Nepal, Surkhet district,Gumi - 5, and chairperson of"Protect the Forest" women'sgroup, Mrs Purnakala Ghartihas experience in running herlocal group's communityfund. Now let's read aboutwhat she says.

Mrs Purnakala Gharti

We learned how to form thegroup from the Homestead Pro-gramme (JPP). First all themembers raised 4 kg each ofgrain, then on the first of every month we meet and each pay10 rupees into the savings. We give loans if someone hassickness, or runs out of food, and the loan is collected with asmall interest. Up until May the interest was 2 rupees perhundred. Since May it's now one and a half rupees per hun-dred. At the moment we have 500 rupees in the fund, and7000 rupees is out in loans. This has made things very easyfor us. There's no need to take loans from the merchants, whocharge interest at least 5 rupees per hundred. For one thing,we don't have to go searching for a loan, and we canuse our fund. For another, when we pay the interest,it increases our own fund.

Th

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arm

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Ha

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bo

ok

- "

Fo

rest

, S

oil

an

d o

ther

To

pic

s",

Ch

ap

ter

6 -

La

nd

Des

ign

What is

Land Design ?Land Design ?Farming is

part of the body ofrural communities.Everybody wants tomake these commu-nities more sustain-able. Permacultureis the direct applica-tion of the princi-ples of nature in thedesign of sustain-able human habitats.Design can make afarming system which relies on the observation of nature andthe adaptation of nature's stability, fertility and resilience tocreate a sustainability which benefits not only people, but thewhole earth. Permaculture is a way of designing which usesmainly local resources to help individuals and communities beself reliant and abundant. It is also a design system which helpsus to run our lives and cultures in a sustainable way .

Permaculture combines the best of natural systems, tradi-tional skill and wisdom, community values, and modern tech-nology. In this chapter we give an introduction to Permacultureand its principles, and how it is used in design. This chapteralso combines all the other chapters of the Farmers' Hand-book to help make households more sustainable.

Permaculture designer GovindaSharma in his kitchen garden

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design2 3

Benefits of using Permaculture design

• To repair degraded land and make itproductive again

• to produce more benefits from lessland

• to protect basic natural resources ofsoil, water, biodiversity, etc.

• to reduce the cost of farm production• to create sustainable life systems• to design a sustainable agriculture.

What is "Sustainable" ?

Nowadays the word "sustainable" is widely used, like"sustainable development", "sustainable economics", and soon. But we must only use this word when we understand it.What is a sustainable place like ? What do we gain from it ?

A "sustainable" system is permanent, stable, resilient andself sustaining, never breaking down and always meeting theneeds of its populations of plants and animals.

Actually, in modern times people have never made atruly sustainable system, so where do we get our "sustain-able" vision from ?

If we wish to be truly sustainable, where can we go tolearn how, when we have never done it ourselves ? Moderndevelopement has given us billions of dollars and thousandsof politicians and scientists, but still we are not sustainable.

So where to go and what to do, to be sustainable ?

If we really want to create a sustainable lifestyle forourselves, and for future generations, we must learn fromplaces where systems are sustainable. These are the self-reliant, self sustaining, resilient, stable and productive naturalsystems of the world.

An example of a sustainable natural system can be seenin a natural forest. But traditionally the forest is a dark, for-bidding place, where crops can't be grown and tigers hide totake our livestock. That's why we are more accustomed toclearing forest in order to grow crops. But at the same time,most people understand that without the forest there is no life,because so much of what we need in life comes from theforest.

Where can we see sustainability ?

But have we ever thought how theforest is a teacher of sustainability ?

These training participants learnabout sustainability from the forest


Go to the forest and see !• The Forest needs no work but is always productive.• The Forest never degrades itself, and is always growing.• The Forest does not need fertilizing or irrigating, but it is

always fertile and moist.• The Forest is warm when it's cold, and cool when it's hot.• The Forest is permanent, resilient, and self reliable.

So how would it be if we could make our homes, com-munities and economies as sustainable as the forests ? Tomake our homesteads as sustainable as nature, we need tounderstand the importance of natural systems, and use thatunderstanding in our lives. Permaculture is a way of design-ing the land using this knowledge.

PermacultureEthics

(1) Care of the Earth(2) Care of People(3) Recycling of Wealth

by design

And the forest is sustainable !

Natural Systems and Permaculture Design

How is a Natural System Sustainable ?

What is a Natural System ?

A Natural system is made up of living and non-living ele-ments.

In a natural system there are various elements, such astrees, shrubs, insects, ponds, rocks, birds, etc. These elementshave their own different characteristics, habits and qualities.Some trees are short, some tall. Some are thick, some thin.Some need full sunlight, some grow in the shade. All theelements, with their own habits, live in a functional relation-ship to the other elements around them in any place. That iscalled a natural system.

Natural System

In some languages, a system may have adifferent name if it is made by people,

e.g. a farming system.

elementelement

local

environmentlocal

environment

elements'characteristics

elements'characteristicsrelationships

between elementsrelationships

between elements


Principles of Natural Systems

Natural Systems follow a group of principles whichenable them to be sustainable. By using the same principles inthe design of farming systems, the objective is to work to-wards a sustainable agriculture. Permaculture is used as adesign system to enable this.

There is infor-mation about

the history andfounders of

Permaculture atthe end of thisfifth volume.

Principles of Natural Systems andPermaculture Design

❁ Succession

❃ Beneficial, functional relation-

ships between elements

✽ Diversity

❁ Cycles and Re-cycling

❃ Use of local resources

✽ Each element performs multiple functions

❁ Each function is supported by multiple elements

❃ Stacking for efficient use of space

✽ Use of biological (living) resources

❁ Use of microclimate

❃ Energy efficient planning

Permaculture design uses these principles to make agri-culture more productive and sustainable. That's why the prin-ciples are the same for permaculture as for natural systems.

4

12

5

3

❁ SuccessionBare, degraded land will improve itself naturally. This proc-

ess of regeneration is called succession. For example, when anybare land is protected, special ground cover plants called pioneerswill grow first. They will start the soil improvement process.Then, larger shrubs and trees will grow. Eventually, a matureforest will develop, and the soil will have a new life. This princi-ple is used to regenerate unproductive land into productive sys-tems quickly, successfully, and at low cost. We can also use spe-cies that follow this principle, but are more useful for human needs.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design

•

•• •

•

•

•

•

•

•••

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•• •

•

•

•

•

•

•••

•

8 9

❃ Beneficial, functional relationships

nettle

bee

grape

neem

fish

garl

ic

bean

bank

wormwood

cauliflower

marigold

kitchen

mint

cow

peach

lem

on g

rass

In nature, living and non-living elements are connectedto each other. This is a relationship of cooperation, not com-petition. For example, birds eat seed and disperse it elsewherein their manure. Also, bees take nectar from flowers, so help-ing pollination.

In farming systems also, different elements can be re-lated to each other. Anything that any one element needs canbe provided by another element, and the outputs of that areused by something else. In the diagram below are examplesof sixteen elements in a homestead. There are various connec-tions linking the needs of one element to the outputs of an-other, in a way that helps the system to be sustainable.

For example, thebee takes nectar fromthe peach flower, andthe peach can producebetter fruit from thepollination. Wormwoodand nettle can help thebean, garlic, cauliflowerin the kitchen garden bybeing used for mulch.Newly sprouting shootsof the peach can berubbed on the cow toprevent skin parasites, while the cow provides manure tomany elements in the system. Garlic, wormwood, nettle,marigold, etc. are all useful in the vegetable garden and or-chard for companion planting, liquid manure and pest control.

Design looks to put the right elements together in theright place, so that needs and outputs are met within the sys-tem. This reduces work and waste, and the need for externalinputs, while increasing production. The right elements in theright place will create their own beneficial connections.

✽ DiversityNature is diverse, with many types of plants, animals

and habitats. For example, though Nepal is a small country ithas a huge diversity of climates and wildlife. The more diver-sity there is, the more beneficial relationships there are be-tween the various elements in the system. This helps thesystem to be sustainable.

An example of using diversity in farming is with mixedvegetable gardening, the integrated orchard, and agroforestry.


1

2

3

4

5

12

3

4

5

Fodder and leaflitter are given to

livestock toproduce compost.

Cycle Tree leaves arecut and mulched

on the land

Compostgoes back on

the fields.

Excess nutrients aretaken up by the roots of

the trees below the crops.

Treesuse thenutri-ents togrow.

❁ Cycles and Re-cyclingIn nature, living things die and rot down. The nutrients

they are made of are released back into the system for use bythe plants. This cycle always runs, so elements which theforest needs, such as water and soil nutrients, are alwaysmade available, and never run out. In farming systems, thecycle of nutrients in agroforestry is shown below.

Another example can be seen in the kitchen garden.Waste water from washing can be used for irrigating the veg-etables, and sweepings from the house and yard can be recy-cled as compost for the kitchen garden. Without cycles likethis, it is very difficult to be sustainable.

❃ Use of local resources

✽ Each element performs multiple functions

The forest doesn't need to travel anywhere to find itsbasic resources. There are no transport costs to bring in itsneeds. The more a farming system relies on external inputs,the more are its costs of production, and the less sustainablethe system is. This is a very important principle in achievingsustainability.

In nature, each element perfoms several functions. Asingle tree will provide leaf litter,habitats for birds and insects tolive in, a support for climb-ing plants, protects thesoil, and so on. Treesplanted on the farm canalso provide many ben-efits according to theircharacteristics, suchas fodder, mulch,medicine, etc. Extrabenefits come by plant-ing them in the rightplace and in relation toother elements, suchas giving shade. Indesign, each ele-ment should pro-duce at least 3different benefitsor functionswithin the system. Trees can meet all our needs

medicine

fibres

fruitfodder

firewood

windbreak

conservewater

timber

soilprotection

shade

fence

honey

leaf litter

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design12

❁ Each function is supported by multiple elements ❃ Stacking for efficient use of spaceIn nature, many elements combine to support any one

function. For example, the function of maintaining soil fertil-ity in the forest is provided by the leaves of trees, by soilbacteria, earthworms, bird droppings, dead animals, fungus,the wind blowing dust, etc. This principle is also related todiversity.

In farming, this principle can be seen in the living fence,or hedge. The single function is for protection, and this ismade up of many species of trees and shrubs (elements). So ifone species of the fence is unsuccessful for any reason, otherspecies will continue the function, so the protection is notlost. In mixed vegetable gardening, there are many varietiesof vegetable growing together which all provide food. Ifinsects attack one type, there will always be others to providefood, so production is not lost. This principle is used to re-duce risk in the system.

In nature one reason why there is such great productionwith such small input is that space is used very efficiently, andthere are many elements in a small space. By stacking onespecies on top of another, more species can grow. In one forest,up to 7 layers can be seen :- a ground or weed layer, shrublayer, lower, mid and upper canopy layers, a climbing plantlayer, and a root layer. Different species are stacked into thissystem, giving production from 10-20 metres below the groundto 30-40 metres above the ground. No space is wasted.

Planting layers of trees and shrubs in farming systems isvery productive. In the living fence, agroforestry and the inte-grated orchard, species are planted according to their size andshape, and whether they need shade or sun, to make manylevels and produce many more benefits than a field of grain,which only uses a metre of vertical space.

There are manytypes of tree in the

living fence

top layer ofbig trees

lower canopylayer

groundlayer

mid canopylayer

shrub layer

13

To recognise the state of the land, many things must beunderstood. What are the problems ? Where are importantresources such as soil, water, fertility, money or time beinglost from the homestead, or damaged ? If so, before tryingout any new methods to increase production, a first priority

is to protect and conserve those resources being lost.

here is soil erosion

low fertility for crops

fertile soilcollects at the

bottomno fruit

damage from wind

no toilet

washingwater

wasted

What are the resources on the land ? What techniques can be added to the farm ?Which resources need to be increased to get better production for less cost ?

How can natural principles be used to do this ? There are many such questions.As design experience increases, it becomes easier to answer the questions, and

farmers' capacity to make systems more sustainable will increase.

livestock can get in here

soil erosion here

raw compost no vegetablessoil is bare


??16 17

2

1

12

Examples of fruit and multi-purpose species for lowlandand highland, suitable for different stacked layers

Big trees :- mango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, neem, chest-nut, soapnut, oak, etc. Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear,peach, plum, apricot, persimmon, etc. Low-canopy trees :-orange, lime, banana, custard apple, guava, coffee, sea buck-thorn, papaya, Gliricidia, mulberry, hazel, Lucaena, elder,etc. Bush layer :- cardamon, pineapple, napier grass, lemongrass, tumeric, broom grass, Crotalaria, Sesbania, etc.Ground layer :- sweet potato, taro, bean, groundnut, clover,comfrey, wormwood, chamomile, etc.

✽ Use of biological (living) resources

❁ Use of microclimate

In nature, it is the living, organic resources which areresponsible for running the system. Important functions suchas making the soil fertile, distributing seed, conserving mois-ture, etc. are all served by living things. Trees, birds, wormsand bacteria all work for the development of the system.

For fertility and crop protection in sustainable agricul-ture, benefits from green manures, liquid manure, legumes,predator insects and companion planting are greater thanchemical fertilisers and pesticides.

Urea Legumes

UREA

Which is best ?

The climate inside and around the forest is different tothe surrounding climate. There are areas of different moisture,temperature, and light levels. These small areas of diversetemperature, light and moisture are called microclimates. Infarming, use can be made of microclimates by growing thetype of plant that grows best in that particular place. Micro-climates can also be created, for example by planting wind-breaks or making ponds. Species are then selected accordingto their site needs. This also brings diversity onto the farm.

Inside a mixed vegetablebed. Because plants aredensely planted the tem-perature at the ground 1is cooler than at the top2 . This is an example ofa microclimate.

The sun side of thehouse 1 is hotter anddryer than the shadedside 2 . So, differentplants can be grownhaving different lightand water needs.

There's nothing new about using microclimates. The ter-races in front of houses are traditionally kept on the sunny side.That makes them ideal for drying seed and vegetables, makingpickles, etc. The sun gives free energy in this place. The shadeside is good for shade-loving crops, or a nursery can be made.


1

2

1

1

2

3

4

4

3

❃ Energy-efficient planning

0. Insidethe house

1. N

ear

the

hous

e2/

3. T

he fi

elds

4. G

razi

ng la

nd5.

For

est

In this diagram, the relationship of the house to other parts ofa well designed farm is shown by the different thickness ofthe arrows. A thick arrow shows a frequent connection, and

thinner arrow shows where less visits are needed.

Areas of the farm are divided by zone. Inside the house is zone0 and close to the house is zone 1. Zone 1 has techniques andsystems that need more maintenance, such as the kitchen gar-den, which is visited 2-3 times a day for maintenance andharvesting. Various nurseries also belong in zone 1, becausethey need extra care, such as daily watering. By placing themnear the house, less time and energy are used for harvesting ormaintaining these systems. Below are more examples :-

zone

1 - nearthe house

2 & 3 -the fields

4 - graz-ing area

5- forest

The principles descibed above are necessary to design asustainable system, but most important is the attitude of thedesigner and user. As long as people don't have a deep desireto achieve the goals of sustainability within ethical guidelines,then no type of design can help to reach these goals. Somepeople feel that they can't make a difference by themselves, orare scared of making a change, or of losing resources.

numberof visits suitable technologies and systems

manykitchen garden, nurseries, waste water,sweepings pit, toilet, bees, etc.

fewer

agroforestry (fodder, firewood, timberproduction, fruit trees, mixed with fieldcrops, orchard, green manures, etc.

lessstill

soil erosion control, soil improvement,plantation, integrated orchard, etc.

veryrarely

forest management, wild and culti-vated herbs, education, etc.

Having the right Attitude


But good design can solve many problems. With the rightattitude, problems can become solutions, and a progressivedesign will develop. We can also design to learn. People needto work together to find the right techniques and resources tosolve their own problems and meet their own needs, as wellas those of nature.

Building Blocks of DesignWhen designing land to be more productive and sustain-

able, it is very important to understand the factors which canboth limit, or aid, the progress of the design. Then the designcan be adapted and changed in the early stages, so that nomistakes will prevent the objectives of sustainability beingreached. Factors which can affect the design are divided into2 groups - those which are visible, and those which are invis-ible. This is shown below :-

livestock

buildings

culture

political

social

climate

water

belief

communications

traditions

economic

vegetation

soil

landscape

visible factors

invisible factors

BuildingBlocks of

Design

visible factors

invisible factors

The effects of some of these factors are illustrated belowin the farming system's cycle of rice production.

planting

consumption

preparation

Many of the visible and invisible factors shown on theprevious page will affect the crop production, and so they willdetermine the strategy which needs to be used in design. Inthe monsoon, there is more heat and water, and so sickness ismore common. Yet this is the time when most human labouris required, and also when there are more pest problems. Ifcommunal oxen are not available, ploughing, planting andweeding work is delayed. When all these issues are sortedout, there may be a good crop, but then rats can destroy thecrop in storage, or the price in the bazaar may be low, and allthe work can again be wasted.

So when making a design, all these factors must be con-sidered. Which factors, at what stage, and where they maycause problems for production should be considered at thevery start of the design process. Whether the solution to thatproblem can be solved with local resources or not, shouldalso be considered early on.

growth

harvest

storage

processing

marketingdistribution

There are manyparts to the cycle of

crop production

energy


The Design Process

The process of creating the design, and then implement-ing it, is a step by step approach which enables the design toreach its goals more easily. Following the design processhelps with many decisions :- what to do first, which areas aremost important, how to use the available technologies andany other resources, how the design grows in a natural way,and so on. A summary of the main steps in the design processis given below :-

1. Gathering information about the people and theland involved in the design.

• Collect informationabout the people'svision and goals, theirresources, needs, con-straints, capacity, costs,problems, skills, in-come, etc.• In the same way,collect informationabout the site - the soil,water, climate, aspect,slope, vegetation,microclimate, live-stock, pests and dis-eases, erosion, expo-sure to wind, and anyother relevant informa-tion about problems and resources.

that place isvery windy there is less

fertility

there iserosion

there isover

grazed

When creating and implementing a design, it is a priorityto repair damaged systems, and stop loss of resources fromthe existing system - this will give immediate results. Beloware examples of how we can lose resources from farming :-

Farm losses

• compost dries outin the sun

nitrogenis lost tothe air

• nutrients in the soil arelost if not used (leaching)

all typesof nutri-ents arelost deepin the soil

• nutrients leak from compost

all types ofnutrients

can be lost

• much time is wastedgathering from the far

away forest

• waste water is notused at home

• soil is washed awayby rain

• wind dries outmoisture in the soil

• fire destroys nutrients inthe soil

• nutrients in sweepings are lost

So we should discover leaks to the system early in thedesign process. Then, it can be decided what techniques areneeded, when and where, to find the solutions and preventvaluable resources being lost.


dnvfbToxf“

24 25

2. Deciding which functions are neededAccording to what we have found out about the people

and the site, what are the needs of the design ? For example,increasing fodder and firewood production, growing morenutritious food, protecting from livestock, preventing soil ero-sion, protecting from wind, increasing fertility, earning morecash, etc. are all examples of the types of functions needed.

3. Selecting techniquesTo carry out the functions identified in 2, what methods

are needed ? For example, agroforestry, living fence, bee-keeping, fruit production, kitchen garden, compost making,mulching, home nursery, improvement in livestock manage-ment, seed production, green manures, etc. are all methods ofproviding for the identified needs of the farmer and the site.

kitchengardenthere

livingfence there

fruit treesthere

agroforestrythere

path there

livestockshedthere

compostthere

irrigationcanalthere

4. PlacementWhere should the systems be placed for them to give

maximum benefit ? They should be placed in beneficial rela-tionship to each other, so that the needs of one are met by theoutputs of another, instead of competing. The principles ofnature can be used to help with this. For example, the nurseryshould be placed where there is shelter, water is near, and it iseasy to care for the site. In the same way, the best places areselected for the compost, fruit orchard, fodder trees, etc.

5. Species' selectionFinally, the best species to fulfil the needs of the site and

the functions required are selected and placed, understandingtheir characteristics, yields and needs. For example, whenselecting trees for the orchard, ask the following questions :-

how to protectme from pests ?

do you know myflowering and

fruiting times ?

how much spacedo I need to grow ?

what are themarketing

arrangements ?

what otherproblems may I

face ?

where is the bestsoil and climate

for me ?

what can beplanted under-neath me for

companions ?


1

2

3

6. TimetableThis work of implementing the design can't all be done at

the same time. So it's good to arrange the work according topriority. Some systems can wait until later to establish. Thiswill make the design much easier to implement. The most impor-tant systems to design and implement first are usually for siteprotection, access, water and soil improvement, as they all allowother parts of the design to develop.

As the design is being created and implemented, timeshould be spent evaluating progress against the aims and needsof the people and site. The design can be changed and adaptedas necessary. Are the principles being applied ? What haschanged ? What problems have been solved ? Will more prob-lems be created ? Will the design help the people to reach theirgoals ? Questions like this should constantly be evaluated, andall stakeholders in the design should be consulted.

sustainable

future

Evaluation

Design cyclechange and

improveevaluate

changeand improve

design

evaluate implement thedesign

make thedesign

observation andgathering of information

There are 2 types of place to implement a design :-1. Where there is no production - like a degraded, bare site.2. Where there is on-going production - e.g. a working farm.

1. Where there has been no production (such as de-graded land), the design will definitely create productivity onthat site. The design will help to create the best regenerationand production, in the shortest time. There are more detailsabout this in the Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter.

How to tell if the design is working ?

At first there ismore work andless output fromthe investment

gradually, thework is less and

productionincreases

later there is verylittle work andhigh, diverseproductivity

2. Where there is on-going production (such as a workingfarm), that existing production should not decrease as the designis implemented and other types of production begin. Otherwise,the farmer or the community may have problems meetingbasic needs in the short term. The design will help to improveand increase resources, reduce costs, and diversify production.

Gri

hast

hi C

omm

unic

atio

ns

æ

Æ

Mr GovindaSharma


From Nepal,Kavrepalanchowk district,Patlekhet VDC, Mr GovindaSharma has usedpermaculture design on hisown farm. Now let's readabout his experiences.

Govinda Sharma

I took a Permaculture de-sign course in 1991. After that Istarted to learn from friends,then started to put all that expe-rience into practice. Now, I alsohelp other organisations to makeand implement designs. A farming system which is plannedusing this method is very productive, and easy to use. Insteadof having just one crop, many diverse crops can be grown.Instead of just growing corn, I find it's better to mix beans,pumpkins, and plant fodder around the edges to give a highertotal yield. At first, the other local farmers didn't accept whatI was doing, but when they saw the crops I was growing, withonly small extra inputs and mainly local resources after thestart, they became interested, and have started copying someof the methods. They are understanding that you can reap thefruits of your investment, and that investment isn't juststrength and sweat, it's also design.

? ?GlossaryGlossaryThis Farmers' Handbook can also be used by people who

have just started to learn how to read and write, to help themincrease these skills. That's why there may be some wordsused in the Handbook which are more difficult to understand.We have evaluated the books with many groups, and below isa list of some of the words they found difficult. Discuss thewords and try to write down what they mean. You can addany other words that you and your group don't understand inthe space available.

Word Meaning

FallowMonocultureHabitatLegumeTap rootCambiumElementNutrientShrubTerraceSecateursMicro-organismBacteriaetc.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics

?2 3

SeaBuckthorn Adhatoda

vasica

Velvetbean Comfrey Clover

Horse-tail

Some newplants

Scion

PollinationBiomassMulchPruningSystemIntegratedNatureMicro-climateetc.

Word Meaning Word Meaning

EconomicDiversityBio-diversityEvaluationScionBudRootstocketc.


Here you can add any of your own words which aredifficult to understand, and keep a list to ask someone whomay know what they mean.

word in the book meaning

Your own word listPractical LiteracyPractical Literacy

1.Why Literacy ?To learn to read, write and calculate is a priority to many.

There are good reasons for this. If you are literate you cancorrespond with friends and relatives who live far away, youcan read labels, books, signs, contracts, and you can makebigger calculations if you know how to write them down onpaper. Furthermore, for many people being literate makesthem more respected by others who believe that beingilliterate means being ignorant. You never need to ask othersto read for you, and you can't be cheated by being made tosign something you don't understand. It will also increaseyour self confidence.

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2. Production

However, for many small farmers, learning to read andwrite may not be their highest priority. Their main concern isto make ends meet - to produce enough to meet the needs oftheir family. This means that poorer farmers often drop out ofadult literacy classes (and many children drop out of school),because most people believe that literacy isn’t the solution totheir daily problems.

3. Why Practical Literacy ?

In Practical Literacy we combine meeting the basic needsof the family with the benefits of learning to read and write.During a Practical Literacy Programme (PLP) the participantswill learn both reading, writing and calculation skills, andlearn about farming and household techniques. This meansthat they can improve their farm production, and their generalwell-being.

4. How ?The PLP course starts by participants describing their own

situations, past and present, using maps, trend lines, ranking etc.From these descriptions words are chosen by the participants, andtheir spelling is learnt. Very basic reading and writing skills arelearnt at this stage. On one day participants will learn and practicehow to establish and manage various techniques such as waste watermanagement, grafting, terrace improvement, etc. That evening, oron the next day, they can read about the method from the Handbook,and write their own words about what they have done. These cangradually be formed into sentences as comments and evaluations ofthe method, or to make stories, proposals and reports.

Hot Bed Nursery

Classwork

Discussing words

Practical work6 7

12

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The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics"

Though most illustrations for the handbook are made by GrihasthiCommunications, some illustrations have also been taken from :

We hope that we have remembered all & not violated any corpyright rules. We trust thatusing these illustrations for a non-profit publication to benefit farmers worldwide andpublished on a limited scale will not offend any of the illustrations' copyright owners.

* Clip Art Book, CERID* A Farmer's Primer on Growing Soybean on Riceland, IRRI* Management of Forest Nurseries, HMG/UNDP/FAO* Religious and Useful Plants of Nepal and India, Majupuria & Joshi* A Handbook of Gravety-Flow Water Systems, IT Publications* Common Tree Species, HMG/UNDP/FAO* Tropical Leaf vegetable in Human Nutrition, Kononklijk Instituut voor Tropen* Focus, GAD, Denmark* Agroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF* Regeneratice Agriculture Technologies for the Hill Farmers of Nepal, NERRA & IIRR* The Grafter's Handbook, CASSEL* Plant Propagation, Royal Horticultural Society, UK* Instant Illustrations, UNICEF/Nepal* Tropical Field Crops, Evan Brothers Limited* The Fruit Expert, ExpertBooks* Monocotyledons, Longman* Dicotyledons, Longman* Farm Implements for arid and tropical regions, FAO* Permaculture, A Designers Manual, Tagari Publications* Queen Rearing Simplified, Cook* Beekeeping for Honey Production in Sri lanka, R W K Punchihewa* Zambian beekeeping Handbook, GVS* Beekeeping Trainer's Resource Book, ICIMOD, Nepal* Pollination Management of Mountain Crops through Beekeeping, ICIMOD* World Education, Kathmandu, Nepal.* United Mission to Nepal, Kathmandu* Christine A. Sobel, ECHO, U.S.A.* World Neighbours, Kathmandu* Roland Bunch, COSECHA, Honduras, Central America.* Green Manures p.22 photo © Eric Holt-Gimenez* Mike Feingold, Bristol, UK* Volume Cover drawings by Motilal Pauja, Thati Gaun, Lekh Pharsa VDC, Surkhet

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Can talk withanyone

Can write letters,notes, ideas, etc.

Can read books,labels, signs,letters, etc.

Can listen andunderstand

IllustrationsThe producers of the Farmers' Handbook gratefully acknowledge

the work of the following individuals and institutions whoseillutrations have been used in the publication.

Empowered andself confident

Empowered andself confident

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics10 11

What is Permaculture ?Permaculture ?

The word Permaculture was first used in 1973 byBill Mollison and David Holmgren, from Australia. Perma-culture is an English word, made up from the wordsPermanent and Agriculture. Because agriculture is ourprimary producer of food, clothing and shelter made fromnatural resources, and these are the material and economic basefor society as a whole, it can also be taken to mean apermanence in culture itself. Permaculture is a system ofdesign. It takes it's methods from observation of the stability,diversity, resilience and productivity of natural systems, tobenefit people and all living and non-living things in asustainable way.

Permaculture makesexcellent use of local andbiological resources tocreate systems whichfoster self reliance,through an ecologicalagriculture,balanced with thelocal economy andsociety.

In fact, there is notmuch new in permaculture. It's a synthesis of theunderstanding of natural systems, traditional wisdom, andmodern scientific and applied knowledge. It takes the best of

all of these to assist in creating/living a life with morequality and choice.

NaturalSystems

ModernKnowledge

TraditionalWisdom

PermacultureDesign

Nepal Permaculture Group

Nepal Permaculture Group :- registered in 1995 topromote sustainable development, NPG is a national networkof over 250 individual and 8 organisational members. Itworks in education, research, capacity building andnetworking of permaculture related activities.

If readers of this Handbook are interested to learn moreabout any of these, or other, technology information, they cancontact NPG through any of the following regional member-contacts.

Regional Contact Addresses

Eastern RegionDurga Niroula,Women's DevelopmentOrganisation, [email protected]

Mid RegionBasanta Ranabhat,Ecological Service Centre,ChitwanTel: 053-23663, 24574Fax: 20135, [email protected] Region

Padya Kiran Rana, TOLI,Pokhora. Tel: [email protected] Mid and Far

Western Region

1.

4.

3.

2.

5. 1.4. 3. 2. Map ofNepal

Own country'snetworks

Himalayan PermacultureGroup, P.O. Box 19121,

Kathmandu, Nepalc/o ATA (01) [email protected]

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GrihasthiCommunications

The following useful educational materials for farmers arealso published in Nepal and available from GrihasthiCommunications,

Posters on Health• Herbs for Health• Herbs for Women's

Health• Let's Stop Using

Poisonous Chemicals

Books on Health• Common Local Herbal

Medicines for Health• Herbal Medicines for

Women's Health

"Our Seeds, Our Life"Farmers' Workshop on Lossof Genetic Biodiversity and

Seed Saving

Video Video"Ancient Futures"The effects of modern

development on traditionalsystems in Ladakh

ContactDistributors :-Nepal Permaculture Group,P.O. Box 8132, Kathmandu,Nepal.Tel: + 977 1 [email protected]

Chris Evans ; Jakob Jespersen - Farmers' Handbook

Documents

improved fruit trees

educated farmers

grafted fruit trees

good quality fruit trees

good fruit trees shouldnt

skillsthe handbook

millions of small farmers

farmers experiences