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Childrens profile of healthy and unhealthy behaviors:
Demographic
characteristics and perceptions of social environment
Yannis Theodorakis a,*, Athanasios Papaioannou b, Antonis
Hatzigeorgiadis a,
& Eva Papadimitriou a
a University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
b Democtitus University of Thrace, Komotini, Greece
Manuscript submitted: December 5, 2002 Running head: childrens
healthy and unhealthy profiles
Address for correspondence: Yannis Theodorakis University of
Thessaly,
Department of Physical Education & Sport Science, 42100,
Karies, Trikala, Greece.
e-mail: Phone:
[email protected] + 30 24310 47001
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Childrens profile of healthy and unhealthy behaviors:
Demographic
characteristics and perceptions of social environment
Manuscript submitted: December 5, 2002 Running head: CHILDRENS
HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY PROFILES
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Childrens profile of healthy and unhealthy behaviors:
Demographic
characteristics and perceptions of social environment.
Abstract
Objectives. In recent years health promotion is a matter of
great interest
among researchers in the field of social sciences. The aim of
the present study was to
identify the profile of children who exhibit healthy and
unhealthy behaviors in
relation to demographic characteristics and perceptions of
social environment.
Method. Participants were 3640 Greek students from 10 to 16
years of age.
They responded on self-report questionnaires assessing a number
of behaviors
(exercise, diet, smoking, and violence), as well as family
structure, family income,
perceived family and peer behavior and perceived family
support.
Results. Cluster analysis identified four distinct profiles. One
including
children adopting healthy behaviors (exercising, healthy eating)
and avoiding
unhealthy ones (smoking, violence), a second including children
avoiding unhealthy
behaviors, but not adopting healthy ones, a third including
children adopting healthy
behaviors, but also taking part in violent incidents, and a
fourth including children
adopting smoking and avoiding healthy behaviors. Demographic
characteristics
seemed to better explain the adoption or not of healthy
behaviors, whereas
perceptions of social environment and age seemed to better
explain the adoption or
not of unhealthy behaviors.
Conclusion. The results of the present study indicate that
health promotion
programs should take into serious consideration both personal
and social
characteristics of the targeted population.
Key words: exercise, nutrition, smoking, violence, children
profiles
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 1
Childrens profile of healthy and unhealthy behaviors:
Demographic
characteristics and perception of social environment.
Introduction
In recent years the interest of health-related scientific and
medical organizations
on health promotion is progressively growing. However, despite
the increasing focus
on health prevention, results from relevant studies show that
behavior patterns are
quite worrying, especially among younger populations (Mota &
Queiros, 1996; Pate
et al., 1997; Steptoe et al., 2002). Since the early nineties,
the adoption of unhealthy
behaviors like smoking, use of alcohol and drugs, seems to
spread rapidly (Torabi &
Nakornhet, 1996). Furthermore, low levels of exercise and poor
diet have been
identified that are related to obesity and have been
characterized as potentially risk-
factors for individuals health (Muecke, Simons-Morton, Huang
& Parcel, 1992).
Thus, the study of health-related behaviors becomes of great
importance especially for
younger children and adolescents, since it is at that age when
health beliefs are
established (Baranowski, 1997) and healthy/unhealthy habits are
adopted (Taylor,
1999). The purpose of the present study was to identify whether
patterns of healthy
and/or unhealthy behaviors exist among young population and to
examine likely
personal and social factors that may be important in determining
the adoption of
healthy and unhealthy habits.
Considerable amount of research during the past and present
years has been
dealing with the healthy and unhealthy behaviors of children and
the factors that
influence and finally shape them. Researchers claim that healthy
behaviors such as
exercise and healthy eating habits are positively correlated
(Liang, Shediac -
Ritzkallan, Celantano & Rohde, 1999), and so are unhealthy
behaviors, such as the
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 2
use of nicotine, drugs and violent behavior (Barnes, Welte,
Hoffman & Dintcheff,
1999; Bauman & Phongsavan, 1999; Liang et al., 1999;
Friedman, 1998; Griesler &
Kandel, 1998). Of the amount of healthy and unhealthy behaviors
the present study
will focus on exercise, healthy eating, smoking, and
violence.
There is a number of models which have been developed over the
years to
explain health-related behaviors and which recognize the
importance of personal and
social factors. According to Rosenstock (1991) the health belief
model (Becker, 1974)
has been the most influential and widely tested approach to
health behaviors.
According to the health belief model, among the forces that are
recognized as
important in shaping behavior are demographic characteristics
such as age, gender
education and ethnicity, and socio-psychological factors such as
personality, social
environment and social class. In a similar fashion Banduras
(1986) social cognitive
theory suggests that behavior is a product of relationships
between personal factors
(coming within the individual) and environmental factors (coming
from the context in
which the behavior occurs). Finally, Sallis and Hovells (1990)
social learning model
stresses that with regard to younger populations, personal
factors (e.g. age, gender,
personality) and social influences especially (e.g. family
modeling, peer influences,
social support) are significant determinants of health-related
behaviors, in particularly
physical activity. Therefore, it becomes evident that the
important role of personal and
social factors in shaping health behavior is widely
recognized.
In the literature, it has been reported that there are numerous
factors influencing
the adoption of behaviors like exercising or smoking, however
family and friends are
two of the most important factors proposed to account for such
behaviors (e.g.
Friedman & Glassman, 2000; Herrenkohl et al., 2000;
Blackson, et al., 1999; Brook,
Mendelberg, Galili, Priel, & Bujanover, 1999; Duncan,
Duncan, Biglan, & Ary,
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 3
1998). Broadly speaking children 's physical activity and their
opinion about it as well
has been found to be in accordance to their parents' (Babkes
& Weiss, 1999; Trost,
Pate, Ward, Saunders & Riner, 1999; Kimiecic, Horn &
Shurin, 1996; Stucky-Ropp
& DiLorenzo, 1993; Anderssen & Wold, 1992). Parents are
said to influence their
children either as models or motivationally (Stucky-Ropp &
DiLorenzo, 1993;
Anderssen & Wold, 1992). Vilhjalmlsson and Thorlindsson
(1998) also claimed that
father's, friends' and older siblings' involvement in exercise
is significantly correlated
to children's behavior. Meta-analysis about the effects of
social influences on
individuals attitudes, intention and behavior, revealed that the
influence of important
others is stronger than that of family (Carron, Hausenblas &
Mack, 1996). However,
relevant study that dealt with parental influence concluded that
children who grow up
with one or no parents adopt unhealthier lifestyle behaviors
than children who grow
up with both parents (Theodorakis, Papaioannou &
Karastogianidou, submitted).
Thus, regarding exercise, the influence of both family and peers
is clearly evident.
As far as healthy eating is concerned parental modeling is
considered the major
factor in shaping children 's behavior (Lau, Quadrel &
Hartman, 1990). Parental
influence is evident in the work of Hooper, Gruber, Munoz and
MacConnie (1996)
who studied family and school influence in the modulation of
healthy nutritional
habits and concluded that parental and school cooperation was
the most effective. It
has been also noticed that financial and social status of the
family influence children 's
nutritional habits (Neumark - Sztainer, Story, Perry &
Casey, 1999; Hupkens, Knibbe,
Otterloo & Drop, 1998). Children who lived with one of their
parents, single and
unemployed people were characterized as at-risk groups (Roux, Le
Couedic, Durand-
Gasselin & Luquet, 1999). Finally, nutritional habits are
said to be affected by
appearance, weight and peer influence (McLellan, Rissel,
Donnelly & Bauman, 1999;
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 4
Shisslak, et al., 1998), whereas family and peer influence as
models has been also
found to be related to bulimic symptoms of teenagers (Stice,
1998).
Regarding smoking, it has been reported that peer influence is
the most
influential factor, and that the closer the friends are the more
likely it is for children to
adopt similar beliefs and behaviors (Roosmalen & McDaniel,
1989). Family influence
is also recognized as important (Zhu, Liu, Shelton, Liu &
Giovino, 1996; Dusenbury,
et al., 1992), with mothers having the most significant
influence (Griesler & Kandel,
1998). In a study by Brook, Mendelberg, Galili, Priel and
Bujanover (1999), young
children whose parents were smokers were found to be more
tolerant towards
smoking compared to the ones whose parents did not smoke,
although they knew its
consequences. Children whose parents and siblings were smokers
were also found to
start smoking at an earlier age (Unger & Chen, 1999;
Roosmalen & McDaniel, 1989).
Peer influence though is claimed to be stronger than parental
(Friedman & Glassman,
2000; Dusenbury et al., 1992) and so is sibling influence
(Sugathan, Moody, Bustan
& Elgerges, 1998).
Furthermore, it has been supported that parental monitoring
(Barnes et al, 1999;
Duncan et al., 1998) and frequent conflicts between parents and
children (Duncan et
al., 1998) are related to increased use of nicotine by children,
whereas parental
supportive behavior leads to its decrease (Griesler &
Kandel, 1998). According to
Sobeck, Abbey, Agius, Clinton and Harrison (2000) it is more
possible for children
who smoke to come from families that face problems and know less
about smoking
compared to non-smokers of the same age. Finally, smoking has
been found related to
low socioeconomic family condition, poor academic performance
and ignorance (Zhu
et al., 1996).
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 5
The last behavior that this study deals with is violent
behavior. Paetsch and
Bertrand (1997) reported that the most important factor
predicting violent behavior
was peer deviant behavior. Sport activities and in a large
degree involvement in
amusement activities were positively correlated to such
behaviors, whereas
Herrenkohl, et al. (2000) reported violence to be related to
poor academic
performance. Blackson, et al. (1999) also supported that peers
and family condition
instill deviant behaviors when the environment is tolerable
towards such behaviors.
Other factors that violent behavior is likely to depend on
during adolescence are
modeling, family malfunctioning, and family separation
(Dahlberg, 1998). Family and
peer influences were also supported by Ary, Duncan, Duncan and
Hops (1999) who
claimed that family conflicts, congruous family relationship and
inadequate children
monitoring by parents play a major role in the adoption of
violent behavior.
Summarizing the above-mentioned, it is well documented that
family and peer
influence and support are important determinants of children's
behavior. The aim of
the study was first to examine how the behaviors of interest,
i.e. exercising, smoking,
healthy eating and participating in violent acts, cluster, that
is how certain behaviors
relate to each other, and second to identify the profile of
children in these clusters of
behaviors, in relation to demographic characteristics and social
influences. Given the
exploratory character of the study, no specific hypotheses were
formed regarding how
behaviors would cluster. Nevertheless, we expected that age,
gender and social
influences (family support and perceived family and peer
behavior) would be the most
crucial factors in determining the adoption of healthy and
unhealthy behaviors.
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 6
Method
Participants and procedures
Participants in this study were 3640 Greek students. Their age
ranged from 10
to 16 years. The sample was selected with a random stratified
sampling method from
85 classes of 30 elementary schools, grade 6, from 87 classes of
33 junior high
schools, grades 2 and 3, and from 86 classes of 28 high schools,
grades 5 and 6. These
schools were elected from 6 urban areas of Greece varying in
population from four
millions to seventy-five thousands residents.
The study was conducted with the permission of the ministry of
education. Ten
trained research assistants were employed in the data collection
process. Participants
were informed that questionnaires were anonymous and signed
consent forms. In their
class environment, they responded on questionnaires assessing
the examined
behaviors, family and peer influence, perceived family support,
family structure and
family income. After completing the forms children were asked to
place it in a poll.
Measures
Self-report past behaviors. The examined behaviors were four and
were
assessed by self-reported measures. The scales were adopted from
Kimiecik (1992)
and Steptoe, et al. (2002) and complied with Ajzens (2002)
guidelines for
measurement of behavior. In particular, students were asked to
indicate frequency of
the examined behaviors on six-point scales. For exercising, how
many times you
exercised intensively during the last month (none to more than
twenty times).
Participants were instructed that intensive exercise meant
taking part in physical
activities, which cause increased heart rate and sweating for
more than 30 minutes
(e.g. football, basketball, aerobic). For smoking and eating
fruits, how many
cigarettes/fruits you smoked/ate during the last week (none to
more than twenty). For
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 7
participating in violent acts, how many times you got involved
in violent acts during
the last month (none to more than ten times).
Perceived family and peer behavior. Family and peer influence
was estimated
in terms of modeling. The questionnaire used was based on prior
work by Wang,
Fitzhugh, Westerfield and Eddy (1995). Students answered 16
items regarding
perceived parents' and peer's behavior towards the examined
behaviors. Four items for
each behavior were used. More specifically students were asked
what they believed
about their parents, siblings and best friends: How often do you
think your mother/
father/ siblings/best friend exercised/smoked/ate fruits/
participated in violent action
during the previous month. Responses on these items were rated
on a 7-point scale
(never to all the time).
Perceived family support. Perceived parental support was
estimated by a
questionnaire based on prior work by Wickrama, Lorenz and Conger
(1997). It
consisted of 10 items assessing students' perception of their
parents' behavior towards
them. For example, students were asked how often during the
previous month their
parents illustrated their real interest for them, expressed
their love and affection to
them, were angry with them and so on. Reponses on these items
were rated on a 6-
point scale (never to all the time). Cronbachs alpha was
.86.
Family structure. To assess family structure, participants were
asked to
indicate whether they live with both parents, with their mother
only, with their father
only, with their grandparents, or alone. They also had the
choice to state other.
Perceived family income. Finally, regarding family income,
participants were
asked to indicate on a five-point scale whether they perceived
their family income to
be significantly above average, a little above average, on
average, a little below
average or significantly below average. They could also state
that they did not know.
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 8
Data analysis
Cluster analysis was chosen to answer the main research
question, that is whether
identifiable subgroups or profiles of children would emerge
based on variations
regarding the behaviors of exercising, smoking, eating fruits
and participating in
violent acts. A nonhierarchical clustering method was employed
(SPSS Quick
Cluster) with the squared Euclidean distance used as the
similarity measure. Before
submitting the data to the cluster procedures, all variables
were converted to z scores
in order to standardize the measurement scales and to allow the
easier interpretation
of the results. A z score value of +/-.50 was used as a
criterion for interpreting
whether individuals scored relatively higher or lower compared
to their peers on each
of the four variables.
Results
Cases with missing values on the variables of main interest
(behavioral
variables) were deleted. This resulted in a sample of 3307
children. Descriptive
statistics for all variables are presented in Table 1. Mean
scores indicate that children
scored moderately on exercising and eating fruits and low in
smoking and
participating in violent incidents. Furthermore, they scored
moderately high on
perceived family support and perceived family and peer exercise
behavior,
moderately low on perceived family and peer smoking behavior,
moderately high on
perceived family and peer eating fruits behavior, and low on
perceived family and
peer violent behavior.
Exercise was negatively, but lowly correlated with smoking (r=
-.11), and
positively but again lowly correlated with eating fruits (.20)
and participating in
violent acts (.11). Furthermore, smoking correlated moderately
(r= .36) with
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 9
participating in violent acts. Family support correlated
negatively with smoking (r= -
.32) and participating in violent acts (r= -.29). Finally,
childrens behavior correlated
with perceived family and peer behavior for all corresponding
behaviors (.23 < r <
.46). All correlations were significant at p< .001 level.
Cluster analysis
Results from the cluster analysis revealed four distinct
children profiles. Three
and five-cluster analyses were also examined, however the
four-cluster solution was
the most meaningful. Z scores, unstandardized means and standard
deviations for
each of the key variables on which participants were classified
into subgroups are
presented in Table 2.
Cluster one comprised 221 children. The unique characteristic of
this cluster
was high scores on participating in violent acts. Children in
this cluster scored high on
exercising and eating fruits, and low on smoking. Cluster 2
comprised 1272 children.
The main characteristic of this cluster was the low scores on
exercising. Children in
this cluster also scored near-zero on smoking and participating
in violent acts, and
moderately low on eating fruits. Cluster three comprised 382
children. The unique
characteristic of this cluster was the high scores on smoking.
Children in this cluster
also scored low on exercising, and participating in violent
acts, and moderately on
eating fruits. Finally, cluster four comprised 1432 children.
The main characteristic of
this cluster was the high scores on exercising in combination
with near-zero scores on
smoking and participating in violent acts. Children in this
cluster also scored
moderately high on eating fruits.
In relative terms, children in cluster one were those
participating in violent acts,
who however maintain a satisfactory level of exercise,
comparable to that of children
in cluster four who were characterised by the adoption of
healthy behaviors, and
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 10
absence of unhealthy ones. Children in cluster two, like those
in cluster four were
characterised by absence of unhealthy behaviors, however their
level of exercise was
very low, and they also had the lowest scores on eating fruits.
Finally, children in
cluster three were those who were smokers, who also had
comparatively moderate
levels of participating in violent acts and low levels of
exercising.
Cluster profiles in relation to demographic characteristics
Statistics regarding demographic characteristics of participants
falling into each
cluster are presented in Table 3. Regarding within gender
differences, the first cluster
(high violence, high exercise) included higher percentage of
boys than girls. In
particular, 11,6% of the boys and 2,3% of the girls fall in this
cluster. The opposite
was evident for cluster two (low exercise, low smoking, low
violence), which
included 29,6% of the boys and 46,2% of the girls. Gender
representation in clusters
three and four was comparable.
Regarding family structure, because the vast majority of
children were living
with both parents, children were regrouped to form two groups,
one including
children living with both parents (n= 2835) and one including
children living with one
or no parents (n= 409). Representation in clusters one and two
was similar for
children living with both parents and children living with one
or no parent. In cluster
three (high smoking) there was a higher percentage of children
living with one or no
parent. In particular, cluster three included 22,7% of children
living with one or no
parents and 9% of children living with both parents. Finally,
cluster four (high
exercise, low smoking, low violence) included 44,8% of children
living with both
parents and 33,5% of children living with one or no parent.
In relation to grade, in cluster one there was no specific
pattern regarding
representation of different grades. In contrast, obvious
patterns could be observed in
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 11
cluster two, three and four. In particular, in cluster two (low
exercise, low smoking,
low violence) and cluster three (high smoking) percentage of
membership increased
in direct relation with grade. In cluster four (high exercise,
low smoking, low
violence) the pattern was opposite with membership decreasing as
grade increased.
Finally, in relation to family income, observable differences
were revealed in
cluster three (high smoking), where the percentage of children
coming from families
with the lowest income was high (26.5%) compared to the total
(12.4%), and cluster
four (high exercise, low smoking, low violence) where the
percentage of children
coming from families with the lowest income was low (26.5%)
compared to the total
(42.6%).
Cluster profiles in relation to perceptions of social
environment
Analysis of variance was subsequently calculated in order to
examine
differences in family support and perceived family and peer
behavior among
participants falling into each cluster. The results of the
analysis and mean scores for
these variables in each cluster are presented in Table 4.
One-way ANOVA was
calculated to test for differences in family support. The
analysis revealed significant
univariate effect (F3,2118= 88.16, p
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 12
contrast, differences between clusters two/four and clusters
one/three were larger (ES
ranging from .45 to 1.01).
One-way MANOVA was calculated to examine differences between
participants in each cluster in perceived family and peer
behavior. The analysis
revealed significant multivariate effect (F12,5604= 52.18, p
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 13
Discussion
The adoption of healthy and unhealthy behaviors is a matter of
great
importance in the study of contemporary lifestyle. Children and
adolescents are a
population of particular interest, since health beliefs adopted
in early years are
indicative of later behavioral patterns. The present study
explored patterns of behavior
among adolescent Greek population and examined personal and
social factors as
likely determinants of such behavioral patterns.
Cluster profiles in relation to demographic characteristics
The first aim of this study was to identify profiles of the
Greek student
population regarding healthy and unhealthy behaviors, according
to demographic
characteristics. The cluster profile results indicate
considerable variability among
children as far as the examined behaviors are concerned. These
differences were
associated, at least partly, with age, gender, family structure
and income. In relation to
gender, the results of the present study give some interesting
information regarding
the adoption of healthy and unhealthy habits. Comparing cluster
two to cluster four it
becomes evident that among children that avoid unhealthy
behaviors, boys are more
involved in exercising than girls. Similar findings have been
reported by Anderssen
and Wold (1992) and Mota and Queiros, (1996) who found that
girls are significantly
less active than boys. Comparison of clusters one and four
reveals that among
children that exercise regularly, there is a greater number of
boys getting involved in
violent acts. This result incorporates findings from Paetsch and
Bertrand (1997) who
found involvement in sport activities being associated to
violent behavior and findings
from Herrenkohl et al. (2000) who reported male gender to be a
significant predictor
of violence. Regarding smoking and eating behavior there were no
differences
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 14
between boys and girls, in contrast to Lau et al. (1990) who
reported that girls adopt
healthier eating habits than boys.
In relation to age, the patterns that were identified are quite
worrying. It seems
that as children grow older they abandon healthy behaviors and
adopt unhealthy ones.
Similar results regarding smoking and alcohol use have been
reported by Johnston,
OMalley and Backman (2000), who found that during high school
rates of smoking
and alcohol use increase rapidly with age, whereas similar
conclusions have been
drawn by Botvin and Kantor (2000).
Family structure was another factor that seemed to influence the
adoption of
healthy and unhealthy behaviors, especially smoking and
exercising. A relatively
large percentage of children living with one or no parents are
smokers and non-
exercisers, and respectively a relatively small percentage of
those children are regular
exercisers. Similar patterns emerged for family income. However,
overall, family
income did not seem to be a very crucial factor.
Regarding aspects of family structure and its relation to
childrens behavior, the
findings of this study are in accordance with the existing
literature suggesting that
children living in single-parent families are at high risk as
far as unhealthy behaviors
are concerned (Roux et al., 1999). Shisslak et al. (1998)
reported that girls having
separated or divorced parents show at risk-levels of weight
control behaviors, whereas
Sobeck et al. (2000) found that it is more possible for smokers
to come from families
that are not congruous. Similar results have been reported
regarding drug use
(Friedman & Glassman, 2000). Finally, in relation to the
present findings, Dahleberg
(1998) reports that among the factors that increase the
possibility of violent behavior
are family malfunctioning and family disruption. Similar views
have been expressed
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 15
by Herrenkohl et al. (2000) and Blackson et al. (1999) who claim
that family conflicts
lead to violent behavior.
Overall, the demographic results of the present study indicate
that regarding
healthy behaviors, older children, children from disrupted
families, and mainly girls
can be characterized as at greater risk groups, whereas
regarding unhealthy behaviors
older children, children from disrupted families, and mainly
boys can be characterized
as at greater risk groups. However, it is also notable that
younger children,
irrespective of other variables, exhibited healthier profiles.
To our view, this finding
stresses the need to direct our attention to earlier ages where
healthy habits are still
dominant and try to improve maintenance of healthier
life-style.
Cluster profiles in relation to perceptions of social
environment
Researchers claim that the effect of social factors on the
adoption of healthy and
unhealthy behaviors are of particular importance. More
specifically, it has been
supported that childrens behavior regarding exercise, healthy
eating, smoking, and
violent behavior can be predicted by social factors, mainly
family and peer influences
(Friedman & Glassman, 2000; Herrenkohl et al., 2000;
Blackson et al., 1999; Brook et
al., 1999; Duncan et al., 1998). The second aim of the present
study, was to identify
profiles of the Greek student population regarding healthy and
unhealthy behaviors, in
relation to perceived family support and perceived family and
peer behavior.
According to the results of the present study, the role of
family support seems to
be influential in shaping behavior. A more careful examination
reveals that family
support looks more crucial in relation to the adoption of
unhealthy, rather than
healthy, behaviors. In particular, children who scored higher on
family support were
those who do not smoke and do not take part in violent acts
(cluster four and cluster
two). However, children in cluster two had the lowest scores on
exercising and eating
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 16
fruits. Moreover, children who scored lower on family support
were those who
engage in unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking and violent acts
(cluster one and
cluster three), even though they scored higher in exercising and
eating fruits
compared to children in cluster two.
Similar patterns of relationships were revealed regarding
perceived family and
peer behavior. Thus, it seems that perceptions of social
environment are more
influential in relation to the adoption or not of unhealthy,
rather than healthy,
behaviors. In relation to these results, in the literature,
there are evidence that parental
monitoring (Barnes et al., 1999; Duncan et al., 1998) as well as
frequent conflicts
between parents and children (Duncan et al., 1998) relate to
increased smoking among
children. Moreover, Grisler and Kandel (1998) suggested that
supportive parental
behavior invokes reduction of smoking. Finally, Blackson et al.
(1999) claim that
negatively perceived parental control and psychological
dominance are responsible
for violent behavior, while Ary et al. (1999) reported loose
parental control to be also
related to deviant behavior.
Overall, what seems of great importance to us is some of the
patterns that
emerged. In particular, even though clear connections between
smoking and non-
exercising were detected, the opposite was not evident, that is,
no clear pattern
between non-smoking and exercising were revealed. This lead us
to believe that
avoidance of unhealthy behaviors is not necessarily connected to
adoption of healthy
behaviors. Furthermore, the relationship between exercising and
violence indicates in
addition, that adoption of healthy behaviors is not necessarily
connected to avoidance
of unhealthy behaviors.
Considering the evidence regarding prevailing lifestyles around
the world (e.g.
Johnston et al. 2000, for the USA; Steptoe et al. 2002, for
Europe, Leslie et al. 1999,
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 17
for Australia) the need to develop health promotion programs is
universally
recognized. In accordance to health behavior theories personal
and social
characteristics are amongst the important determinants of
health-behavior. The results
of the present study can prove helpful in developing more
efficient health promotion
programs. Demographic characteristics and descriptions of social
environment can
help identify intervention targets. Furthermore, the way
behaviors cluster can help
schedule more specific intervention programs in relation to
specific groups. For
example, a program with emphasis on the importance of exercising
in maintaining
healthy life style would be more appropriate for individuals who
are not smokers but
are not physically active, whereas a program emphasizing
long-term consequences of
unhealthy life-style and benefits of healthy habits would be
more appropriate for
inactive individuals who also smoke and a program designed to
promote fair-play,
respect for team-mates and opponents and avoidance of violence
would be more
appropriate for exercisers with violent behavior. Finally, with
regard to social
environment, this should also become part of the intervention
programs with
educational programs for parents about personal behavior and
parental guidance.
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 18
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 25
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics for the examined behaviors, perceived
family support and
perceived family and peer behaviors.
Variables N Mean SD
Exercise behavior 3307 2.47 1.70
Smoking behavior 3307 .61 1.52
Eating behavior 3307 2.81 1.51
Violence behavior 3307 .46 1.23
Perceived family Support 2866 4.70 .95
Perceived family and peer exercise behavior 2532 3.26 1.18
Perceived family and peer smoking behavior 2567 2.51 1.29
Perceived family and peer eating behavior 2287 4.71 1.28
Perceived family and peer violence behavior 2560 1.63 1.13
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Table 2.
Mean scores, standard deviations and z-scores for the four
clusters.
Cluster 1 (n= 221) Cluster 2 (n= 1272) Cluster 3 (n= 382)
Cluster 4 (n= 1432)
mean s.d. z mean s.d. z mean s.d. z mean s.d. z
Exercising 3.38 1.57 .53 1.11 .95 -.80 1.93 1.82 -.31 3.68 1.13
.71
Smoking
0.25 .70 -.24 0.01 .41 -.34 4.66 .65 2.64 0.01 .26 -.38
Eating fruits 3.15 1.64 .23 2.09 1.20 -.47 2.63 1.77 -.12 3.44
1.37 .42
Participating in violent incidents 3.53 1.25 2.43 0.01 .30 -.33
1.58 1.98 .87 0.01 .20 -.45
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Table 3.
Cluster profiles in relation to demographic characteristics.
Cluster1 Cluster 2 Cluster3 Cluster 4
Gender (n= 3212)
Males 172 (11.6%) 439 (29.6%) 190 (12.8%) 680 (45.9%)
Females 39 (2.3%) 800 (46.2%) 173 (10%) 719 (41.5%)
Family structure (n= 3244)
Both parents 180 (6.3%) 1105 (39%) 279 (9.8%) 1271 (44.8%)
One or no parents 32 (7.8%) 147 (35.9%) 93 (22.7%) 137
(33.5%)
Grade (n= 3303)
Elementary school 6th grade 33 (5.3%) 177 (28.5%) 11 (1.8%) 400
(64.4%)
Junior high school 2nd grade 57 (8.2%) 215 (39.8%) 39 (5.6%) 388
(55.6%)
Junior high school 3rd grade 72 (9.7%) 279 (37.8%) 63 (8.5%) 325
(44%)
High school 2nd grade 49 (6.7%) 339 (46.2%) 136 (18.5%) 210
(28.6%)
High school 3rd grade 8 (1.6%) 261 (51.2%) 133 (26.1%) 108
(21.2%)
Family income (n= 2425)
Much below average 3 (8.8%) 13 (38.2%) 9 (26.5%) 9 (26.5%)
Below average 7 (5.8%) 50 (41.7%) 17 (14.2%) 46 (38.3)
On average 61 (5.8%) 478 (45.4%) 113 (10.7%) 402 (38.1%)
Above average 52 (6.3%) 297 (36%) 91 (11%) 385 (46.7%)
Much above average 36 (9.2%) 93 (23.7%) 71 (18.1%) 192 (49%)
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Table 4.
Mean scores on family support and perceived family and peer
behavior for the four clusters.
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster3 Cluster 4 F
Family support (n= 2866) 4.23 2,3,4 4.76 1,3,4 3.94 1,2,4 4.89
1,2,3 88,16**
Perceived family and peer behavior (n= 1873)
Exercise 3.53 2,3 2.98 1,3,4 2.71 1,2,4 3.70 2,3 74.54**
Smoking 3.03 2,3,4 2.351,3 3.63 1,2,4 2.291,3 76.80**
Eating fruits 4.524 4.63 3,4 4.16 2,4 5.051,2,3 37.14**
Participating in violent incidents 2.76 2,3,4 1.36 1,3 2.26
1,2,4 1.43 1,3 100.66**
*p < .05, **p
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Yannis Theodorakis University of Thessaly Department of Physical
Education and Sport Science 42100, Karies, Trikala, Greece E-mail
[email protected] +302431 47042 Tel +302431 470001, Trikala, 05
December 2002 To: Professor Stuart Biddle, Loughborough University,
Department of PE, Sports Science & Recreation Management,
Loughborough, Leics., LE11 3TU,
Dear Stuart
Please find enclosed 4 copies of the paper titled " CHILDRENS
PROFILE OF
HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY BEHAVIORS: DEMOGRAPHIC
CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT "
which
I submit for publication into Psychology of Sport and
Exercise.
I am looking forward to hearing from you. Sincerely yours,
Yannis Theodorakis,
Professor
mailto:[email protected]
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childrens healthy and unhealthy profiles 32
e-mail:Phone:[email protected]+ 30 24310
47001AbstractIntroductionMethodParticipants and procedures
MeasuresSelf-report past behaviors. The examined behaviors were
fourFamily structure. To assess family structure, participants
wData analysisCluster analysisCluster profiles in relation to
perceptions of social enviroDiscussionThe adoption of healthy and
unhealthy behaviors is a matter Cluster profiles in relation to
demographic characteristics
Variables
Cluster 1 (n= 221)Cluster 2 (n= 1272)Cluster 3 (n= 382)Cluster 4
(n= 1432)Cluster1Gender (n= 3212)Males
Family structure (n= 3244)Grade (n= 3303)Family income (n=
2425)Much below averageOn average
Cluster 1Family support (n= 2866)Perceived family and peer
behavior (n= 1873)Exercise
Yannis Theodorakis