following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk Evidence from the first sweeps of the UK Millennium Cohort Study and the US Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Danielle A. Crosby and Denise D. Hawkes 28 th November 2006 Child Cognitive Outcomes and Early Maternal Employment in the UK and US
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Child Cognitive Outcomes and Early Maternal Employment in the UK and US
Child Cognitive Outcomes and Early Maternal Employment in the UK and US. Evidence from the first sweeps of the UK Millennium Cohort Study and the US Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Danielle A. Crosby and Denise D. Hawkes 28 th November 2006. Outline of Presentation. Research questions - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Evidence from the first sweeps of the UK Millennium Cohort Study and the US Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
Danielle A. Crosby and Denise D. Hawkes
28th November 2006
Child Cognitive Outcomes and Early Maternal Employment in the UK and US
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Main Research Question Interested in the impact of early maternal employment on child
cognitive development
HOWEVER: Which mothers are employed? What are the characteristics of those who return to employment? Are these different from those who do not return to employment? Do these differences explain the difference in child outcomes
observed?
Therefore this paper will consider firstly the determinants of maternal employment and then taking these determinants into account the impact of early maternal employment on child cognitive development
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
The impact of government policy
One of the possible determinants of early maternal employment especially in the early months of life is government policies such as: Maternity Leave/Paternity Leave Child care provision Flexible working agreements/Parent friendly practices
The UK and the US have very different policy settings which could be exploited
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
UK Policy Context Statuary Maternity Leave
First 4 months statutory maternity pay and an additional 3 months unpaid job protected leave for mothers who have completed one year full service.
Statuary Paternity Leave 2 weeks paid leave
Sure Start government programme aimed at bring together, early
education, childcare, health and family support through their children’s centres which are mainly located in disadvantaged areas in England
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UK Policy Context Cont. New Deal
This is an active labour market programme of intensive careers advice and application support followed by possibly education/training or subsidised job.
Benefits Tax Credits
Working Families Tax Credit Children’s Tax Credit and Working Tax Credit
European Laws European Working Time Directive European Social Charter
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US Policy Context
Parental Leave Policies 12 weeks of unpaid, but job-protected, leave Leave may be used for the birth of a child; adoption of a
child; the illness of a spouse, child or parent; or, the employee’s own health condition.
Employers may require that workers use any vacation or sick leave time they have as part of the 12 weeks.
Employers may deny leave to highest paid 10% of its work force (“key” employees) if leave would create problems for the firm
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US Policy Context Head Start
Head Start provides a full range of services (including nutritious meals and snacks, immunizations, and opportunities for parental involvement) to disadvantaged children.
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program Strongly employment orientated
Earned Income Tax Credit, Child Care Tax Credit No guarantee of child care assistance to any groups
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What do these different policy contexts suggest?
In UK those in employment before the birth of their child are likely to return to employment 4-7 months after the birth of their child There maybe interesting differences with the UK as only
England has Sure Start In US all mothers are likely to return to employment
quickly after the birth of their child There may be interesting differences with the US as
state level provisions may vary
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Millennium Cohort Study The MCS is a nationally-representative sample of
18,818 babies within 18,552 families The cohort members were born in the UK between
September 2000 and January 2002 and were living in selected UK wards at age 9 months
The sample was drawn to over-represent those who live in areas of high child poverty, areas of high concentrations of ethnic minorities and the Celtic countries of the UK
The first sweep was undertaken when the cohort members were 9 months old
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort The ECLS-B is a nationally-representative sample of
14,000 children within 10,221 families The cohort members were born in the US during the
year 2001 The sample was drawn to over-represent those who
are Asian and Pacific Islander children, American Indian and Alaska Native children, Chinese children, twins, and low and very low birth weight children.
The first sweep was undertaken when the cohort members were 9 months old
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Comparability of StudiesSimilarities
Both surveys are large, longitudinal studies that follow a cohort of children born in 2000/2001.
In both surveys, the first sweep was undertaken when the cohort members were 9 months old.
Both datasets have a wealth of comparable information on the child, their family situation and their local neighborhood to draw on as possible correlates of early maternal employment. Data come from surveys, observations, and direct assessments.
Both datasets attempt to over-represent ethnic minority children (ECLS-B directly, MCS by area)
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Comparability of StudiesDifferences
The MCS will follow cohort members through out their lives, designed as a a multi-purpose, multi-disciplinary dataset to “lay the foundation for future follow-ups of the cohort (and) develop links with other data sources”
The ECLS-B will follow cohort members until age 5-6 years, designed to consider “children's health, development, care, and education during the formative years from birth through kindergarten entry”
The MCS over samples those in areas of high child poverty whilst the ECLS-B also over samples twins and low birth weight children
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Determinants of early maternal employment model
whereemp is a dummy for whether the mother has returned to work by the time the cohort child is 9 monthschild is a selection of child characteristics‘ for example being the first born childmother is a selection of mother characteristics’ for example their level of educationfamily is a selection of family characteristics’ for example if they live in owner occupied accommodationregion is a set of regional dummiespartner is a set of partner characteristics’ for example if the partner is employed – in the subgroup analysis of couples only
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MCS Descriptive Statistics – Month of employmentFor Natural Mothers
0-3 months 6% 11%
4-5 months 24% 50%
6-9 months 19% 39%
Not by 9 months 51% -
Observations 18389 8369
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Child Characteristics’ First born 0.84
(0.74 - 0.96)**
Multiple birth 0.56
(0.38 - 0.83)**
Low birth weight 0.81
(0.66 - 0.99)*
Interviewed at 8 months 0.85
(0.65 - 1.11)
Interviewed at 11/12 months 0.90
(0.69 - 1.18)
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Mother Characteristics’
Most likely to enter employment by 9 months if: between 20-34 years old at the time of birth hold qualifications black ethnic group not Pakistani or Bangladeshi AND if employed one year prior to birth of the cohort
child
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Family Characteristics’ Partnership status: reference married
Single 0.51
(0.43 - 0.60)**
Cohabiting 1.03
(0.92 - 1.15)
Number of other children in the household 0.93
(0.86 - 0.99)*
Co-resident grandparents 1.51
(1.28 - 1.78)**
Living in owner occupied housing 1.63
(1.45 - 1.85)**
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Region
London mothers are the least likely to enter employment by nine months
Mothers in the West Midlands and Yorkshire & Humberside are the most likely to enter employment by nine months
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Subgroup Analysis 1
Single mothers only: Key determinants to entering employment are: if not first
birth, older than 19, qualifications, employment one year prior, co-resident grandparent, and owner occupied
Partnered mothers only: Key determinants to entering employment are: as for
single mothers plus if not multiple birth and if under 35 In addition partner characteristics include: if father
qualified to at least NVQ 3 (A-Levels)
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Subgroup Analysis 2
Wenters only: Key determinants to entering employment are: under
35, qualifications, not Pakistani or Bangladeshi and not single
Returners only: Key determinants to entering employment are: as
wenters plus if not first birth, if not a multiple birth, older than 19, Black, co-resident grandparent, and owner occupied
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Subgroup Analysis 3
Whites only: Key determinants to entering employment are: if first
born, if not a multiple birth, over 19, qualifications, partnered, co-resident grandparent, owner occupier
Non whites only: Key determinants to entering employment are: if over
35, qualifications, cohabiting, no other children in the household, owner occupier
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Types of Jobs the MCS mothers enter Flexible working available
86% Part time work 36% Job share 42% Flexitime 22% Work at home 38% Special shifts
7954 observations
Family Friendly Policy 6% Childcare vouchers 10% Work nursery 6% Other childcare support 77% Time off for family
reasons 41% Paternity leave 34% Parental leave 57% Telephone for family
7954 observations
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Child cognitive outcomes & maternal employment
wherecogout is the standarised BAS or Bracken score at 3 years oldemp is a two dummies for whether the mother has returned to work full time/part time by the time the cohort child is 9 monthsccare if two dummies for any formal/informal child care used in the first 9 monthschild is a selection of child characteristics‘ for example being the first born childmother is a selection of mother characteristics’ for example their level of educationfamily is a selection of family characteristics’ for example if they live in owner occupied accommodationregion is a set of regional dummies
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Early employment and developmental measures at 9 months for MCS
Those who have return to part time or full time employment relative to those who have not worked in the first 9 months of their child’s life report significantly: more likely their children sleep through the night more likely their children can sit up more likely to be able to pass things from hand to hand less likely to nod
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Early employment and cognitive measures at 3 years old for MCS
BAS Bracken
Mean
(Conf. Interval)
Mean
(Conf. Interval)
Full Time by 9 months
29.5
(24.9 , 34.2)
33.0
(26.1 , 39.8)
Part Time by 9 months
26.9
(22.8 , 31.1)
22.4
(16.9 , 27.9)
Not employed by 9 months
-0.05
(-0.10 , 0.01)
-0.05
(-0.10 , 0.01)
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Bracken
Just considering employment
Controlling for childcare & selection
variables
Reference: no employment by 9 months
Part-Time 0.29
(10.8)
-0.05
(1.5)
Full-Time 0.37
(11.6)
-0.08
(2.4)
Observations 12664 12664
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BAS
Just considering employment
Controlling for childcare & selection
variables
Reference: no employment by 9 months
Part-Time 0.34
(12.7)
-0.0004
(0.01)
Full-Time 0.34
(10.6)
-0.03
(1.0)
Observations 13294 13294
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Outline of Presentation
Research questions Why an international comparison? Data Model of early maternal employment Results of determinants of early maternal employment Model of child cognitive outcomes Results of child cognitive outcomes Challenges of comparing these datasets
following lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.ukfollowing lives from birth and through the adult years www.cls.ioe.ac.uk
Challenges of comparing these datasets
The potential impacts of the differences in survey designs, aims and purposes
The challenge of lining up outcomes and predictors that are comparable, yet also meaningful and culturally relevant to the particular society from which the data come
In future work the challenge of incorporating the policy variables into the model.
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