Chinese Architecture

Chinese ArchitectureI INTRODUCTION

Chinese Art and Architecture, art and architecture of China from the Neolithic (New Stone Age)

culture to the 20th century, representing the most significant achievement of the world’s

longest continuous civilization. The principle that underlies all aspects of Chinese culture—

harmonious balance—is exemplified in its art. Chinese art is a careful balance of traditions and

innovations, of both native and foreign ideas, and of religious and secular images.

China has a traditional reverence toward ancestors; the stable and hierarchical life of the Chinese extended family is proverbial. It is reflected in the formality of the Chinese house, built in rectangular form, preferably at the northern end of a walled courtyard entered from the south, with auxiliary elements disposed in a symmetrical fashion on either side of the north-south axis. This pattern was the point of departure for more lavish programs for mansions, monasteries, palaces, and, eventually, whole cities

II HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

China’s emperors were the earliest and most frequent patrons of the arts. Most artists and

architects were government employees, working by royal order. In contrast, amateur artists,

often retired or exiled officials, were free from the restraints of court control; their work reflects

an important individualism that often differs from the imperial styles. The rise or decline of a

particular royal household would affect profoundly the course of Chinese art. Although widely

diverse in their cultural inclinations, all dynastic rulers shared an interest in preserving

tradition. Chinese kings, especially those establishing a new dynasty, were anxious to gain

legitimacy in the eyes of their subjects. A common way to secure support was to continue the

artistic achievements of past dynasties. New influences, often entering China from India or the

Middle East, were also sanctioned by the court, but any innovative ideas in art, religion, or

philosophy were carefully woven into the preexisting fabric of Chinese life.

The art of China’s earliest dynastic periods, often called the Bronze Age, from the Shang to the

Han dynasty, focused on the cult of the dead. Concerned with securing immortality and safe

passage to the afterlife, kings and their officers constructed and decorated lavish tombs. The

Chinese favored underground burials, and many tombs remain intact. Intricately fashioned

bronze vessels, weapons, carved jades, and ceramic objects were placed near the coffin to

provide comfort and protection in the next world. The walls of the burial chamber were often

decorated with carved or painted ornamental scenes depicting popular legends or activities of

daily life. Archaeological fieldwork, which has increased dramatically in China since 1950, has

unearthed a wealth of ancient material.

Foreign travel and political turmoil affected the character of Chinese art in the centuries

following the collapse of the Han dynasty in AD 220. Buddhism, introduced in the 4th century

AD, brought new styles of architecture, sculpture, and painting from India. In addition, the

Buddhist doctrine stressing the human spirit’s ability to transcend death caused a decline in

opulent burial customs. By the time China was unified under the Tang (T’ang) dynasty in the

7th century, the subject matter of art had become more cosmopolitan and worldly. Secular

architecture reached unprecedented grandeur; landscape painting and portraiture flourished;

and technological advances in ceramics led to the development of fine porcelain during the

Tang dynasty.

The dynasties following the Tang refined and expanded on its achievements. Landscape

painting became an important expression of both art and philosophy, particularly among the

wenren (wen-jen)—amateur painters working outside the court. At court, paintings of the

favored subjects—birds and flowers, animals and children—were produced in vast numbers for

the royal collections. Calligraphy, the art of writing characters, was elevated to a position of

great significance. In addition to the pictorial arts, China’s most enduring art form, ceramics,

reached new heights of technological and aesthetic brilliance. Royalty and wealthy subjects

decorated their homes with an array of objects such as carved lacquers, woven tapestries,

ivories, jades, and precious metals. Architecture, from the Song (Sung) dynasty on, also

increased in sophistication. Many of the structures built during the Ming and Qing (Ch’ing)

periods still stand in Beijing.

Throughout China’s history its artists were highly trained in specific skills and, with the exception of the amateur artists, were attached to large, well-organized workshops. Knowledge of materials and techniques was passed from generation to generation within families. Although the tools used by Chinese artists were relatively simple, such as a bamboo brush or a wooden beater, the construction of their looms, kilns, and foundries reveals an understanding of complex production procedures. The fast-turning potter’s wheel in the Neolithic period and the remarkable results of bronze casting in the Shang dynasty are testimony to the high technical skill of these early Chinese artists.

III SHANG DYNASTY

(1570?-1045? BC). The Shang civilization grew directly from the achievements of the Neolithic

cultural period (about 4000-2000 BC), an important epoch in early Chinese history. During the

Neolithic period, the beginnings of agriculture and the domestication of animals led to the

establishment of villages. With this new pattern of life came the earliest burial practices,

including the interment of objects from daily life, thus preserving artifacts. Neolithic tombs

have yielded a rich variety of ceramics, the most notable being large, painted jars that were

probably burial urns, as well as footed vessels of polished black clay. The latter, which were

turned on a potter’s wheel, were associated with a ritual ceremony. Jade and stone tools have

also been discovered, and it is likely that the Neolithic Chinese had some knowledge of

metallurgy, although definite proof has yet to be found.

The Shang people originated as a clan of Neolithic villagers in the central Chinese province of

Henan (Honan). Their dynastic rule is usually divided into two periods, one before and one

after the establishment of the royal capital at Anyang in the 13th century BC. A number of

Shang cities were established in the pre-Anyang period, but most artifacts of the period,

including ceramics, jades, and bronze vessels, have been discovered in graves. The artifacts

are of particular significance because they prove the existence of rituals requiring special

containers for food and wine. These ceremonies stimulated a desire for vessels of ever more

elaborate decoration, and, to meet the demand, the technology of metallurgy advanced

rapidly.

The Anyang period marks the final two and one-half centuries of Shang rule. The

archaeological work carried out near this ancient capital has increased knowledge of Shang art

and culture. It is clear from inscriptions found on animal bones (called oracle bones) and

bronze vessels that the rulers were deeply concerned with ensuring their immortality. They

practiced a complex system of ancestor worship that included offerings of foods and liquids at

their temples. The vessels were a vital part of the ceremony and suggest that the Shang

people had several cult images. Often the entire surface of a ritual bronze was decorated with

monsters and birds and occasionally with a human figure.

Shang kings also constructed elaborate tombs. Convinced they could carry material possessions to the next life, members of the royal household were buried with much of their personal wealth. In 1975, Chinese archaeologists discovered the Anyang tomb of a Shang king’s favored wife. An inventory of the objects revealed more than 400 bronze vessels and weapons as well as 600 pieces of jade and stone. The high artistic quality of these objects—among them, carefully carved jade figures and bronzes in the shape of animals and birds—gives further evidence of the advanced character of China’s earliest dynastic art.

IV ZHOU DYNASTY

(1045?-256 BC). The Shang kings were unable to control the increasing strength of a

neighboring tribe, called the Zhou (Chou), who lived on their western border. In about 1045 BC

the Zhou attacked Anyang and established their dynastic seat there. At first, much of the

conquered Shang culture was retained. Indeed, bronzes and jades from the Xi’an (Sian) period,

also called the Western Zhou period, resemble those of the preceding dynasty. As the system

of ancestor worship began to disintegrate, vessels once used in the temples became valuable

trophies given by the king to powerful subjects. Vessels were cast to commemorate victories in

war or the granting of land. These bronzes usually carried long inscriptions explaining the

event being commemorated and are now valuable records of early Chinese history.

Forced to flee from other tribal attackers, the Zhou moved their capital from Xi’an to Luoyang,

another city in Henan, in 771 BC, marking the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period. The

geographical break with the Shang past was reflected in Eastern Zhou art. Bronzes became

more secular and were often given as wedding gifts for household decoration. Images of

totemic animals and monsters gave way to colorful, abstract ornament, often inlaid on the

surface in gold or semiprecious stones. Bronze bells and mirrors were also popular during this

period.

Late Eastern Zhou art displays the diversity and skill in techniques that characterize the rest of the history of Chinese art. Paintings on silk, the earliest examples of this medium, have been discovered in Eastern Zhou tombs. Wood sculpture, lacquerwork, and glazed ceramics also indicate new developments and styles.

V QIN, HAN, AND SIX DYNASTIES

(221 BC-AD 589). Although brief, the Qin (Ch’in) dynasty (221-206 BC) played an important part

in Chinese history. The political breakdown of the late Eastern Zhou empire ended with a

consolidation of power under emperor Qin Shihuangdi (Ch’in Shih-huang-ti). It is from this

ruler’s household that the name China is derived. When this powerful ruler died, he was

entombed in a massive burial mound in the northwestern province of Shanxi (Shansi). This

royal grave came to light only recently, revealing more than 6000 terra-cotta human figures

and horses intended to protect the emperor’s crypt. The figures were carefully fashioned to

resemble one of his real infantries, with well-outfitted officers, charioteers, and archers, as well

as youthful foot soldiers. Now faded with the passage of time, the army was originally painted

in a wide variety of bright colors. Although human sacrifice, a practice associated with Shang

burials, had long been abandoned, the desire to have protection on the journey after death

remained an important element in burial practice.

The second Qin ruler was unable to retain his father’s strength and yielded control to the Han

household in 206 BC. China remained under Han rule for more than 400 years (206 BC-AD 220), a period of vital significance in the history of Chinese art.

A Painting

Painting, which had begun in the late Zhou dynasty, flourished during the Han. Tombs were still the primary focus for artists and architects, and the most popular subjects of paintings were the afterlife and legends of ancient heroes. In these paintings is evident the attempt, not found in earlier Chinese

art, to depict space and distance. During the Han period the first landscape elements appear in painting; at this early stage, however, they are restricted to small trees or mountains. Historical texts from this era indicate that large portraits of the emperors adorned the palace and that murals were often painted in the royal residences. Unfortunately, all traces of this artwork have been lost.

B Tombs and Tomb Artifacts

As with painting, only the architecture of the tomb survives. Stories of magnificent imperial

palaces are found in Han histories, but the palaces themselves have long since been

destroyed. The elaborate construction of burial sites gives a strong indication of the

sophisticated architectural technology that must have existed. Intricate systems of vaulting

and columnar support replaced the timber and packed-earth structures of the previous

dynasties. The Han people richly furnished the interiors of their graves with a wide variety of

miniature objects, usually fashioned as replicas of actual possessions, animals, or buildings.

Called ming ji yi (ming-chi’i) (“spirit goods”), these items were used as substitutes for valuable

possessions. Ming ji yi were usually produced in ceramic and were glazed or colorfully painted.

A typical grave contained miniatures of home, a barnyard, favorite pets and servants, and an

assortment of objects from daily life.

Although the popularity of ming ji yi decreased the quality of artifacts found in graves, some

examples of extravagance in the Han rival the great Shang burials. The underground tomb

chambers of Prince Liu Sheng and his wife Dou Wan (Tou Wan) (died about 120 BC), discovered

in Hebei (Hopeh) Province in 1968, held a rich array of lacquers, silks, pottery, and bronze

vessels, some gilded and some inlaid with gold. Both bodies were clothed in so-called jade

suits, body coverings fashioned of small, rectangular pieces of jade sewn together with gold

thread. Each outfit contains more than 2000 individual pieces of the precious stone, long

believed to symbolize eternal life. Chinese archaeologists estimate that each suit took more

than ten years to complete.

The wealth of the Han court could not prevent the eventual overthrow of the dynasty in AD

220. The next four centuries, during which rival clans attempted to control portions of the

empire, is referred to as the Six Dynasties (AD 220-589). During this period Chinese art was influenced by new ideas, including important religious developments. The native belief systems, Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism), fostered different subject matter and styles in the arts. Scenes of filial piety were the most popular expression of the Confucian ideal; the freer, nature-loving Daoists favored landscapes and folk legends.

C Buddhist Art

The most profound effect of religion on the art of the Six Dynasties was Buddhism, which came from neighboring India. The first examples of Buddhist art were the small statues carried to China by Indian Buddhists. By the 4th century an influx of styles and subjects created a new category of Buddhist art and architecture within the Chinese tradition. In western China, the monastery at Dunhuang (Tunhwang) still preserves important wall paintings based on sacred stories. Monumental sculpture, a contribution from northern India, gained popularity and led to the creation of massive stone carvings of Buddhist deities in the mountains of Henan and Shaanxi (Shensi) provinces. Wooden pagodas, an architectural form based both on the Indian stupa and the Han-dynasty tower, was a significant structural contribution of this period. By the 6th century, Buddhism had permeated nearly every facet of Chinese cultural life.

D Painting

Although Buddhist art dominated much of the Six Dynasties’ achievements, secular traditions

were also changing. Gu Kaizhi (Ku K’ai-chih), considered the father of landscape painting,

worked during this period. Three paintings are attributed to his hand, although probably only

copies remain. They include two versions of the Fairy of the Lo River story (Freer Gallery of Art,

Washington, D.C., and Palace Museum, Beijing) and the scroll entitled Admonitions of the

Instructress to the Ladies of the Court (British Museum, London). The figures and landscape elements in his work have a formal, almost stiff quality, but they also possess a delicacy and an ethereal character that continue throughout the long landscape tradition of Chinese art.

E Ceramics

Northern China, the primary center of Buddhist influence, is often the focus of studies of Six Dynasties art and culture. In southern China, however, advances were also made, especially in the area of ceramics. The first recognizable ware type, a green-glazed stoneware called Yueh-yao, or “Yueh ware,” was manufactured in the kilns of Zhejiang (Chekiang) Province. This highly durable ceramic, often fashioned into bowls and jars, was eventually exported as far as the Philippines and Egypt.

VI TANG DYNASTY

(618-907). The Tang period, a time of immense cultural achievement, has been called China’s Golden Age. The country was consolidated, first by the short-lived Sui dynasty (589-618) and, more securely, by the young monarch

Tang Taizong (T’ai-tsung) in 618. A stable government and the resulting economic prosperity brought about a flourishing of all the arts, including painting, ceramics, metalwork, music, and poetry. Buddhists suffered periods of persecution in the Tang era, but the effect of their religion on China’s art remained. Tang stone pagodas have survived, as have paintings from the caves at Dunhuang. Monumental stone sculpture, revealing an increasing tendency toward full, sensual figures, continued to be made in the northern provinces. This interest in volume characterizes Tang sculpture, religious and secular, in both stone and ceramic. Few small Buddhist images can be dated from these centuries because most were melted down for coinage during periods of anti-Buddhist activity.

A Painting

Although Buddhist painting continued to be important in the Tang period, the secular

landscape tradition dominated the pictorial arts. Three painters’ names survive, along with

probable copies of their work. Wang Wei, a reclusive landowner, preferred snowscapes, such

as a copy formerly in the Qing household collection and now presumably lost. A model for later

amateur painters, Wang Wei’s work displays an intimacy and quiet melancholy that found

favor among later artists. In contrast to the style of Wang Wei is the style of a father and son,

Li Sixun (Ssu-hsun) and Li Zhaodao (Chao-tao), who were active from about 670 to 735. A

Song-period copy in their style, Ming Huang’s Journey to Shu (National Palace Museum, Taipei,

T’aiwan), documents the exile of a Tang monarch. It is done in bright greens and blues like

many Tang landscape paintings. The monumental quality of the Taipei painting—with its

outcropped rocky ledges and heavily foliated trees—presents an impressive panorama. This

style differed considerably from the simpler compositions of such painters as Wang Wei.

Portrait painting, which began in the Han era, was refined in the Tang period. Emperors customarily commissioned portraits of themselves and of past rulers for the imperial collection. One example, portraying 13 rulers from the Han to Sui dynasty, was executed by Yan Liben (Yen Li-pen), the foremost Tang portraitist (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts). Burial chambers were also decorated with the painted likenesses of the deceased and family members.

B Decorative Arts

Rich innovation characterized the decorative arts in the Tang centuries. Important influences from the Middle East, brought by traders and artisans from many nations, stimulated new styles in metalwork and ceramics. Travelers’ flasks and variously shaped dishes in silver and gold echo traditions from Central Asia. Colorfully glazed earthenware, especially ewers

and rhytons (drinking vessels) closely resembling Persian silverwork, drew from metal prototypes. The pottery of this period is important. During the Tang era, a technique was developed in southern China to allow the firing of a fine-grained, white substance known today as porcelain. This ceramic is derived from a combination of white clay and ground feldspar. Mixed together and turned on a wheel into the desired form, the piece is fired at an extremely high kiln temperature, often exceeding 1200° C (about 2200° F). Although the full potential of porcelain was not realized until later, its origins in the Tang mark an important milestone.

VII SONG DYNASTY

(960-1279). China’s geographical area was severely reduced by invasions of neighboring peoples in the years following the collapse of Tang rule. The Song emperors were not as powerful as their Han or Tang predecessors. They strove to maintain a tenuous peace with their often hostile neighbors, and the arts of this period show an introspection and refinement cultivated in response to harsh political realities. The Song emperors were among China’s most culturally enlightened rulers; indeed, many were accomplished artists in their own right.

A Painting

Painting, with its many different schools and styles, is often cited as the greatest achievement

of Song art. A royal painting academy was established, and many fine artists were patronized

by the court. Bird and flower themes were always popular with the royal family, as were

portraits of favorite pets and children. Many Song paintings of these subjects became the

standards by which later works were judged. Copied again and again through the centuries,

the courtly floral and portrait styles of Song painting have been continued by many present-

day Chinese painters.

The Song period is best known, however, for landscape painting. In the Northern Song period

(960-1126), painters often favored a monumental style, creating awesome vistas. Such artists

as Li Cheng (Ch’eng) (lived 10th century) and Fan Kuan (K’uan) (lived early 11th century)

exemplify this style, with paintings of massive rocky cliffs punctuated by an occasional

waterfall or a group of small figures. The brushwork in these paintings is often complex, with

strokes repeated one over the other to create the illusion of texture. Also, at this time, the first

wenren hua (wen-jen hua), or literati painting, appeared. The literati were amateurs who often

disagreed with the styles fashionable at the royal academy and who produced their own

distinctive landscapes. The Northern Song practitioners of wenren hua preferred less grandiose

subjects than did the official painters, often selecting a single tree or a rock with bamboo. This

preference for simple subjects remained a characteristic of literati painting.

The Song royal family was forced to flee southward in the 12th century and reestablished itself

at the city of Hangzhou (Hangchow). During this portion of the dynasty, called the Southern

Song (1127-1279), the emperors’ painting academy produced a style of landscape known as

the Ma-Xia school (Ma-Hsia school). The name is derived from its two greatest artists, Ma Yuan

and Xia Gui (Hsia Kuei). Drawing on the expansiveness found in the Northern Song tradition,

they created views with less brushwork. Mists became an important device to suggest

landmass and to give the painting a light, ethereal quality. Ma Yuan was often called “one-

corner Ma,” as he would restrict much of his painting to a single corner of the work, leaving the

rest blank. This technique enhanced the sensation of open space and suggested infinity,

qualities much prized in the Ma-Xia tradition.

In sharp contrast to the serenity of the work of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui stands the brush painting of the Zen monks. Followers of this branch of the Buddhist faith, also known as Chan (Ch’an) Buddhism, believed in the spontaneity of artistic creation, often producing paintings in a few frenzied minutes. The style, characterized by free and often loosely defined brushwork, was dismissed by the official academy painters as the work of “crazy drunkards.” The independence of the Zen painting school became an important model in later centuries when more artists became disillusioned with the purely academic styles.

B Ceramics

Ceramics of the Northern and Southern Song periods provide a parallel to landscape painting

in their variety and accomplishments. The finest products of the northern kilns are called

classic wares; these include Ting ware, named for a production site in Hebei Province and

characterized by a milky white glaze and delicately carved or impressed designs. A common

motif features lotus blossoms, which were originally a Buddhist symbol but were often used for

decoration in Song secular art. The vividly colored Jun (Chün) ware, with splashes of red or

purple painted on a blue glazed surface, was popular at court and was often used for bowls

and flowerpots. Celadon, a green-glazed stoneware of high quality, was also a classic ware of

both northern and southern kilns. In the north, where the color tends to be grayish-green,

celadons are most frequently found in the shape of vases or incense burners. In addition to

these royal favorites, a group of popular stoneware, called Cizhou (Tz’u-chou), was

manufactured in Henan Province for local use. The Cizhou potters used a wide variety of

decorative techniques, including glazing, painting, incising, and enameling. The shapes vary,

but pillows, vases, and miniature objects—probably toys—are the most abundant.

Southern China contributed its own royal wares, most notably the white porcelains discovered

in the Tang area. Certain fine ceramics were made expressly for imperial use and inscribed

with the character guan (kuan), meaning “official.” The Song celadons of South China have a subtle bluish-green glaze that was thought to produce a feeling

of serenity in those who contemplated it. The Buddhist monks in Fujian (Fukien) Province preferred their tea in glossy, black-glazed bowls, such as Jian (Chien) ware. The decoration of Jian ware was done by placing a leaf or paper-cut decoration on the interior before firing. In the kiln, the material disintegrated, leaving a dark imprint. When filled with tea, the motifs on the bottom become more noticeable. Tea bowls of the Jian type were prized by the Japanese monks who studied in the Chinese Zen monasteries; Japan now houses many fine collections of this Song ware.

C Sculpture

Sculpture during the Song period continued to embody the full forms of the Tang dynasty. The

most notable achievements were made in Buddhist figures, where clay and wood often

replaced stone. Clay, with its inherent plasticity, allowed for a softer rendition of the body and

often produced strikingly lifelike results.

D Architecture

Tiger Hill Pagoda, China

The pagoda, a type of tower common in East Asia, functions as a Buddhist temple or memorial. It usually displays upward-curving roofs between its stories. The Tiger Hill Pagoda in Suzhou, China, pictured here, dates from the 10th century and stands 47.5 m (155.8 ft) high. Repaired most recently in 1981, the building has caught fire three times and tilts to the northwest.Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc./Mike YamashitaMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The Song tendency toward refinement is also found in the architectural remains of the period.

Song styles often became elongated and thin, producing a distinctive Song spire. Curved roofs,

a characteristic long associated with Chinese architecture, reached their zenith in the Song

period. Crossbeams were developed to provide the necessary support for the heavy roofs.

Inside, a sensation of open space and light was achieved with a system of delicate wooden

vaults and bracketing. Pagodas continued to be the major type of religious structure. First

constructed of masonry during the Song period, especially in northern China, pagodas were

often decorated with complex latticework. Although the Song architect preferred height to

breadth, evidence exists that large, low buildings were also built. Such structures often had

courtyards, balconies, and large main halls, all features that would become increasingly

popular in the Yuan and Ming periods.

VIII Architecture of YUAN DYNASTY

(1279-1368). The Mongol invasion of Song China altered Chinese art, particularly painting and

architecture. Although the foreign rulers displayed an interest in perpetuating classical Chinese

culture, most artists felt uneasy at court and retired. Painting and calligraphy then became the

domain of these ex-officials. Wenren hua (wen-jen hua), the art of aristocratic amateurs in the

Song dynasty, represented in the Yuan (Yüan) period and thereafter the most accomplished

school of artists; they continued to be known as the literati. The painters who remained at the

academy were considered conservative, often imitative, by the literati. Beginning in the Yuan

period, most official artists were required to produce work based on Song bird and flower

studies or landscapes of the Ma-Xia school. All innovation came from outside the academic

tradition, which never again reached the attainments of the Southern Song dynasty.

In architecture, the Mongols again made substantial contributions. It is now thought that the original structures of Beijing, the Mongol capital, may have been grander in scale than the Ming structures that replaced them. The Mongol aesthetic in architecture emphasized mass, in sharp contrast to the previous Song buildings. Great halls dominated Yuan construction and were often built one around the other so that great banquets, royal audiences, and the general business of state could all be held simultaneously. The grand city plan used by the architects of Mongol Beijing was retained and adapted by

the Ming and Qing dynasties and remains a reminder of the Yuan imperial capital.

IX MING DYNASTY

(1368-1644). Mongol rule ended with the establishment of a native Chinese dynasty, known as

the Ming. The court immediately established the royal painting academy, which attracted

mostly the bird and flower painters and the landscape artists of the Ma-Xia school. The most

significant work, however, continued to originate among the literati. The leading group of Ming

wenren, called the Wu school, produced a number of important artists, the most notable being

Shen Zhou (Chou) and Wen Zhengming (Cheng-ming). Both were cultured gentlemen and

worked at painting and calligraphy. They incorporated the work of the four famous Yuan

masters into their own individual styles. Shen Zhou’s brushstrokes possess a crispness of line

that give a distinct clarity to his paintings. His themes were often drawn from events in daily

life, such as a moon-gazing party on a small terrace (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). Wen

Zhengming often chose subjects of great simplicity, such as a single tree or rock. His work

evokes a sense of strength based in isolation that may have reflected his own disenchantment

with official life.

Art had been a subject of literature and criticism since the Han period, but in the Ming dynasty

criticism and the study of art reached their peaks in the person of Dong Qichang (Tung Ch’i-

ch’ang), a painter, critic, collector, and scholar. Dong’s writings on the history of Chinese

painting remain important. Perhaps his most famous work identifies specific northern and

southern schools of painting. Dong contended that the southern school—the literati painters—

which stressed individualism and the cultural, contemplative life, could trace its origins back to

Wang Wei in the Tang dynasty. The northern school, on the other hand, dating from the Li

family of the 7th and 8th centuries, included later generations of official painters. Examples of

the latter group include the great Northern Song monumentalists Li Cheng (Ch’eng) and Fan

Guan (K’uan), as well as the artists of the Ma-Xia tradition. This school, according to Dong’s

theory, was characterized by a lack of innovation, an adherence to court dictates, and a slavish

imitation of the past. Although contemporary scholars of Chinese art consider Dong’s

argument overly simplistic, Dong nevertheless was the first to write about the clear division

between the professional court painter and the wenren.

X Architecture of QING DYNASTY

(1644-1911). The later years of the Ming dynasty were marked by much internal political

dissent. This situation was observed by the neighboring Manchu nation, which seized control

amid rebellious turmoil in 1644. Anxious to assimilate the traditions of previous dynasties, the

Qing rulers embraced all aspects of Chinese culture.

As in nearly all the imperial art forms, architecture continued many Ming traditions. The Mongols had rejected the delicate styles of the Song and initiated lower and more massive structures. Ming architects adopted this tendency, creating many large, rectangular buildings. Ming temples often retained certain details from the Song, such as colorfully painted wooden figures affixed to the interior. The Qing emperors, in turn, favored an almost monotonous, expansive interior, devoid of many finer details. Palaces were the particular hallmark of Qing construction. Numerous examples survive in Beijing. The most common Qing royal structure is characterized by massiveness softened by a strict symmetry. Color plays an important role in these buildings, with their golden roofs, red-painted trim, and white marble stairways. Palatial variations also exist, such as the Yuan-ming-yuan (18th century), a summer residence based on the style of Versailles.

XI CHINESE ART IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Strong nationalist feelings provoked waves of political unrest that finally, in 1911, caused the

downfall of the Qing dynasty. With the founding of the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen

came a pressure to modernize the “middle kingdom” and accept many Western ideas. Art was

hardly immune to these concerns. Many painters chose to study abroad, first traveling to Japan

and eventually going to Europe, notably Paris. Returning to China, they brought a number of

innovations, including bold colors, European brushwork, perspective, and tendencies toward

abstraction. The decorative arts under the republic absorbed less outside influence, and most

of the styles remained traditional, as practiced both at home and abroad.

The founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 introduced another important change in

Chinese art and culture. Under the leadership of Mao Zedong (Tse-tung), painting and the

decorative arts were infused with political content. The actual styles of painting often draw on

the advances of the post-Qing schools, but the subject matter includes themes extolling

socialist reconstruction. Many traditional folk arts, never recognized during the dynastic

periods, were elevated to a place of significance. Weaving, basketry, jewelry making, and

wood-block printing were added to ceramics, lacquer, and jade carving as fine crafts became

important both for native use and for export. Since the death of Mao in 1976, Chinese art has

tended to become less political at all levels, a movement that could enable its future

development to be judged better within the context of its historical tradition.

See also Architecture; Calligraphy; Indian Art and Architecture; Jade; Jade Carving; Japanese

Art and Architecture; Korean Art and Architecture; Lacquerwork; Metalwork; Pagoda; Painting;

Pottery; Sculpture; Temple; Tomb.

China's Famous Temple of HeavenThe breathtaking Temple of Heaven (Qinian Dian), about 5 kilometers (about 3 miles) south of the Forbidden City in Beijing, is China's most famous shrine. The monument encompasses a group of ceremonial buildings inside a walled park. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests is the most important and most recognized of the group. An architectural wonder built in the 15th century, the temple was constructed entirely of wood but without nails.Photo Researchers, Inc./Lawrence Migdale

Altar of HeavenThe Altar of Heaven is part of the Temple of Heaven, or Tian Tan, built during the Ming dynasty in Beijing, China. It is located in the outer city section of Beijing in Tian Tan Park. The 15th-century structure, with its red walls and gold detailing, is typical of the architecture of the Ming dynasty.Japan Airlines/Public RelationsMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Guangzhou's Flower PagodaIn the city of Guangzhou (also known as Yangcheng or Canton), the Flower, or Liurong, Pagoda is a striking landmark. Chinese pagodas are associated with Buddhist temples, and each element of the pagoda's design has religious meaning. This 12-story octagon stands next to the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees, founded in AD 479 during China's Southern dynasty.Photo Researchers, Inc./Noboru KomineMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The Forbidden CityThe old section includes a square inner city on the north constructed between 1409 and 1420, and a rectangular outer city to the south built between 1521 and 1566. Once encircled by a wall about 24 km (15 mi) long and about 15 m (50 ft) high, the inner city has at its core the Forbidden City. Between 1421 and 1912, this was the walled palace and inner compound of China’s imperial family and was so named because ordinary citizens were not allowed inside. It was the most sacred space in traditional, imperial China. The complex, now housing the Palace Museum (founded in 1925), was opened to the public in 1949. Beyond the Forbidden City was the Imperial City, which contained government offices, temples, gardens, palaces, and parks. Outside the Imperial City were upper-class homes, markets, and more temples. The adjacent outer city, once encircled by a wall about 23 km (14 mi) long, shared the northern part of its wall with the inner city. The outer city contained important temple areas and residential space for the commoners.

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Ä Find the best online information about Beijing. Encarta Editors' PicksFrontline: The Gate of Heavenly PeaceThe Forbidden City [China Vista]The Summer Palace [China Vista] more...

In accordance with traditional Chinese town planning, Beijing was designed along a north-south central axis; this line represented the imperial authority and it ran through many key government offices, buildings, imperial residences, and main gates. After the Communist revolution in 1949, most walls of the old city were demolished and replaced with thoroughfares. However, several of the old gates have been preserved. During the 1950s Tiananmen (the Gate of Heavenly Peace, also known as Tian’an Men), located along the city’s north-south axis south of the Forbidden City, was rebuilt and its square to the south was enlarged to hold crowds for parades. Major installations were added in and around Tiananmen Square, including the Great Hall of the People, built in 1959, where the national legislature meets. Several blocks east of the Forbidden City and Tiananmen Square is Wangfujing Avenue, the city’s most famous shopping district.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The Forbidden City, BeijingThe Forbidden City, in the center of Beijing, housed the emperors of imperial China from the early 15th century until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. The roofs of all buildings in the city were glazed in yellow, a color reserved solely for the emperor, and no one except the emperor and court officials was allowed inside.

Forbidden CityIn the middle of Beijing, the capital of China, a compound of 800 buildings makes up the Forbidden City, built starting in the early 15th century. From 1420 until 1911 the city served as the home for two dynasties of Chinese emperors, the Ming and the Qing. Most of the buildings standing today date from the late 18th or early 19th centuries.

The city of Beijing took form over a very long time, under various rulers. Two contiguous rectangles, the Inner City and the newer Outer City, each embrace several square kilometers. The Inner City contains the Imperial City, which in turn contains the Forbidden City, which sheltered the imperial court and the imperial family. The entire development adheres to symmetry along a strong north-south avenue—the apotheosis, on a grand urban scale, of the Chinese house.

Stone, brick, tile, and timber are available in both China and Japan. The most characteristic architectural forms in both countries are based on timber framing. In China, the wooden post carried on its top an openwork timber structure, a kind of inverted pyramid formed of layers of horizontal beams connected and supported by brackets and short posts to support the rafters and beams of a steep and heavy tile roof. The eaves extended well beyond column lines on cantilevers. The resulting archetype is rectangular in plan, usually one story high, with a prominent roof.

Inside the Forbidden CityThe Forbidden City, a walled complex in northern Beijing, China, was the home of many Ming and Qing emperors. The Forbidden City was so named because only members of the imperial household could enter it. Now open to the public, the buildings in the complex serve as museums.

Forbidden City ProcessionalThis photograph shows a close-up of the main processional in the Forbidden City, in Beijing, China. The Forbidden City was the residence of China’s emperors during the Ming and Qing dynasties.The Image Bank/Andrea PistolesiMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Summer Palace, Beijing, ChinaThe Summer Palace, part of which is seen in the foreground, served as the summer residence of China’s imperial family. Constructed as a single building in the 1100s, the palace expanded over the centuries into a larger complex of buildings, pavilions, paths, and gardens. Located in Beijing, the palace overlooks Kunming Lake.China Pictorial

Beijing's Tiananmen SquareThe largest public plaza in the world, Tiananmen Square sits in the heart of the historic city of Beijing (formerly known as Peking). It is a gathering place for parades, speeches, fireworks displays, and organized demonstrations. It was here in 1949 that Mao Zedong (also known as Mao Tse-tung) announced the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and named Beijing as its capital. In 1989 hundreds of

thousands of Chinese demonstrated for freedom and democracy at Tiananmen Square. The military stopped the demonstration by force, killing hundreds of supporters and injuring another 10,000.Photo Researchers, Inc./Noboru KomineMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Shanghai TeahouseBuilt in 1784, the Huxinting teahouse sits in the middle of an ornamental lake in Nanshi, the oldest section of Shanghai. A zigzag bridge, said to keep evil spirits away, leads to Yu Yuan, an elaborate garden built in the 16th century for Pan Yunduan, a landlord and official of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).The Image Bank/P. and G. BowaterMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Cathedral Ruins, MacaoThe heavily decorated stone facade is all that remains of São Paulo Cathedral, in Macao. The cathedral, built by Portuguese colonists beginning in 1602, was gutted by fire in 1835.Corbis/Alison WrightMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Xi’anXi’an or Sian, city in northern China, capital of Shaanxi (Shen-hsi) Province, the cultural and

industrial center of the historic and agriculturally rich Wei River valley. Manufactures include

cotton textiles, electrical equipment, machinery, and fertilizers. Xi’an Jiaotong University

(1896) is here. Landmarks of special interest are the tomb of China's first emperor, Qin

Shihuangdi (Ch’in Shih-huang-ti), archaeological excavations of which began in 1977; Shaanxi

Provincial Museum, repository of some of the region's rich archaeological discoveries; the Big

and Little Goose Pagodas, remnants of a once-famous 7th-century Buddhist retreat; the Great

Mosque, which has served the city's large Muslim population since the 8th century; and a city

wall dating from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Nearby landmarks include the partly explored

tombs of the Tang (T’ang) emperors (618-907); four tumuli (burial mounds), said to be tombs

of the Zhou (Chou) (1045?-256 BC) kings; Xi’an Hot Springs; and Banpo, a neolithic village

(6000?BC).

Xi’an, one of China's oldest cities, was the capital of the Zhou, Qin (Ch’in) (221-206 BC), and

Western (earlier) Han (206 BC-AD 8) dynasties. It was again the capital under the Sui (589-618)

emperors, and, known as Chang’an (also Ch’ang-an), was the capital and prosperous eastern

terminus of Central Asian trade routes under the Tang emperors. Abandoned as the capital

after the fall of the Tang, it began a long period of decline that lasted until Ming times. In 1936

the Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek was kidnapped here; he was held captive until

he agreed to join the Communists in a united front against the Japanese. Rapid

industrialization of the city began in the 1950s. Population (1999 estimate) 2,718,000.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Great Wall (China)

I INTRODUCTION

Great Wall (China), popular name for a semi-legendary wall built to protect China’s northern

border in the 3rd century BC, and for impressive stone and earthen fortifications built along a

different northern border in the 15th and 16th centuries AD, long after the ancient structure

had mostly disappeared. Ruins of the later wall are found today along former border areas

from Bo Hai (a gulf of the Yellow Sea) in the east to Gansu Province in the west. The Great Wall

is visited often near Beijing, at a site called Ju-yong-guan, and at its eastern and western

extremes.

The

Great Wall stretches across northern China. It consists of a series of walls built by the Ming dynasty in the

15th and 16th centuries to protect China against invasions from the north. The strongest walls were built

near Beijing, the Ming capital. Sections of the Great Wall, including this part near Beijing, have been

restored, mainly for purposes of tourism.

Wolfgang KaehlerMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The Great Wall is probably China's best-known monument and one of its most popular tourist destinations. In 1987 it was designated a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Great Wall is not a single, continuous structure. Rather, it consists of a network of walls and towers that leaves the frontier open in places. Estimates of the total length of the monument vary, depending on which sections are included and how they are measured. The Great Wall is about 2,400 km (about 1,500 mi) long, according to conservative estimates. Other estimates cite a length of 6,400 km (4,000 mi), or even longer. Some long-standing myths about the wall have been dispelled in recent decades. The existing wall is not several thousand years old, nor is it, as has been widely asserted, visible with the naked eye from outer space. (Astronauts have confirmed this. However, some of the wall is discernible in special radar images taken by satellites.)

II THE WALL OF QIN SHIHUANGDI

Wall building—around houses and settlements and along political frontiers—began in China

more than 3000 years ago. Using the hang-tu method, pounded layers of earth were

alternated with stones and twigs inside wooden frames to produce durable earthen walls.

During the Warring States period (403-221 BC), before China was unified, feudal states fought

for control of the area constituting most of modern-day China. The states of Qi, Yen, and Zhao

were among those that built earthen ramparts along their frontiers.

The most famous early wall construction is attributed to the king of the Qin dynasty, who

conquered the other states and unified China in 221 BC. Taking the title of Shihuangdi, or First

Emperor, Qin Shihuangdi ordered his military commander Meng Tian to subdue the nomads of

the north and fortify China’s vast frontier. Historians still debate the form these fortifications

took, but records mention the chang cheng (long wall) of Shihuangdi. No reliable historical accounts indicate the length of the Qin fortifications or the exact route they followed.

III THE MING WALLS

Few traces exist today of the ancient wall of Shihuangdi. Today’s Great Wall, which follows a

different route from that of Shihuangdi’s fortifications, consists of a series of walls built by

China’s Ming dynasty beginning in the late 15th century AD. The Ming, having suffered a

military defeat by the Mongols, had refused to continue to trade with them. The Mongol tribes

of the northern steppe had long depended on China for grain, metal, and other goods, and

China’s refusal led to further conflict between the Ming and the Mongols, which the Ming

proved unable to win. The Ming rulers could not decide whether to negotiate with the Mongols

or attempt to conquer them. As a compromise, they decided to keep the Mongols out by

constructing walls along China’s northern border. Ultimately, the walls proved ineffective, as

the Mongols were easily able to pass around or break through them during raids. For this and

other reasons, sections of the walls periodically required repair.

View from the Great WallThe walls comprising the Great Wall of China follow the mountainous contours of China’s northern frontier, stretching from the gulf of Bo Hai in the east to Gansu Province in the west. In some stretches, the walls’ builders placed watchtowers at regular intervals. Along the top of the walls, the builders created space for soldiers to march.

Although the first Ming walls were built of earth in the traditional manner, by the 16th century

the work had become much more elaborate and was done in stone by professional builders

paid in silver. Bit by bit, in response to Mongol challenges, the Ming heavily fortified the region

around the capital at Beijing. Other areas were protected with shorter walls or forts, or had no

defenses at all.

Wall building and repair continued until the Ming dynasty fell to the Qing dynasty in 1644. By this time, the walls formed an incomplete and uneven network. The eastern end was at Qinhuangdao, in Hebei Province on the gulf of Bo Hai, while the western extreme was near Jiayuguan in Gansu Province. The walls spanned mountainous terrain, conforming to the territory’s numerous peaks and valleys. They included inner walls and outer walls, and some stretches had watchtowers placed at regular intervals so that alarm signals could be passed between them in case of attack. Along the top of the walls was space for soldiers to march. At their most impressive, around Beijing, the walls measured at least 7.6 m (25 ft) in height and up to 9 m (30 ft) in width, tapering from the base to the top. These dimensions varied greatly at other points.

IV THE MYTH OF THE GREAT WALL

Neither the Qin wall nor the Ming fortifications were called the “Great Wall of China” by their

Chinese contemporaries. That label, and the myths that have come with it, appear to have

originated in the West. Europeans who visited China in the 17th and 18th centuries confused

the Ming fortifications with the Qin wall or walls mentioned in dynastic histories. They also

assumed incorrectly that impressive masonry walls like those surrounding Beijing at the time

also extended far to the west. As a result, a description developed in the West of a vast wall

that had secured peace for the civilized Chinese for thousands of years by excluding the

nomads. This idea captured the imagination of Westerners, and by the late 19th century a visit

to the "Great Wall of China" had become a staple of the Western tourist’s itinerary.

In the 20th century the Chinese also began to adopt the idea of the Great Wall, despite the

evidence presented by their own historical records. Revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen, who was

instrumental in establishing the Republic of China in 1912, wrote about the wall in glowing

terms consistent with the Western myth. Although some Chinese scholars pointed out Sun’s

errors, they never succeeded in halting the myth’s progress. Patriotic fervor during World War

II (1939-1945) popularized the myth of the Great Wall, and some renovation was done to the

Ming fortifications in the early 1950s. The tide changed, however, under Communist leader

Mao Zedong, who came to power in 1949. In 1966 Mao launched the political campaign known

as the Cultural Revolution, during which he appealed to the Chinese people to destroy

anything associated with traditional culture. Unappreciated for its historic value, the

magnificent wall surrounding Beijing was torn down for quarrying during this period. Other wall

ruins were also destroyed.

With the end of the Cultural Revolution and the death of Mao in 1976, the political climate

changed in China, evidenced in part by a rise in nationalism. In the years that followed, the

myth of the Great Wall was officially propagated throughout the country. In the 1980s the Ming

walls began to undergo extensive renovation at their most visited locations. In the 1990s,

however, historians in both China and the West began to reestablish the actual history of

Chinese wall building and to explore the development of the folklore surrounding the Ming

walls.

Portion of the Great WallIn the 15th and 16th centuries the Ming dynasty built elaborate earth-and-stone fortifications along China’s northern border. Although the Great Wall followed the contours of the land, it actually provided poor defense against Mongol challengers, who were able to pass around or break through the walls during raids.Corbis/Keren SuMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Qin Shihuangdi or Ch'in Shih-huang-ti (259-210 BC), first emperor of China (221-210 BC) and

founder of the Qin (Ch'in) dynasty (221-206 BC), which gave its name to China. Although the

dynasty fell apart four years after Qin Shihuangdi’s death, many aspects of its system of

government endured in imperial China for more than 2,000 years.

The future emperor was born Qin Zheng in Qin, a state in northern China. At age 13, he

succeeded his father, Qin Zichu, king of Zhuang Xiang, as ruler of the Qin state and took the

title King Zheng (sometimes spelled Cheng). At the time he ascended the throne, Qin was the

strongest of China’s seven so-called Warring States, which were remnants of the Zhou (Chou)

dynasty, a feudal regime that ruled China from about 1045 BC until 256 BC. Over the centuries,

nobles had become rulers of independent kingdoms and had taken up arms against one

another. Beginning in the 4th century BC, the Qin rulers who preceded King Zheng

implemented reforms designed to strengthen the government of the Qin state. Military and

administrative appointments, which had previously been determined by noble birth, were now

decided by merit. Farmers, no longer enslaved servants, were allowed to own their land, and

production increased. The Qin government strictly enforced laws issued by the rulers, and for

this reason it is often described as Legalist.

Although King Zheng had ascended the throne in 247 BC, officials from his father’s government

continued to rule the Qin state until Zheng was declared of age in 238 BC. Upon assuming

control, Zheng began planning the conquest of the other six states. In 230 BC Qin defeated

Han, the weakest of the states, and within nine years it had conquered the others.

In 221 BC King Zheng, having completed the unification of China by military force, proclaimed

himself Qin Shihuangdi (First Qin Emperor). As the first ruler to govern a truly unified China,

Qin Shihuangdi imposed an extraordinary series of measures designed to reinforce the

authority of the central government. A new system replaced feudal kingdoms with 36 (later 42)

jun (provinces) that were run by appointed officials. To facilitate trade and communication, the

government standardized weights and measures and created a uniform writing system for the

Chinese language. The regime maintained tight control over information by destroying books

or removing them from circulation (books about agriculture, divination, and medicine were

exceptions), and by putting hundreds of dissenting scholars to death. The government also

built an extensive network of new roads and canals to improve communication and

transportation. To protect China’s northern frontier, the government constructed fortifications,

thereby creating a precedent for the later network of walls that became known as the Great

Wall.

The extent of Qin Shihuangdi's personal role in these measures is hard to determine. Records

suggest that he was energetic and intelligent, but the emperor’s minister of state, Li Si (Li

Ssu), is generally given most of the credit for shaping the dynasty. Qin Shihuangdi survived at

least three assassination attempts and in time became preoccupied with a quest for

immortality. He consulted magicians and traveled around the empire in search of a potion that

would bring him eternal life. He also ordered the construction of a massive tomb near the

modern city of Xi’an (Sian). Excavation of the tomb, which began in 1974, uncovered

thousands of life-size terra cotta soldiers and horses positioned to protect Qin Shihuangdi from

threats in the afterlife. Some of the emperor's concubines and the workers who had built the

mausoleum were buried with him to keep secret the tomb’s precise location.

For centuries, most Chinese scholars condemned Qin Shihuangdi as a heartless tyrant whose

harsh Legalist doctrines ignored the teachings of Chinese philosopher Confucius (see Chinese

Philosophy). Some Western evaluations suggest that these scholars exaggerated the

emperor's flaws and excesses to conceal the degree to which subsequent dynasties carried

forward Qin Shihuangdi's legacy. Although later Chinese emperors based their governments on

Confucian ethics, they nonetheless followed the dynasty’s examples of a unified China,

government through bureaucratic administration, and application of harsh laws when the

occasion demanded.

Hangzhou

Hangzhou, also Hang-chou or Hangchow, city, southeastern China, capital of Zhejiang

(Chekiang) Province, near Shanghai. It is a port at the mouth of the Qiantang River in

Hangzhou Bay and at the southern end of the Grand Canal. Manufactures include silk and

cotton textiles, chemicals, steel, machine tools, and processed food. Scenic Xi Hu (West Lake),

with many ancient shrines and monasteries, is here.

The city was walled and given its present name in AD 606. Serving as the capital of the Five

Dynasties (907-959), it prospered as a port for the silk trade. During the Southern Song

dynasty (1127-1279) it became a renowned cultural center, as well as the capital. Venetian

traveler Marco Polo, who visited here in the late 13th century, characterized Hangzhou as the

most beautiful city in the world. In the 14th century the city's importance declined after the

port became clogged with silt. Taiping rebels destroyed much of the old city in 1861, and

Japanese forces occupied Hangzhou from 1937 to 1945. Rebuilding of industrial plants took

place in the 1950s. Population (1999 estimate) 2,105,000.

Hangzhou, ChinaHangzhou, located in southeastern China, is a bustling port at the mouth of the Qiantang River. When Italian traveler Marco Polo arrived here in the 13th century, he called it the most beautiful city in the world.

Chinese HouseThis contemporary house in Hangzhou, China, typifies the basic architectural style of that country, which hasn’t changed significantly in centuries. The structure is made of wood, with piers for support. The roof, made of tile, features curving lines with wide, turned-up eaves supported on carved brackets.Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York

Grand Canal, ChinaChina has more than 100,000 km (60,000 mi) of navigable inland waterways. The busiest is the Grand Canal, which extends 1,900 km (1,200 mi) from Beijing to Hangzhou. Construction of the canal largely took place in the 7th and 13th centuries. It is now used primarily for industrial purposes.Photo Researchers, Inc./Robert HernandezMicrosoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.