CHILD PSYCHOLOGY Canadian Edition Prepared by: Kim O'Neil, Carleton University Vasta, Miller, Ellis, Younger, Gosselin Prepared by: Kim O'Neil, Carleton.

CHILD PSYCHOLOGYCHILD PSYCHOLOGYCanadian EditionCanadian Edition

Vasta, Miller, Ellis, Younger, GosselinPrepared by:Prepared by:

Kim O'Neil, Carleton University Kim O'Neil, Carleton University

Chapter 16Chapter 16Families and PeersFamilies and Peers

Theories of SocializationTheories of Socialization• EvolutionaryEvolutionary theory notes that parental and peer theory notes that parental and peer

relations are innate and reflect the evolutionary history relations are innate and reflect the evolutionary history of the speciesof the species

• Environmental/LearningEnvironmental/Learning theory focuses on theory focuses on reinforcement/punishment administered by peers and reinforcement/punishment administered by peers and parents and on peers and parents as role modelsparents and on peers and parents as role models

• Cognitive-Developmental Cognitive-Developmental theory views interaction with theory views interaction with parents and peers as crucial to cognitive developmentparents and peers as crucial to cognitive development

• SocioculturalSociocultural approaches suggest that parents and approaches suggest that parents and peers nurture social develop when they provide peers nurture social develop when they provide experiences that are within the child’s zone of proximal experiences that are within the child’s zone of proximal developmentdevelopment

Parenting StylesParenting Styles• Two dimensions of parenting areTwo dimensions of parenting are

– Parental warmthParental warmth refers to the amount of support and refers to the amount of support and affection a parent gives to a childaffection a parent gives to a child

– Parental controlParental control refers to the degree to which a child is refers to the degree to which a child is supervised and regulated by the parentsupervised and regulated by the parent

• Mixing these dimensions yields four stylesMixing these dimensions yields four styles– Authoritative: High warmth and controlAuthoritative: High warmth and control– Authoritarian: Low warmth and high controlAuthoritarian: Low warmth and high control– Permissive: High warmth but low controlPermissive: High warmth but low control– Uninvolved: Low in warmth and controlUninvolved: Low in warmth and control

• The role of ethnicity/culture, fathers and child The role of ethnicity/culture, fathers and child temperament must be considered when examining temperament must be considered when examining parenting styles and outcomesparenting styles and outcomes

Siblings and GrandparentsSiblings and Grandparents• Relationships between siblings can range from Relationships between siblings can range from

close and supportive to distant and hostile (close and supportive to distant and hostile (sibling sibling rivalryrivalry))

• Child temperament and parental influence can Child temperament and parental influence can affect the quality of the relationshipaffect the quality of the relationship

• Siblings can be a positive influence in developmentSiblings can be a positive influence in development• Grandparent’s roles range from occasional Grandparent’s roles range from occasional

companion to primary caregivercompanion to primary caregiver• Extended familiesExtended families are associated with positive are associated with positive

developmental outcomesdevelopmental outcomes

The Changing Canadian FamilyThe Changing Canadian Family• Most research on development in children has Most research on development in children has

been conducted using traditional family structures been conducted using traditional family structures (2 parents, 2 children, 1 job)(2 parents, 2 children, 1 job)

• Children are now more likely to experienceChildren are now more likely to experience– Single parent homesSingle parent homes– AdoptionAdoption– Gay/lesbian parentsGay/lesbian parents– Mothers who work outside the homeMothers who work outside the home– Older parentsOlder parents– Blended families via divorceBlended families via divorce– Fewer siblingsFewer siblings

The Changing Canadian FamilyThe Changing Canadian Family

• While research has found an association between While research has found an association between divorce and adoption and negative developmental divorce and adoption and negative developmental outcomes, whether earlier research will hold up in outcomes, whether earlier research will hold up in these new family settings is to be determinedthese new family settings is to be determined

Peer Relation DynamicsPeer Relation Dynamics

• Relations with peers depend on the age of the Relations with peers depend on the age of the childchild– Amount of time spent with peers increases as the Amount of time spent with peers increases as the

child ages, while the amount of time spent with child ages, while the amount of time spent with adults decreasesadults decreases

• Infant peer relations are object-centred, usually Infant peer relations are object-centred, usually around a toyaround a toy

• Peer relations during Peer relations during preschool periodpreschool period are are organized around playorganized around play

Types of PlayTypes of Play• Functional playFunctional play refers to simple repetitive motor refers to simple repetitive motor

movements performed with or without objectsmovements performed with or without objects– Shaking a rattle; jumping up and downShaking a rattle; jumping up and down

• Constructive playConstructive play refers to manipulation of objects refers to manipulation of objects with the intention of creating somethingwith the intention of creating something– Building a tower of blocksBuilding a tower of blocks

• Pretend playPretend play refers to the use of an object or person refers to the use of an object or person to symbolize something that it is notto symbolize something that it is not– Pretending that a log is a boatPretending that a log is a boat

• Games with rulesGames with rules are played in accordance with are played in accordance with prearranged rules and limitsprearranged rules and limits– Playing hopscotchPlaying hopscotch

Peer Relation DynamicsPeer Relation Dynamics• In later childhood, groups develop as crucial for In later childhood, groups develop as crucial for

peer relationspeer relations– GroupGroup refers to a collection of persons who refers to a collection of persons who

interact regularly in a consistent structured interact regularly in a consistent structured fashion, who share common values, and a sense fashion, who share common values, and a sense of belonging to the groupof belonging to the group

– Clique Clique refers to a group of 5 – 10 friends whose refers to a group of 5 – 10 friends whose shared interests and behaviour patterns set them shared interests and behaviour patterns set them apart from othersapart from others

– Group membership alters peer relationsGroup membership alters peer relations• The Robbers Cave experimentThe Robbers Cave experiment

Peer InfluencePeer Influence• The impact of peer influence on behaviour can The impact of peer influence on behaviour can

vary with:vary with:– TimeTime: Peer influence peaks in adolescence and : Peer influence peaks in adolescence and

declines thereafterdeclines thereafter– Area of lifeArea of life: Peers are more important for issues : Peers are more important for issues

relating to clothing and music while parents are relating to clothing and music while parents are more important for issues relating to academic more important for issues relating to academic planning and occupational choicesplanning and occupational choices

– The childThe child: Some children are resistant to peer : Some children are resistant to peer influence while others areinfluence while others are sensitivesensitive

Cognitive Factors for Peer RelationsCognitive Factors for Peer Relations

• Perspective takingPerspective taking refers to the ability to adopt the refers to the ability to adopt the view of another personview of another person

• Social cognitionSocial cognition refers to the level of thought used refers to the level of thought used by a child in reference to othersby a child in reference to others

• Social problem-solving skillsSocial problem-solving skills refer to the skills refer to the skills needed to resolve social dilemmasneeded to resolve social dilemmas

FriendshipFriendship

• Friends are more than just peersFriends are more than just peers• Friendship refers to an enduring relationship Friendship refers to an enduring relationship

between two persons that is characterized bybetween two persons that is characterized by– LoyaltyLoyalty– IntimacyIntimacy– Mutual affectionMutual affection

Determinants of FriendshipDeterminants of Friendship• SimilaritySimilarity is a key factor for understanding is a key factor for understanding

formation of friendshipsformation of friendships– Similarity inSimilarity in age age– Similarity in Similarity in gendergender– Similarity in Similarity in racerace– Similarity in Similarity in behaviours and interestsbehaviours and interests

• Stability of friendships is related toStability of friendships is related to– Age: Stability increases as children get older Age: Stability increases as children get older – Environment stabilityEnvironment stability

Friendship FormationFriendship Formation

• John GottmanJohn Gottman conducted an intensive study of conducted an intensive study of friendship formation in children (ages 3 – 9)friendship formation in children (ages 3 – 9)

• Gottman noted several factors that Gottman noted several factors that distinguished children who became friends from distinguished children who became friends from those who did notthose who did not– More common-ground activity (agreement on More common-ground activity (agreement on

what to do)what to do)– Greater skill at resolving conflictGreater skill at resolving conflict– Better at exchanging informationBetter at exchanging information– Engaged in more self-disclosureEngaged in more self-disclosure

Behaviour with FriendsBehaviour with Friends• Friends exhibit differences, relative to non-Friends exhibit differences, relative to non-

friends, in:friends, in:– Prosocial behaviourProsocial behaviour: Friends share, cooperate, : Friends share, cooperate,

and offer more help to friends than non-friendsand offer more help to friends than non-friends– ConflictConflict: Friends differ not in the amount of : Friends differ not in the amount of

conflict with each other, but rather are better at conflict with each other, but rather are better at resolving the conflictresolving the conflict

– Collaborative problem-solvingCollaborative problem-solving: Friends pool : Friends pool resources to solve issues resources to solve issues

– IntimacyIntimacy: Friends are more likely to share : Friends are more likely to share feelingsfeelings

PopularityPopularity• PopularityPopularity refers to how well liked a child is refers to how well liked a child is

within a peer groupwithin a peer group• Measuring popularityMeasuring popularity

– Sociometric techniquesSociometric techniques• Nomination techniqueNomination technique: “Tell me the names of : “Tell me the names of

three kids in the class that you like.”three kids in the class that you like.”• Rating scale techniqueRating scale technique: The child is asked to rate : The child is asked to rate

each classmate on a 5-point scale each classmate on a 5-point scale • Paired comparison techniquePaired comparison technique: The child is : The child is

presented with the names of two classmates at a presented with the names of two classmates at a time and asked to pick the one that he/she likes time and asked to pick the one that he/she likes betterbetter

Ratings of PopularityRatings of Popularity• Popular Popular Children: Liked by many, disliked by fewChildren: Liked by many, disliked by few• Rejected Rejected Children: Disliked by many, liked by fewChildren: Disliked by many, liked by few

– Many children in this category are characterized by Many children in this category are characterized by aggressive, antisocial, and inappropriate aggressive, antisocial, and inappropriate behavioursbehaviours

• Neglected Neglected Children: Largely ignored by peersChildren: Largely ignored by peers– Many children in this category are characterized as Many children in this category are characterized as

being shy and withdrawnbeing shy and withdrawn• Controversial Controversial Children: Are liked Children: Are liked andand disliked by disliked by

manymany

Determinants of PopularityDeterminants of Popularity

• Birth orderBirth order: Last-born children are more popular : Last-born children are more popular than first-born childrenthan first-born children

• Intellectual abilityIntellectual ability: Academic performance : Academic performance correlates with sociometric measures of popularity correlates with sociometric measures of popularity

• Physical attractivenessPhysical attractiveness: Relatively attractive : Relatively attractive children are more popularchildren are more popular– Unattractive children may be unpopular in part Unattractive children may be unpopular in part

because of their negative behavioursbecause of their negative behaviours

Family and PeersFamily and Peers• Family experiences influence a child’s Family experiences influence a child’s

behaviour with friendsbehaviour with friends– Relationships with siblings can impact later Relationships with siblings can impact later

social interactions with friendssocial interactions with friends– Secure attachment relationships with parents Secure attachment relationships with parents

can have a positive impact on peer relationshipscan have a positive impact on peer relationships– Frequency and nature of peer relationships can Frequency and nature of peer relationships can

be dictated by parental influencebe dictated by parental influence– Positive parenting practices (warmth, support, Positive parenting practices (warmth, support,

positive discipline, positive role modelling) are positive discipline, positive role modelling) are associated with positive social skills in the childassociated with positive social skills in the child

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