Problem Based Learning Paper – Modul 3 2012 Chlorinated Water Effects to Human Health Group C: Anthony Hartono 021111007 Dicky Daruanggono 021111008 Primarizka Ayunda W. 021111009 Viera Ananda Duatri S. 021111043 Endah Sih Wilujeng 021111045 Cornelia Melinda Adi S. 021111079 Nayu Nur Annisa Sholikhin 021111080 Irina Fardhani 021111117 Zahrah Musthofani 021111119 Aprillia Sonya Federika 021111118 Febria Rosana Satya Devi 021111152 Siti Atikah 021111153 Nadjwa 021111154 i
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Problem Based Learning Paper – Modul 3 2012
Chlorinated Water Effects to Human Health
Group C:
Anthony Hartono 021111007
Dicky Daruanggono 021111008
Primarizka Ayunda W. 021111009
Viera Ananda Duatri S. 021111043
Endah Sih Wilujeng 021111045
Cornelia Melinda Adi S. 021111079
Nayu Nur Annisa Sholikhin 021111080
Irina Fardhani 021111117
Zahrah Musthofani 021111119
Aprillia Sonya Federika 021111118
Febria Rosana Satya Devi 021111152
Siti Atikah 021111153
Nadjwa 021111154
Faculty of Dentistry
Airlangga University 2012
i
PREFACE
We are deeply praising and thankful to our Lord ALLAH SWT. Because
of His mercy, this paper can be finished as we are expected. In this paper, we
discuss about chlorinated water effects to human health, which is always a
problem for people who experienced less use of the environment with good
holistic resulting in decreased.
This paper was made in order to deepen understanding of chlorine water
issues and its effect on the human body with the hope of getting adequate health
and excellent balance.
In the process of discussing and deepening of the issue, we get the
guidance, direction, correction and advice, so we deeply thanks to:
1. Titik Bernianti, drg.,M.Kes, as our responsible person and lecturer in 3rd
Problem Based Learning.
2. Sri Yogyarti, drg., M.S as our responsible tutor and lecturer in Group I 3rd
Problem Based Learning.
We realize that there are still many shortcomings of this paper, both of
material and presentation techniques, given our lack of knowledge and
experience. So, criticism and suggestions are expected to improve this paper.
Hopefully this paper is useful for the readers.
Surabaya, 8rd of April 2012
Editor
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CONTENTS
COVER.............................................................................................................. i
PREFACE......................................................................................................... ii
CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... v
There are many factors cause available water contaminated by excessive chlorine. Geographical conditions or lack of caring clean environment can decrease fresh water supply in an area. Bad water sources require the region drinking water company to do water treatment system, called chlorination. Industrial area, using and wasting chlorine, also contaminate the ground water with excessive chlorine. Water is an essential matter for life; human habits and activities always contact with water, so it is difficult to avoid the available water perfectly. Host socio-culture aspects interact with agent (chlorine in water) and exacerbate effects of chlorinated water. Characteristic of chlorine is bound with other element easily, it can produces some harmful substances such as acid and THM that effects to human skin, hair, inhale, and teeth health. Chronic disease like cancer and heart disease is potentially happen. High intensity of chlorinated water exposure effects on short and long term diseases.
Keywords: Chlorinated water, environment, human lifestyle, effect on human health.
v
CHAPTER 1
FOREWORD
1.1 BACKGROUND
Chlorine is one of elements that exists on earth and are rarely found in free
form. It is a yellow-green, noncombustible gas with a pungent, irritating odor. It is
a chemical substance, which has been used in many industries for a long time,
especially in the pulp and paper industry and drinking water treatment. It has also
been used in making dye, medicine, plastic, solvent, and dry clean. In the sector of
energy and electricity, chlorine is used in the cooling water system. Besides, it is
also used in household for disinfectant and bleach. In agriculture chlorine, in a
form of organochlorine, is also used for pesticide.
Although it has many benefits for many aspects of life, chlorine also has
adverse effects for human and environment. In industry, due to the lack of
condition of chlorine’s storage, it will lead to the leakage of chlorine gas, which
will endanger environment and health. Waste from industrial or household
activity containing chlorine has also a potential to damage environment. If it is
discharged into the waters, it will pollute the waters and its ecosystems.
Moreover, the use of chlorine in agriculture for pesticide, such as dichloro-
diphenyl-trichloroethan, can cause accumulation of residues on food chains.
Due to gas leaks, bad disposal and handling of waste containing chlorine,
it can cause high levels of chlorine in the areas. Waters can also be contaminated
by chlorine, resulting in high levels of chlorine in the water supply in the areas.
Although chlorine has a good effect as disinfectant for water treatment systems, it
can be harmful for human health. Chlorine can also easily react with many
compounds because of its character as a strong oxidator. In the chlorination
process, chlorine is also able to bind with organic compounds in water to form
organochlorine compounds, such as trihalomethanes, which are carcinogens in the
body.
1
Chlorinated water itself can cause bad effect on human health, which the
level of severity depends on these three factors. They are the amount of chlorine is
exposed to, the route of exposure, and the length of time of the exposure. Human
can be exposed by chlorine through their daily activities, such as drinking
chlorinated water, using it for cooking, showering, et cetera. As a result of this
chlorine exposure, it can cause short term and long term disease.
Therefore, in this paper, we will discuss further on the relationship
between host (humans), agent (chlorine), and the environment, which influence
each other and play an integral part in the effects of the overall disease system. It
also outlines the solution to decrease high level of chlorine in the water supply,
regarding to those epidemiologic triangle.
1.2 LEARNING ISSUES
1. How is the interaction between host (humans), agent (chlorine), and the
environment in the process of diseases?
2. How is the effect of chlorine on animal and plants?
3. What are the short term and long term effects of chlorine on human
health?
4. How is the influence of human lifestyle that supports the occurrence of
chlorine exposure?
5. How to cope the excessive chlorine content in water?
1.3 PURPOSE
1. To understand the interaction between host (humans), agent (chlorine),
and the environment in the process of diseases.
2. To understand the effect of chlorine on animal and plants.
3. To understand the short term and long term effects of chlorine on human
health?
4. To understand the influence of human lifestyle that supports the
occurrence of chlorine exposure
5. To find out how to cope the excessive chlorine content in water
2
1.4 BENEFITS
From these problems we can get many benefits. As we know, the
interaction between host (human), agent (chlorine), and environment play an
integral part in the effects of the overall disease system. From this we not only
gain some knowledge, but also good information to prevent and overcome the
occurrence of disease, based on the epidemiologic triangle.
3
CHAPTER 2
THEORITICAL REVIEW
2.1 DEFINITION OF CHLORINE
Chlorine (Cl2) is one of the most reactive elements; it easily binds to other
elements. Because of its reactivity, chlorine gas is almost never found in nature.
Approximately 2% of the earth’s surface materials is chlorine which is mostly in
the form of sodium chloride in sea water and in natural deposits as carnallite
(KMgCl3.6H2O) and as sylvite (KCl). (The Chlorine Institute Inc., 2000)
Active volcanoes emit some chlorine, and it has been detected coming
from the decomposition of sea salt. It was first prepared in pure form by the
Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1774. Scheele heated brown stone
(manganese dioxide; MnO2) with hydrochloric acid (HCl). When these substances
are heated the bonds are broken, causing manganese chloride (MnCl2), water
(H2O) and chlorine gas (Cl2) to form. (Hasan A, 2006)
2.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF CHLORINE
2.2.1 Physical Characteristic
Chlorine is greenish-yellow diatomic gas, a liquid, or in rhombic crystals.
The pungent odor is suffocating and very irritating by inhalation. It is soluble in
water, alcohols, and alkalis, and evaporates into the air very quickly. At standard
temperature and pressure, two chlorine atoms form the diatomic molecule Cl2.
This is a yellow-green gas that has a distinctive strong odor, familiar to most from
common household bleach. The bonding between the two atoms is relatively weak
(only 242.580 ± 0.004 kJ/mol), which makes the Cl2 molecule highly reactive.
The boiling point at regular atmosphere is around −34˚C, but it can be liquefied at
room temperature with pressures above 740 kPa. (National Pollutant Inventory,
2010)
2.2.2 Chemical Characteristic
Along with fluorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, chlorine is a member of
the halogen series that forms the group 17 (formerly VII, VIIA, or VIIB) of the
periodic table. Chlorine forms compounds with almost all of the elements to give
4
compounds that are usually called chlorides. Chlorine gas reacts with most
organic compounds, and will even sluggishly support the combustion of
hydrocarbons. (Hammond, 2000)
At 25 °C and atmospheric pressure, one liter of water dissolves 3.26 g or
1.02 L of gaseous chlorine. Solutions of chlorine in water contain chlorine (Cl2),
hydrochloric acid, and hypochlorous acid:
Cl2 + H2O is in equilibrium with HCl + HClO
This conversion to the right is called disproportionation, because the
ingredient chlorine both increases and decreases in formal oxidation state. The
solubility of chlorine in water is increased if the water contains dissolved alkali
hydroxide, and in this way, chlorine bleach is produced.
Cl2 + 2OH– → ClO– + Cl– + H2O
Chlorine gas only exists in a neutral or acidic solution. (Ophardt, 2003)
Chlorinated water should be protected from sunlight. Chlorine is broken
down under the influence of sunlight. UV radiation in sunlight provides energy
which aids the break-down of underchloric acid (HOCl) molecules. First, the
water molecule (H2O) is broken down, causing electrons to be released which
reduce the chlorine atom of underchloric acid to chloride (Cl -). During this
reaction an oxygen atom is released, which will be converted into an oxygen
molecule:
2HOCl 2H+ + 2Cl- + O2
Chlorine is produced from chlorine bonds by means of electrolytic or chemical
oxidation. This is often attained by electrolysis of seawater or rock salt. The salts
are dissolved in water, forming brine. Brine can conduct a powerful direct current
in an electolytic cell. Because of this current chlorine ions (which originate from
salt dissolving in water) are transformed to chlorine atoms. Salt and water are
divided up in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2) on the cathode
and chlorine gas on the anode. These cathode and anode products should be
separated, because hydrogen gas reacts with chlorine gas very aggressively.
(Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2012)
5
2.3 KINDS OF CHLORINE COMPOUNDS AND THE APPLICATIONS
2.3.1 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Hydrochloric acid is included in a strong acid compound. Hydrochloric
acid is made by reacting chlorine and hydrogen gas at high temperatures. Gaseous
hydrochloric acid dissolved in water to obtain a solution of hydrochloric acid with
a concentration of about 36%. In industrial activities, hydrochloric acid is used as
a solvent in metal industry, chemical, food, and petroleum processing.
In the human body, hydrochloric acid is one important component of
gastric acid that acidify the gastric function. Acidity of the stomach is needed to
activate pepsinogen into pepsin enzyme as well break down protein. Hydrochloric
acid in the stomach is useful to kill the seeds of diseases carried by food.
However, the excess of hydrochloric acid in gastric fluid can damage the mucous
membranes of the stomach and even intestines. Hydrochloric acid is included in a
strong acid, which is in excessive levels can injure the walls of the stomach and
intestines. (Salocks and Kaley, 2004)
2.3.2 Liquid calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Liquid calcium chloride (CaCl2) is an ionic compound consisting of the
elements calcium (alkaline earth metal) and chlorine. It is odorless, colorless, non-
toxic solution, which is used extensively in various industries and applications
worldwide. This compound can be found most often in seawater and mineral
springs.
Ability of calcium chloride to absorb a lot of fluids is one quality that
makes it so versatile. For example, these products work much more efficient than
rock salt when it comes to clearing snow and ice from sidewalks, roads, and
highways. This is especially true at lower temperatures. There are some
drawbacks with this application, because there is some evidence that the product
may be harmful to plant life than rock salt.
Besides, calcium chloride can serve as a source of calcium ions in the
solution, not as a source of calcium ions in solution. Unlike most other calcium
compounds, calcium chloride is dissolved. These properties are useful to replace
the ions from the solution. Liquid calcium chloride can be electrolyzed to give
6
calcium metal and chlorine gas. Many pools using products that contain calcium
chloride, especially in areas where there is relatively little calcium is found in the
water. The use of these products help increase water calcium levels, which in turn
minimizes the potential for corrosion of the pump. Also limit the corrosion
products with different types of swimming pool equipment, pool and
completeness of any decisions made with metal.
Calcium chloride is also used in a number of other applications. For
example, the splashing of products on the streets in a dry climate, especially the
desert, can help to minimize the amount of dust being kicked up because of
traffic. This product can be used to dry the seaweed, which helps in the production
of soda ash. It can be used as an ingredient in many kinds of plastic products, and
help thin liquid fabric softener.
Common applications include cooling brine for plants, ice and dust control
on roads. Due to its nature hygroscopic, anhydrous calcium chloride should be
stored in an airtight container tightly closed. (Flinn Scientific, Inc., 2002)
2.3.3 Calcium Hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2)
Calcium hypochlorite is a chlorine or chemical compound that has the
chemical formula Ca(ClO)2 and available in a variety of forms, including powder,
granules, briquettes, and teblets. All these delivery forms contain solid calcium
hypochlorite with 65%-70% available chlorine. These products differ only in their
physical delivery form. Calcium hypochlorite is a white solid which is
decomposed in water, then it release oxygen and chlorine. These compounds are
not found freely in nature. Primarily, this substance is used as a water purifier or a
disinfectant. Typically used in commercial bleach, cleaning solvents, pool water
purifier, drinking water and disinfectants. As a disinfectant, chlorine can kill the
microbes. (Black, 2010)
2.3.4 Sodium Chlorate (NaClO3)
Sodium Chlorate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula
(NaClO3). When pure, it is a white crystalline powder that is readily soluble in
water. It is hygroscopic. It decomposes above 250 °C to release oxygen and leave
sodium chloride. Sodium chlorate is used in papermaking in textile industry, and
7
as a cheap, if unselective, weed killer. There are many electrolytic plants for its
production, usually on the 5000-20000 ton/year. The electrolytic formation of
chlorate is dependent on complex solution chemistry coupled to a simple electron-
transfer process. In simplified terms, the overall cell reaction is:
NaCl+3H2O NaClO3+3H2
The majority of chlorate cells involve a relatively high external circulation
rate of electrolyte. The Kreb cells technology provides one example of this type of
cell. (Derek, 2010)
2.3.5 Chlorine Perchlorate (Cl2O4)
Chlorine perchlorate is the chemical compound with the formula Cl2O4.
This chlorine oxide is an asymmetric oxide, with one chlorine atom in oxidation
state +1 and the other +7, with proper formula ClOClO3. It is produced by the
photolysis of chlorine dioxide at room temperature with 436 nm ultraviolet light.
(Pletcher and Walsh, 2010)
2.3.6 Organochlorine Compound
Chlorine is used extensively in organic chemistry in substitution and
addition reactions. Chlorine often imparts many desired properties to an organic
compound, in part owing to its electro negativity. Organochlorine compounds
usually use as side products of industrial processes or as persistent pesticides.
Many important industrial products are produced via organochlorine
intermediates. Examples include polycarbonates, polyurethanes, silicones,
polytetrafluoroethylene, carboxymethyl cellulose, and propylene oxide.
Organochlorine is also used as a pesticide, such as dikloro difenil trikloro etana,
metokskhlor, aldrin, and dieldrin.
However, some of pesticide from organochlorin compound can cause
accumulation of residues on food chains, which is bad for health and environment.
In the chlorination process, chlorine is also able to bind with organic compounds
in water to form organochlorine compounds, such as trihalomethanes, which are
carcinogens in the body. (Department of Environmental Services New Hampshire,
2006)
8
2.4 CHLORINATED WATER
2.4.1 Environment Factors
Chlorine contamination in the environment can be caused due to gas leak
and industry’s wastes which are not treated properly. Various industries using
chlorine in the process of its activities will generate waste containing chlorine.
Waste may contain solid, liquid, or gas. Industries using chlorine as their raw
materials, such as plastics, solvents, cement, pulp and paper, pesticides, metals,
power generation, and other chemical industries. Chlorine-containing waste is
also generated by the activity or drinking water treatment, waste of human activity
(multiple waste), and hospital waste.
Therefore, in environments, especially industrial environments which use
chlorine, are usually encountered high level of chlorine contaminating their
neighborhood. Chlorine-containing wastes can pollute the environment, including
water, resulting in high levels of chlorine in the water supply in the areas.
Chlorine pollution case ever happened in America. Kalamazoo River in Michigan,
America was polluted by waste containing PCBs (poly chlorinated byphenyls)
from paper industry.
Another cause of high level of chlorine in the water supply is the water
treatment system itself. In the process of chlorination, chlorine is used as a
disinfectant to kill microorganisms effectively. However, water treatment system,
which uses too much chlorine in the chlorination process, can also cause high
levels of chlorine in the water supply. (Hasan A, 2006)
2.4.2 Good Effect
The Use of Chlorine as Disinfectant
Chlorine is a very effective disinfectant, relatively easy to handle, cost
effective, simple to dose, measure and control, and it has a relatively good
residual effect. Chlorine disinfection is generally carried out using one of three
forms of chlorine or it can be generated on site. For small water treatment plants,
calcium hypochlorite in the form of a dry powder or proprietary tablet-type
dispenser can be used. This is more expensive than gaseous chlorine or
9
hypochlorite solution, but can offer advantages in terms of convenience and low
installation costs. On a cost per mass of active chlorine basis, chlorine in the form
of a liquefied gas is the most cost effective option, but is better suited to larger,
more sophisticated works (Freese and Nozaic, 2004)
Chlorine kills pathogens such as bacteria and viruses by breaking the
chemical bonds in their molecules. Disinfectants that are used for this purpose
consist of chlorine compounds which can exchange atoms with other compounds,
such as enzymes in bacteria and other cells. When enzymes come in contact with
chlorine, one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the molecule are replaced by
chlorine. This causes the entire molecule to change shape or fall apart. When
enzymes do not function properly, a cell or bacterium will die.
When chlorine is added to water, underchloric acids form:
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
Depending on the pH value, underchloric acid partly expires to hypochlorite ions
Cl2 + 2H2O HOCl + H3O + C-HOCl + H2O H3O+ + OCl-
This falls apart to chlorine and oxygen atoms:
OCl- Cl- + O
Underchloric acid (HOCl, which is electrically neutral) and hypochlorite
ions (OCl-, electrically negative) will form free chlorine when bound together.
This results in disinfection. Both substances have very distinctive behavior.
Underchloric acid is more reactive and is a stronger disinfectant than
hypochlorite. Underchloric acid is split into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxygen
atom (O). The oxygen atom is a powerful disinfectant. The disinfecting properties
of chlorine in water are based on the oxidizing power of the free oxygen atoms
and on chlorine substitution reactions.
The cell wall of pathogenic microorganisms is negatively charged by
nature. As such, it can be penetrated by the neutral underchloric acid, rather than
by the negatively charged hypochlorite ion. Underchloric acid can penetrate slime
layers, cell walls and protective layers of microorganisms and effectively kills
pathogens as a result. The microorganisms will either die or suffer from
reproductive failure.
10
The effectiveness of disinfection is determined by the pH of the water.
Disinfection using chlorine will take place optimally when the pH is between 5,5
and 7,5. Underchloric acid (HOCl) reacts faster than hypochlorite ions (OCl-); it is
80-100% more effective. The level of underchloric acid will decrease when the
pH value is higher. With a pH value of 6 the level of underchloric acid is 80%,
whereas the concentration of hypochlorite ions is 20%. When the pH value is 8,
this is the other way around. When the pH value is 7,5, concentrations of
underchloric acid and hypochlorite ions are equally high (Cook, et al, 2010).
Beside the use of chlorine as disinfectants in drinking-water and
swimming pool, it can be used for household bleach and controlling bacteria and
odours in the food industry. Chlorine enters the body breathed in with
contaminated air or when consumed with contaminated food or water. It does not
remain in the body, due to its reactivity. Effects of chlorine on human health
depend on how the amount of chlorine that is present, and the length and
frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the health of a person or condition
of the environment when exposure occurs. (Department of Community Health,
2004)
2.4.3 Bad Effects
2.4.3.1 Effect on plants and animals
Chlorine in water can affect plants which are growing under water, such as
phytoplankton. It makes the water acidic which over time can change soil pH.
Plants do not thrive as well on chlorinated as on unchlorinated water.
Phytoplankton was no recovery of photosynthetic activity when residual chlorine
had fallen to undetectable levels on it.
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is being evaluated for treatment of water to kill
pathogens in recirculation systems in greenhouses and in water pumped from
catchment ponds to irrigate nursery stock. The percentage of ClO2 may result in
nutrient tie-upand can affect many symptoms in plants. Phytotoxicity symptoms,
which application of ClO2 ranged from necrotic tips and margins, necrotic spots
and blotches, and death. Predominant symptoms resulting from ClO2 were
necrosis of leaf and flower tissue as spots between and across veins, and marginal
necrosis. Early symptoms could start as a yellowing of the margin or tip of leaf or
11
flower. Lesions could have darkened borders. All plant species were damaged by
1000 and 2000 ppm ClO2. At 1000 and 2000 ppm ClO2, a mean toxicity rating
>4% occurred (Copes, et al, 2003).
Too much percentage of chlorine can make the pH of water decrease. The
animals can get the bad effects of chlorinated. Wild animals do not develop
atherosclerosis until they drink chlorinated water in zoos. Animals in freely life
eat their food not selected by people, they caught their food their self. So, animals
which drink chlorinated water can cause atherosclerosis.
Animals that live under water such as, frog and fish can also get the bad
effect of chlorinated water. Scientist in Minnesota propagated embryos from
healthy frogs in plain tap water. Some of the frogs had no legs or six legs, or an
eye in the middle of the throat (Hattersley JG, 2000)
Fish can tolerate chlorine extremely high, acute doses of ascorbic acid
without injury. Live channel catfish were able to withstand concentrations of
ascorbate with levels ranging from 10 to 3,000 milligrams per liter over a 24-hour
period. Additional research results are consistent with these findings.
Changes in pH are also an important concern for fish in receiving waters.
Ascorbic acid will lower pH under extreme conditions (low alkalinity water)
during flushing operations. If there are so many chlorinated water absorbed by the
fish more than 24 hour it can affected the fishes mass and make the fish being
killed (Peterka G, 2002).
2.4.3.2 Effects on human health
At least, the body has a standard how much that chlorine can enters and be
acceptable.
Normal Value Abnormal valueChloride in serum /
plasma95–110 mmol/L Less than 90 mmol/L
and greater than 115 mmol/L
Chloride in urine 110–250 mmol/24 hours
Less than 20 mmol/L and greater than 60
mmol/LChloride in sweat 5–40 mmol/LTable 1. The standard reference ranges of chloride for humans (in mmol/L)
(Bergman, 2010)
12
Chlorine in solution at the concentrations recommended is considered to
be toxicologically acceptable even for drinking-water. The WHO health-based
guideline value for chlorine in drinking-water is 5 mg/L (WHO, 2004). However,
high levels of chlorine make the water smell and give it a bad taste, which will
discourage people from drinking it. The higher level will be close to the
disinfection point and the lower level at the far extremities of the supply network.
The effects of various levels of chlorine inhalation vary with the
individuals involved. The following list is a compilation of chlorine exposure
thresholds and reported responses in humans:
Table 2. The effects of various levels of chlorine inhalation on human
health (The Chlorine Institute Inc., 2000)
Level of Chlorine Effect on Health0.2-0.4 ppm threshold of odor perception with
considerable variation among subjects (a decrease in odor perception occurs over time)
1-3 ppm mild, mucous membrane irritation, tolerated for up to one hour
5-15 ppm moderate irritation of the respiratory tract
30 ppm immediate chest pain, vomiting, dyspnea, and cough
40-60 ppm toxic pneumonitis and pulmonary edema
430 ppm lethal over 30 minutes1000 ppm fatal within a few minutes
To receive a lethal exposure, a person would have to remain near a leak source,
within a chlorine cloud, and without respiratory protection (The Chlorine Institute
Inc., 2000).
2.4.3.2.1 Short-term (acute) effects:
1. Short-term exposures to low levels of chlorine in the air rarely lead to any
long-lasting lung changes. Any exposure from smelling appropriately treated
drinking water or swimming pool water is not harmful.
2. Acute exposure to high concentrations of chlorine can lead to a build-up of
fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema) and severe shortness of breath that could
13
lead to death if untreated. Immediately or within a few hours after breathing
chlorine gas, the lungs can become irritated, causing coughing and/or
shortness of breath. The amount of time before these symptoms occur is
dependent on the amount of chlorine to which one is exposed. (The higher the
amount one is exposed to, the shorter the amount of time before symptoms are
seen.) Exposure may result in nose and throat irritation, watery eyes,
nodosa), or split ends. Beside that, with prolonged exposure, chlorine may
become a bleaching agent on hair. This is a similar to the effects of prolonged
exposure to the sun. The hair can lighten in color and may become brittle. On
skin, the chlorinated water can cause skin drying out more easily, compromising
the skin’s barrier and potentially leading to infections and irritation.
Shower filter can be used to remove the chlorine and soften the bathing
water. The chlorine filter can remove chlorine from the water supply. The gaseous
shower odor from toxic chloroform was eliminated. Moreover, our skin, where the
hair is made, is no longer dry and brittle.
39
Chlorine is an effective treatment for disinfecting water and is used in
swimming pools. It has negative effect for the human especially on teeth (dental
enamel). Exposure to excessive levels of chlorine, which cause the pH level of the
pool to fall, has been shown to cause the erosion of dental enamel. The pool water with pH 2.91 had six times higher erosive potential on enamel than the pool water with pH 3.85, indicated that an increase in enamel loss related to the lower pH of water and increasing contact time.
Low pH caused by excessive chlorination causes the enamel to erode or
wear away. Enamel is the hard protective coating of the tooth, which protects the
sensitive, softer and darker yellow dentin underneath. When the enamel is eroded,
the dentin underneath is exposed. Prevention of tooth erosion cause by low pH of
pool water starts with keeping your pool water properly balanced. Over
chlorinated pools that produce excessively elevated levels of acidity can
contribute to dental enamel erosion. A swimming pool should have a neutral pH
level between 7.2 and 7.8. Chlorine levels should be maintained between 1.0 to
3.0 ppm (parts per million). Pool chemistry should be checked regularly. It is not
recommended to allow any pool water into the mouth.
Keep consuming the chlorinated water in the long term will lead to several
diseases. One of them is atherosclerosis that will lead to heart attack and stroke. In
addition, consuming chlorinated water also increase the risk of cancer.
Chlorine content in the water that we drink later will go into the blood
vessels. Other than drinking, chlorine can also enter the body through the skin
when showering. In the blood vessels, chlorine reacts with various substances.
Among them is cholesterol. The reaction of chlorine with cholesterol makes the
cholesterol to settle / precipitate in the veins, which later will clog and interfere
the blood flow, characterized by thickening of blood vessel wall. This commonly
referred to atherosclerosis, which became the beginning of heart attack and stroke.
If atherosclerosis occurs in the blood vessels leading to the brain, it will cause
stroke. If leading to the heart it will cause heart attack.
40
Chlorinated water is also a factor increasing the risk of cancer. The
presence of compounds called Trihalomethanes (THMs) as by-product of
disinfection with chlorine compound. Trihalomethanes are formed when chlorine
reacts with the organic substances which naturally occur in raw water. The most
common THM components formed during chlorination include chloroform,
bromoform, bromodichloromethane, and chlorodibromomethane. THMs are
carcinogenic, long term consumption of water contain THMs may damage the
kidney and intestine and cause cancer.
Prevention of water that contains chlorine can be minimized if done
properly water quality treatment. In addition, important follow-up activities are
outreach efforts to educate the user or chlorinated water. Education is the process
of learning, from not knowing about the effects of chlorine to knowing, from not
being able to overcoming the idea of prevention. The purpose of this education is
to improve the health status, prevent the onset of disease and increased health
problems, maintain existing health status, maximize function and role of the
patient during the illness, and help patients and families to address health
problems on the dangers of chlorine that can enter the body humans and can be
bad for health if the life depending on chlorinated water.
In carrying out the process of water purification, one medium that can be
used is activated carbon. It’s better to use activated carbon than chlorine because
it has some interested chemical properties and physical properties, that one of
them is possibility to absorb organic and anorganic substance and being a catalyst
for some reactions. Activated carbon can be used to absorbing gases, absorbing
metal, eliminate micro pollutants like organic substance, detergen, smell, phenol,
etc.
Characteristic of activated carbon depending on the materials used,
example is coconut shell produce smooth carbon and it suits for water
purification. There are advantages from using an activated carbon for water
purifying:
a. easy to use because the water flow in carbon medium,
b. quick prosses because the carbon’s particle has a bigger size, and
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c. carbon doesn’t mix with mud so it can be regenerated
Most of small water system use only groundwater, so they have low levels
of dissolved organic substances, DBP levels are usually not a major concern. If
water systems use hypochlorite, they can use inexpensive equipment and widely
available chemicals, and they will need no special technical skills to operate and
maintain the equipment. Most small systems find that disinfection using chlorine,
especially when added in hypochlorite form, to be the best method of disinfection
of their water supply. However, in this case the woman complained that the
water’s taste is not good, so it means it has high level of chlorine in it. As a result,
it is recommend to use dechlorination system by using sulfur dioxide which is
common in use and consider to be the safest chemical kinds for dechlorination.
This process can reduce the negative effect of chorine residual which is give bad
effect for human body.
To produce the best water quality, it needs to use ozone disinfectant,
because it is the most powerful disinfectant, but it cost high, so it can be
applicable at metropolitan city such as Jakarta, Surabaya, etc. It is not to
applicable at small city which has few professional, so it is better to use UV which
is has moderate level of disinfectant and usually combined with chlorine. The
addition of free chlorine (at a concentration of 0.25 mg/L free chlorine for
1 minute of contact time) can provide the desired 4-log inactivation of adenovirus.
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CHAPTER V
CLOSING
5.1 CONCLUSSION
Though chlorine has a big role in disinfect the bacteria and virus from
water, the excessive chlorine is very harmful to human health. There are some
factors that correlate one and others in exacerbating the impacts of chlorine in
human health. Chlorinated water has potential to the long term and short term
diseases. However, there are some solutions that can minimize the impacts of
chlorine.
5.2 RECCOMENDATION
Migration is the most effective way to avoid the impacts perfectly for
people who live in the chlorinated water area. However, the most important is to
keep healthy life and maintain our habit especially in consuming water. We can
do some solutions above to minimize the impacts of chlorine, for example using
filter with active carbon to neutralize excessive chlorine. The region drinking
water company also must pay attention to the level of chlorine used in their water
treatment system.
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REFERENCES
Agabiti N, Ancona C, Forastiere F, Di Napoli A, Lo Presti E, Corbo GM, D'Orsi
F, Perucci CA 2001, Short term respiratory effects of acute exposure to
chlorine due to a swimming pool accident. Retrieved: April 6, 2012, from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11351056
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2012. Chlorine Disinfection of Private Water
Supplies for Household or Agricultural Uses. Retrieved: April 4, 2012 from:
http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFCAAC/displayafficher.do?
id=1236097753569&lang=eng
Bergman J 2010, ‘Is the Sodium Chloride Level in the Oceans Evidence for
Abiogenesis?’ Answers Research Journal, Vol. 3, pg 159–164. Retrieved: