Charcoal analysis and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France

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Journal of Archaeological Science xx (2006) 1e17http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

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Charcoal analysis and dendrology: data from archaeologicalsites in north-western France

Dominique Marguerie a,*, Jean-Yves Hunot b

a CNRS, Archaeology and Archaeosciences (UMR C2A), University of Rennes 1, Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes Cedex, Franceb Archaeological Service of Maine-et-Loire (SDA), 114 rue de Fremur, 49000 Angers, France

Received 24 May 2006; received in revised form 14 September 2006; accepted 31 October 2006

Abstract

During the last 15 years, charcoal analysis of archaeological sites in north-western France has been carried out in conjunction with systematicand detailed dendrological examination. By considering these extrinsic criteria in association with the analytical results, palaeo-ethnographic andpalaeo-environmental information can be obtained. The charcoals are classically identified under the microscope on the basis of their cellularstructure. This examination is associated with an observation of the ligneous structure on transverse sections using a binocular lens. Whencharcoal fragments are large enough, the growth ring widths are measured. Tree ring curvature is also noted. Finally, alteration by fusion orradial cracks, the presence of fungal hyphae, and insect degradation are also recorded. Results are thus obtained on the nature of fuel usedin domestic fireplaces and kilns. The selection of timbers and their catchment areas are also revealed. The average width of the growth ringsin oak charcoal from domestic hearths coming from about forty sites in north-western France shows a significant increase from 6000 to2000 BP. There is a similar increase in the number of heliophilic taxa used from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. This implies that the environmentbecame more and more open because of use by society. The interpretation of the dendrology results applied to charcoal analyses is obtainedthrough a convergence of criteria. Thus, charcoal analysis can provide more than just an identification of the species used, and can yieldfundamental information on the interaction of society with the environment.� 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Charcoal; Dendrological analysis; Archaeology; Palaeo-environment; Palaeo-ecology; Palaeo-ethnography; North-western France

1. Introduction

During prehistoric times, societies established an economybased on firewood. Therefore, charcoal analysis is an efficientapproach for studying the relationship between people and theenvironment, reflecting the customs and techniques of man-agement of ligneous vegetation. The collection of wood relatesback to the knowledge of its physical properties or to anattitude motivated by traditions. However, the environmentalconditions are decisive in controlling the availability and qual-ity of any exploitable ligneous biomass. Charcoals are

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 2 23 23 56 77; fax: þ33 2 23 23 69 34.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. Marguerie),

[email protected] (J.-Y. Hunot).

0305-4403/$ - see front matter � 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.032

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excellent indicators of exploited environments and the vegeta-tion that developed within them.

1.1. Brief history of anthracology

The first identifications of charcoals were carried out usingsamples from archaeological sites in Switzerland, Germanyand Hungary during the 19th century. In France, the forerun-ners of anthracology were Dangeard (1899) and Fiche (Breuil,1903).

The application of episcopic microscopy to charcoalanalysis led to the analysis of large quantities of charcoals(Dimbleby, 1967; Fietz, 1933; Stieber, 1957; Western, 1963).

The first global studies on prehistoric charcoals of an-thropic origin were carried out in the south of France, and later

sis and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France, J.

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2 D. Marguerie, J.-Y. Hunot / Journal of Archaeological Science xx (2006) 1e17

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in Spain by Vernet (1972) and his students. More recently,charcoal analysis has been used to study the relationshipbetween humans and forests through the economy of fuel.Methods used for the study of firewood economy are in con-stant progress and many archaeological contexts are now stud-ied. In this spirit, charcoal analysis of archaeological sites innorth-western France has been systematically carried out forabout 15 years using detailed dendrological examination(Marguerie, 1992). Marguerie and Hunot supplemented thetaxonomic identification of charcoals by the study of ringsas well as the origin and state of the wood before carboniza-tion, thus providing palaeo-ecological and palaeo-ethnologicalinformation. This approach was referred to as a ‘‘dendrotypo-logical’’ study by Billamboz (1987, 1992), who applied it towaterlogged woods of the lake-dwelling settlements of theBodensee (Germany). He highlighted the first models ofNeolithic forestry economy. This kind of approach was takenup again and developed in the Paris Basin (Bernard, 1998).More recently, Bernard et al. (2006) worked on the effect oftrimming and pruning on ligneous productivity by studyingthe radial growth of deciduous oaks.

However, an anecdotal application of dendrology to char-coals has existed for a long time. Around 1930, Guinier beganthe analysis of charcoals from the Mesolithic site on TeviecIsland in Brittany (France) and, several years later, on thenearby Hoedic Island (Pequart and Pequart, 1954; Pequartet al., 1937). At these sites, Guinier recorded the presence oftwigs, branches and trunks of oaks and Pomoideae. Further-more, he noticed that several oak charcoals had marks oflopping. Salisbury and Jane (1940) studied a large numberof charcoals from Neolithic and Iron Age layers from MaidenCastle in Dorset (U.K.). They measured nearly two thousandgrowth rings of oak and hazel charcoals and compared theresults with the annual rings from recent specimens of thesame species to obtain ‘‘evidence regarding the climatic con-ditions of the past by means of the width of the annual rings’’.In the cave of Lascaux (Dordogne, France), Jacquiot (1960)systematically observed the aspect of rings of the charredwood. In this way, he obtained information about climate, den-sity of forests and diameters of wood used.

In her analysis of charcoal from the Neolithic sites ofClairvaux-Les-Lacs (Jura, France), Lundstrom-Baudais(1986) developed a method to evaluate the maximum diameterof wood used based on the observation of tree ring curvature.After Lundstrom-Baudais, Dufraisse (2002) analysed thering curvature of samples from the lake-dwelling sites ofChalain and Clairvaux to estimate the calibre of woods con-verted into charcoals. In Cabrieres (Southern France), usingconstruction wood (16th c.), observation and measurementof ring curvature were used to calculate the minimum diame-ters, with oak samples having the greater dimensions. By con-trast, the samples with bark came from small twigs of coppice(Durand, 2002). In the study of the historic charcoal kiln sitesin the Southern Black Forest and Bavarian Forest (Germany),Ludemann and Nelle (Ludemann and Nelle, 2002; Nelle,2002) used a diameter stencil to estimate the originalminimum diameter of the charcoal pieces.



Over a few years, dendrological analysis applied to carbon-ized wood became increasingly employed and concerned notonly charcoals coming from archaeological sites but also thosefound in natural soils (Begin and Marguerie, 2002).

The aim of this paper is to present methods used fordendrological studies of wood charcoal and give examples ofpalaeo-ecological and palaeo-ethnographical results obtainedby dendro-anthracology in north-western France during thelast 15 years.

2. Methods

There are numerous origins of charcoals from archaeo-logical sites (Fig. 1):

e domestic fire places,e craft combustion structures such as kilns,e post-holes, pits or ditches,e archaeological layers,e burnt objects.

After sampling with the surrounding sediment, the char-coals are classically identified on the basis of their cellularstructure under a reflected light microscope. To this determina-tion, we add a systematic examination of the ligneous structureon transverse sections using a binocular lens (magnification 7to 90�). This dendrological approach gives valuable data foraiding identification of the part of the woody plant the char-coals came from, recording the growth ring width, ascertainingthe state of the wood before carbonization and about visibleworking marks where possible. A coding grid table is com-piled for all transverse sections of charcoal samples of suffi-cient surface area having a readable record (Table 1) (Fig. 2).

2.1. Charcoal state

2.1.1. Presence of bark and pithFor fragments having both bark and pith, it is possible to

measure a complete radius and estimate the calibre of thestem from which it came (Fig. 2A). Evidently, it is necessaryto take into account the reduction of size caused by combus-tion (see Section 2.3.1).

2.1.2. Presence of reaction woodReaction wood can be observed in a branch or leaning trunk

(Fig. 2B). To avoid drooping under their own weight, thesestems develop eccentric growth (Wilson and White, 1986;Zobel and Van Buijtenen, 1989). In reaction wood, the wallsof the tracheids are thick and show radial grooves on theirinner surfaces. In longitudinal sections of the charcoal frag-ments, they appear as conspicuous parallel striations obliquelyaligned to the cell axis, commonly at an angle of about 40e45�,thus forming helices around the cell. These features are clearlyvisible in the coniferous charcoals. The observation of reactionwood in charcoals indicates the origin of the fragments withinthe tree. Associated with strong ring curvature, this criteriondemonstrates that the charcoal originates from a branch.


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2

4

1

3

6

5

Fig. 1. Origins of charcoals at an archaeological site. (1) domestic fire places; (2) craft combustion structures; (3e5) post-holes, pits, ditches; (6) archaeological

layers.

2.1.3. Presence of tylosesIn the transition zone between sapwood and heartwood, liv-

ing cells of axial or ray parenchyma adjacent to vessels maygrow out through the pits into the vessel cavity, forming tylo-ses (Fig. 2C). When this phenomenon becomes intense, thevessel cavity may become filled with a close-packed cellularstructure, blocking it completely (Wilson and White, 1986).These extensions of the parenchyma cells, mutually com-pressed into irregular prismatic shapes, are very clearly visibleunder the light microscope. In charcoals, the tyloses are refrac-tive. Such features can be readily observed in oak. This type ofsystematic observation indicates that the charcoals werederived from heartwood.

Please cite this article in press as: Marguerie, D., Hunot, J.-Y., Charcoal analys


2.1.4. Presence of fungal hyphaeIn longitudinal sections of vessels, white filaments can

sometimes be observed (Fig. 2D). These correspond to fungalhyphae that penetrate into the dead or dying wood under aer-obic conditions from fungus living on the surface. The fungalattack takes place over several hours or days in the parts of thewood not protected by bark. This process is all the more rapidwhen temperatures are high (in summer) and when woodhumidity is about 70-90% (Schweingruber, 1982). This obser-vation gives information about the state of wood before car-bonization. It is rare or impossible to find hyphae in theheartwood of oak and some other species with numeroustyloses.

Table 1

Example of coding grid for dendro-anthracological analysis

Sample

no.

Code Species No.

of

rings

Total width

of rings

(mm)

Rings

bendingaCarboni-

zationbHyphaec Insect

degradationcPithc Barkc Tylosesc Reaction

woodcWorking

markscComments

1 1 Quercus sp. 5 4.74 1 1 1

2 1 Quercus sp. 15 10.23 1 1 1 1 1

3 10 Juglans sp. 2 1

4 9 Fagus sylvatica 1 1

5 3 Corylus avellana 12 6.76 2 1 1

6 27 Ilex aquifolium 7 3.12 3 2 1

a 1 ¼ low curve rings; 2 ¼ intermediate curve rings; 3 ¼ strong curve rings.b 1 ¼ radial cracks; 2 ¼ low brilliance; 3 ¼ strong brilliance.c 1 ¼ ‘‘yes’’.

is and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France, J.


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Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrographs showing systematically observed dendrological criteria. (A) Stem of archaeological charred oak (Quercus sp.) with bark and

pith; (B) coniferous charcoal (Picea mariana) with reaction wood in tracheids; (C) tyloses in archaeological oak heartwood charcoal; (D) fungal hyphae in vessels

of charred oak sapwood; (E) tunnels of wood-boring insects or woodworms in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris); (F) radial cracks in a white spruce charcoal (Picea

glauca); (GeI) different degrees of vitrification in archaeological charcoals; (J, K) different tree ring curves in archaeological charred oaks: (J) weakly curved

rings, (K) moderately curved rings; (L) large rings and narrow rings in archaeological oak charcoal; (M) working mark on a charcoal from an incense-vase.

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2.1.5. Presence of insect degradationIn some charcoals, tunnels are sometimes observed

(Fig. 2E). Dimbleby (1967) mentioned that, in some Neolithiccharcoals, irregular patterns of large holes could result fromsome wood-boring insect or woodworm degradation. Some-times, it is possible to find beetles within these channels.Even when the animal is not preserved inside, the aspect ofthe channels can nevertheless indicate, not without some diffi-culty, the species of insect or worm that lived there (Sermentand Pruvost, 1991). The presence of many such channels incharcoals is a good indicator of the combustion of drifteddead wood. In their study of charcoals from Maiden Castle(Dorset, U.K.), Salisbury and Jane (1940) mentioned that thewood employed was ‘‘dead wood rests’’ because the charcoalscontained ‘‘bore-holes filled with carbonized frass’’, the resultof the activity of ‘‘beetle larvae of the type which attack deadand not living wood’’.

2.1.6. Presence of radial cracksRadial cracks are often common in charcoals (Fig. 2F).

Their frequency depends on the anatomy of the wood (morefrequent in the case of dense and large rays), the location inthe wood (less frequent when close to the pith), the level ofwood dampness (consequence of the discharge of ‘‘closedwater’’) and temperature (Thery-Parisot, 2001). According toPrior and Alvin (1986), the carbonization of watterloggedwood favours a substantial increase in the number of radialcracks.

2.1.7. Presence of vitrification featuresThe vitrification of charcoals corresponds to a variable

fusion of anatomical constituents within the wood, leadingto homogenisation of the structure that makes identificationimpossible when the process reaches its final stage. Thevitrified charcoals become very dense and refractive with‘‘sub-conchoidal’’ fractures. Many stages of alteration byfusion are known, ranging from a still- recognisable anatomi-cal structure to a dense mass, completely molten and non-determinable (Fig. 2GeI):

e low brilliance-refractiveness (degree 1),e strong brilliance (degree 2),e total fusionddense, non-recognisable mass (degree 3).



The fusion may be associated with radial cracks. Vitrifica-tion often affects small pieces of wood such as twigs. Rapidcombustion at high temperatures frequently causes tissuedeformation, fissures and fusion (Schweingruber, 1982). But,more generally, this alteration of the anatomical structure byfusion may result from specific conditions of combustion or ta-phonomy, and can reveal the state of the wood before combus-tion. There appear to be numerous types of conditionsaffecting fusion, and many anthracologists are currentlyattempting to understand this phenomenon in all its aspects.

2.2. Evaluation of growth-ring curvature

The evaluation of tree-ring curvature (and the angle of therays) enables us to identify which part of the tree was used.For example, a weak or smooth curve corresponds to thetree trunk (Fig. 2J), while a strong or marked curve corre-sponds to the branches (Fig. 2K).

The ring curvature is estimated according to a standardclassification: with a constant magnification and using a trans-parent test card placed on top of or under the fragment (Fig. 3).To apply this method, it would appear necessary to havea minimal tangential width of charcoal of around 3 to 4 mmto estimate the approximate parallelism of rays, or a radiallength of 5 mm to estimate the curvature of the rings. Theseminimal conditions are not necessary when the fragmentshave both pith and bark and therefore correspond to a branchor twig.

Charcoals are divided into four groups, which exhibit:

e strongly curved rings,e moderately curved rings,e weakly curved rings (at this observation scale, the rings

seem ‘‘straight’’ and the rays parallel),e indeterminate curvature (on fragments without minimal

conditions).

While such an approach reveals trends, it is not a measure-ment of the diameter of the wood, but merely a characterization.In one case, it was possible to measure the wood section (wherepith and bark appear together in a charcoal; see Section 2.1.1).More generally, abundant charcoals with strongly curved ringsin one sample indicate the use of small calibre wood or

Fig. 3. Test card for evaluation of tree-ring curvature.



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branches. On the other hand, the predominance of charcoalswith weakly curved rings suggests the use of large calibrewood such as trunks or large branches. Finally, by combiningthe criteria of ring- curvature and the presence of bark, pithor reaction wood, it is possible to demonstrate the use ofbranches.

2.3. Growth ring width

2.3.1. Measurement of growth ring widthWhen charcoal fragments were large enough, we systemat-

ically measured the growth ring widths (Fig. 2L). The averagegrowth ring width can provide information on the growingconditions of the trees:

e narrow rings correspond to restrictive growing conditions,e large rings indicate favourable growing conditions.

The average growth ring widths were only measured oncharcoal samples with a weak curvature of rings (derivedfrom trunks or large branches, far away from the pith), andwith regular width rings. This measurement was indeedimpossible on branches or small stems with eccentric growthbecause of the development of reaction wood. The ring widthsare thus highly variable on two opposite rays. Furthermore, therings near the pith are always thicker than the outer rings. Intheir response to Salisbury and Jane’s paper (1940), Godwinand Tansley (1941) put forward serious criticisms about themethod of handling the tree-ring data obtained from speci-mens of young stems. They considered it was imprudent to ig-nore ‘‘the progressive diminution of tree-ring width with theage of the tree’’. They suggested that comparison of ringwidths is ‘‘valid only for the outer rings of large trees’’.

2.3.2. Intra-site frequency distribution of thecharcoal ring-widths

In one sample of charcoals, an average ring width wascalculated for each charcoal sample of readable and measur-able rings. Thus, we obtained as many average width valuesas measurable charcoals. This procedure minimizes theinfluence of extreme values and reveals trends in the growthof woods.

A bar chart is used represent these measurements by classesof 0.25 mm or 0.5 mm for each taxon and for each sample ofcharcoal. Measurements were mainly performed on sampleswith substantial numbers of charcoals (>50 fragments withmeasurable rings). If not, there would be an excessive riskof taking exceptional rings into account.



It is interesting to characterize the distribution of thesevalues for each taxon within a site and note their approximatedispersion using descriptive statistics. A unimodal distributionof these classes is interpreted as indicative of a homogeneousstand or a single tree (Fig. 10a). On the contrary, a multimodaldistribution is interpreted as a heterogeneous community oftrees or several populations (Fig. 10c).

Finally, it is possible to produce growth curves for largecharcoals that contain dozens of rings. This method, for exam-ple, allows us to ensure that charcoals come from a single treeand assemble fragments with the same ring-width patternscoming from the same stand (Morgan, 2000).

2.3.3. Validity of the growth-ring width measurementmodified by carbonization

Combustion processes have some effects on the morphol-ogy of the wood. While the size and shape of wood constitu-ents can vary, the qualitative anatomical characteristics remainthe same (Beall et al., 1974). The deformation of the charcoalmicrostructure varies with wood species. The loss of 70e80%of the substance of the wood causes a shrinkage of 7e13%longitudinally and 12e20% radially/tangentially. The cellwall is reduced to 1/5e1/4 of its original thickness (Schweing-ruber, 1982).

In 1940, Salisbury and Jane converted recent specimens ofhazel stems into charcoal and measured the width of theannual rings both before and after carbonization using varioustechniques (slow and rapid combustion). These authors con-cluded that the widths were ‘‘not significantly different what-ever method was employed to produce the charcoal’’(Salisbury and Jane, 1940). Based on these data, it wouldappear possible to measure the radial growth that can beobserved on transverse sections of a charcoal and comparethese measurements from one charcoal to another. In anycase, the present study does not aim to compare the absolutevalues measured on charcoals with data obtained from freshor waterlogged wood.

In practice, we were able to measure the average ring-widthwith an electronic calliper or a dendrochronological digitalpositioning table (accuracy: 0.01 mm) by examining the ligne-ous structure of charcoals on transverse sections with a binoc-ular lens. To compare these two methods of measuring theaverage ring width, we measured 161 fragments of oak char-coals (834 growth rings) from a Roman archaeological site(Allonnes, Sarthe). The extremely close similarity of resultsobtained shows that it is not possible to favour one of thesemeasuring systems above the other (Table 2).

To improve our knowledge of the growth conditions, it is be-coming increasingly necessary to measure systematically

Table 2

Comparison of two dendrological measuring systems for growth ring width

Mean

(mm)

Standard

deviation

Min.

(mm)

Max.

(mm)

N charcoals N rings

Electronic calliper 1.64 1.14 0.2 6.53 161 834

Dendrochronological table 1.65 1.29 0.17 6.31 147 521



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AtlanticOcean

MediterraneanSea

100 km

Rennes

Caen

Angers

Nantes

Vannes

Quimper

Brest Saint-Brieuc

Sites with:

0 50 100 Km

Domestic fireplaces

Other structuresKilns

Laval

Fig. 4. Location map of the study sites.

Erdeven F1Erdeven F2Loc EG C5Loc EG C8

Loc TDM F5Bilgroix

Rouick F1Ernes Ee21Ernes Ff26

Cairon St11Condé St19Condé St21

Condé Sub101Mez Notariou

Kersigneau C4Kersigneau C5

Ebihens C2Pont-l’Abbé 438Pont-l’Abbé 387

0 80% 10 0 900 300 800 900 40

Pinus s

ylves

tris

Quercu

s sp.

Quercu

s / C

astan

ea

Fagus

sylva

tica

Ulmus

sp.

Carpinu

s betu

lus

Corylus

avell

ana

POMOIDEAE

Genist

a sp.

Ulex sp

.

Betula

sp.

Prunus

sp.

Acer c

ampe

stris

Frangu

la aln

us

Salix s

p.

Indete

rmina

ble

Fraxinu

s exc

elsior

Tinténiac TF

Fig. 5. Percentage charcoal diagram for domestic fireplaces of north-western France. Upper diagram: Neolithic structures; lower diagram: Iron Age structures;

black dots correspond to sparsely occurring taxa (�1%).

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Erde

ven

F1

Erde

ven

F2

Loc

EG C

5

Loc

EG C

8

Loc

TDM

F5

Bilg

roix

Rou

ick

F1

Kers

igne

auC

4

%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Erde

ven

F1

Erde

ven

F2

Loc

EG C

5

Loc

EG C

8

Loc

TDM

F5

Bilg

roix

Rou

ick

F1

Mez

Not

ario

u

Kers

igne

auC

4Rings curvature

A

B

Iron AgeNeolithic

Neolithic Iron Age

Weakly curvedModerately curvedStrongly curved

Rings curvatureWeakly curvedModerately curvedStrongly curved

Fig. 6. Calibre of wood in Neolithic and Iron Age domestic fireplaces of north-western France (A: oak; B: all woody plant species).

within the growth ring of a charcoal (i.e. the width of early andlate wood, vessel area, vessel density, frequency of rays, etc.).Such measurements should be automated as much as possibleto facilitate the acquisition of results on many charcoals.From this perspective, and following an initial study by Vernetet al. (1983) on ring morphology in olive tree charcoals, Terral,1999, 2002) used an eco-anatomical approach with morpho-metric analyses of wooden archaeological material to deter-mine the origin of cultivation of olive trees and grapevines inthe western Mediterranean region.

3. Results

Examples of dendrology applied to anthracology are takenfrom the studies of sites located in north-western France,most of these being located in Brittany. Around seventy archae-ological sites have now been studied in this area (Fig. 4).



3.1. Palaeo-ethnographic information

3.1.1. Fuel

3.1.1.1. Fuel from domestic fireplaces. We considered the con-tents of charcoals from twenty domestic fireplaces situated at12 archaeological sites in Brittany and Normandy (Fig. 4).They correspond to Neolithic burial sites or rural settlementsof the Iron Age (Marguerie, 2003).

The studied fireplaces contain wood representing from oneto nine taxa. Oak is found in 14 of the structures (Fig. 5). From48% to 100% of oak charcoals in Neolithic fireplaces hadweakly curved rings and originated from wood of large cali-bre. On the other hand, in the only example from the IronAge where we could carry out this kind of examination, theoak charcoals have strongly curved rings in 89% of cases(Fig. 6A). Taking all the taxa together, the Neolithic structures



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contain wood of large or medium calibre. On the contrary,charcoals from the two Iron Age structures are of smallcross-section (Fig. 6B). During the Iron Age, the use of stemswith small cross-section was also the consequence of exploit-ing shrubs and small trees.

3.1.1.2. Fuel of kilns. The anthracological study of craft struc-tures is based on material from 12 settlements (Fig. 4). Thearchaeological sites dated chronologically from the secondIron Age to the late Middle Ages. Twenty combustion struc-tures were studied. They can be categorized into four groupsof kilns: ceramic or tile, glass, metal and lime (Marguerie,2002).

A taxonomic richness factor from one to seven is observedin the studied sites (Fig. 7). The tree ring curvature systemat-ically observed indicates that the oak charcoals in craft struc-tures originated from large-diameter timber (Fig. 8). In thecase of the beech charcoals, fragments in the pottery kilnsalso came from tree trunks. Some oak and beech charcoalsfrom the pottery kiln of La Haute-Chapelle display radialcracks (13.5%). On the contrary, such features are totally ab-sent from the oak charcoals of the lime kilns of Jouars.

Shrubs or small trees such as hazel, Pomo€ıdeae, Prunus,birch, maple, broom and alder provide high flames over a shorttime when tied up into bundles. The ‘‘big fire’’ obtained in thisway produces a high temperature. Gallo-Roman potters usedsome plant materials with fast combustion, such as straw,reed, heather, bark or pine cones, to obtain a high and veryhot flame yielding a rapid rise in temperature. When addedto the ‘‘small fire’’, this additional plant-based fuel produced



the ‘‘big fire’’ needed for the main firing process (Brongniart,1977; Le Ny, 1988; Pillet, 1982).

The cellular tissue of some oak (15%) and beech (23%) char-coals found in the metal kilns of La Bazoge had been molten(vitrified). In the bell kiln of Ambon, more than 50% of oakcharcoals were ‘‘ vitrified ’’. The molten or vitrified featuresof some oak and beech charcoals suggest that some metal kilnscould use burning charcoal and not exclusively wood. This hy-pothesis must be tested by identifying the origin of the processinvolved the vitrification of charcoals. The vitrification processis not yet well understood and its association with burning char-coal not clearly established. For the metalworking craft indus-try, the heat needed to be stable and intense.

In the ‘‘Ambroise Pare’’ site (Rennes), the excavation ofa Roman kiln has yielded oak charcoals produced from largebranches (Guitton et al., 2002). The majority of these haveweakly curved rings and an average age of 15 years. They areassumed to be contemporaneous, representing the last phaseof the kiln activity. For some of the charcoals, it was possibleto measure the growth ring widths using a dendrochronologicaltable (Lintab Rinntech). Matching the average dendrochronol-ogy curve for Ambroise Pare (M1: 36 years long), whichgroups together nine curves, was facilitated by the presenceof one charcoal of the same length (AP13: 36 rings) anda fall in growth rate visible at the beginning of many sequences(Fig. 9). The ring-width patterns of these carbonized woods areso similar that they probably came from the same tree.

3.1.1.3. Fuel in incense-vases. Charcoals in incense-vasesfrom Anjou were derived from oak branches. This was

0 90% 30 80 20 30 10

A

B

C

D

Fig. 7. Percentage charcoal diagram for kilns of north-western France (A: ceramic or tile kilns; B: glass kiln; C: metal kilns; D: lime kilns). Black dots correspond

to sparsely occurring taxa (� 1%).



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probably a result of the over-exploitation of forests aroundAngers over many centuries during Medieval times. Thewood of oak represented from 90% to 100% of the remainscontained in 70 vases dating from the Middle Ages to Mod-ern times. The presence of bark and pith together, associated

0102030405060708090

100

0102030405060708090

100

0102030405060708090

100

0102030405060708090

100

Tres

sé

Trém

entin

es

Cha

rtres

Roc

he-M

abile

Hau

te-

Cha

pelle

Vann

es

%%

%%

APottery kilns

La Bazoge Plélan Ambon Cesson

AMetal kilns

Jouars Touffreville

Rings curvature

ALime kilns

Chartres Roche-Mabile

Haute-Chapelle

Vannes

BKilns


Fig. 8. Calibre of wood in Neolithic and Iron Age kilns of north-western

France (A: oak; B: beech).



with a strong curvature of rings points to the use of smalltwigs (Hunot, 1992, 1996) (Fig. 10). Moreover, the workingmarks on several suggest the use of coppicing wood(Fig. 2M).

3.1.2. Timber: example of the Neolithic settlements of LaHersonnais

The site of La Hersonnais (Plechatel, Ille-et-Vilaine) hasprovided a great number of charcoals coming from the timbersof different late Neolithic settlements (Tinevez, 2004). Eachbuilding is surrounded by an enclosure. They belong to thelate Neolithic period, and it is possible to follow their architec-tural evolution from the 27th to the 26th century BC (Bernardand Thibaudeau, 2002) (Fig. 11).

The studied charcoals come from post-holes and ditches(Marguerie and Thibaudeau, 2004) (Fig. 12). The wooden su-perstructures were made from pieces taken from largebranches or trunks of oak. The majority (74.4%) of oak char-coals from all the studied samples show a weak ring curva-ture. The charcoals of others species came from pieces withmedium to small calibre. This is also the consequence ofthe morphology of the smaller trees or shrubs from whichthey came.

Very few charcoals of oaks (38/1959) from building A andenclosures B and C have insect tunnels. Combined with thefrequent observation of tyloses in vessels, this result indicatesthe preferential use of heartwood for construction.

Oak has excellent mechanical properties. In north-westernEurope, it is the building material par excellence. The den-sity and the mechanical qualities vary greatly depending onthe proportion of latewood in the total width of a ring(Zobel and Van Buijtenen, 1989). The thick annual growthsare of high density and are best suited to resist the staticand dynamic forces experienced. These woods are difficultto work and have large shrinkages. In contrast, medium an-nual growths (less than 2 mm) correspond to mechanicallyweaker and softer woods, which are easer to work andhave small shrinkages. Trees with such wood have evenand straight trunks that are ideal for obtaining long beams(C.T.B.A., 1989; Rameau et al., 1989; Sell and Kropf,1990).

At La Hersonnais, oaks with slow growth were used. Thiswas the case within any given architectural group, with a greatsimilarity between timbers from the building and the enclo-sures. There was no significant difference according to the Stu-dent t-test, except for group B where the average widths areclearly greater in the fences (Sokal and Rholf, 1981). The treeswith narrow rings, and probably with long, straight and regulartrunks, were probably chosen owing to the large size of thebuildings.

3.1.3. Catchment areasFor La Hersonnais, we systematically analysed the

distribution of oak ring widths wherever possible. Owing tothis method, it was possible to assess the homogeneity orheterogeneity of the sample as well as the supplier areas(Fig. 13).



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The histogram of classes drawn up for building A showsa very well classified normal distribution, which is unimodallycentred on the value 1.25 mm (M ¼ 1.30 mm, s ¼ 0.49,N ¼ 486 charcoals and 5193 rings). The oaks used comefrom a single homogeneous population (Fig. 13A).

At Saint-Symphorien (Paule, Cotes-d’Armor), thesediments filling the underground passage (P1555) duringthe second half of the 5th century BC contain charcoalsof oak with a large average ring width (M ¼ 2.78 mm,standard deviation ¼ 1.41, N ¼ 59 charcoals and 363 rings),showing a scattered and multimodal distribution from 1.01

AP12position 12

Gro

wth

ring

wid

th

AP14position 11

AP15position 12

AP11position 7

AP5position 7

AP2position 11

AP8position 10

AP7position 9

AP13position 1

AP.M1

40 Years

Pith1mm

Fig. 9. Ring-width patterns of nine large oak charcoals from ‘‘Ambroise Pare’’

site (Rennes).



to 7.25 mm (Fig. 13B). The woods of these mixedfires came from different areas with different growingconditions.

In the Carolingian settlement of Talvassais at Montours(Ille-et-Vilaine) (Cattedu, 2001), oak charcoals correspondingto the first stage of the use of the domestic kiln (St. 629) havering widths with a strongly scattered distribution from 1.71 to7 mm (Fig. 13C). The average width is 3.32 mm with a stan-dard deviation of 1.12 mm, calculated on 74 charcoals and327 rings. This sample contains seven charcoals with veryhigh growth rate. In this case, charcoals seem to have comefrom different areas or from the middle of a dense forest outto its open edge.

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%

Weight Fragments

Rings curvature of oak

Oak with strongly curved rings


NoBark & PithPith onlyBark only

Taxa contentsOthers 6 woodyspeciesOak

A

B

C

Fig. 10. Anthracology and dendrology of charcoals from four incense-

vases from La Haye-aux-Bonshommes (Avrille, Anjou), grave HB1/US60

(15th C.).



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A

C

B

D

Fig. 11. Plan of buildings and enclosures at the Neolithic site of La Hersonnais (Plechatel, Ille-et-Vilaine). (From Tinevez, 2004).

3.2. Palaeo-environmental information

In forest ecology, incremental variations in wood may beinterpreted using a complex series of parameters: adaptationof the tree to the location, availability of water and nutrients,tree spacing, attack by pathogenic organisms and climate(Gassman, 1999; Otto, 1994; Schweingruber, 1988; Wilsonand White, 1986; Zobel and Van Buijtenen, 1989). In 1983,Heinz carried out a palaeo-dendroclimatological analysis bymeasuring the widths of tree rings on charcoals of Juniperus(Heinz, 1983).

Along with environmentally induced variations in woodformation, we consider the effect of spacing within commu-nities on wood properties, as shown by the examples givenbelow. Differences in spacing have a considerably effect oncompetition between trees, such as through the availabilityof moisture and nutrients (Otto, 1994). Recently, Carrion(2003) carried out a dendrological analysis of charredmaterial from the wooden support structure of the Neolithicdolmen of Tres Montes (Navarra, Spain). This author



measured tree growth rings in charcoals of Juniperus, thushighlighting the exploitation of two different stands as wellas the impact of climatic variations and human activitiesaround the site.

Following many studies in the north-western France cover-ing the postglacial period, during which climatic variationswere too weak to modify clearly the average radial growthof the trees, we conclude that the average annual growthrate provided by the dendrological analysis of charcoals aboveall reflects the density of the stands.

At the Neolithic site of La Hersonnais, the different settle-ment complexes were not contemporaneous. The stratigraphicstudy carried out during the excavation, as well as the typolog-ical criteria and the relative dating of the structures, all suggestthat the oldest building was structure A, followed in order byB, C and D (Fig. 11).

In this case, anthracology may provide information aboutthe environmental context and the structure of surroundingwoodlands. The increase of the average ring width over thestudied time interval reflects forest degradation and the



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0 90% 10

Building A

Building B

Building C

Building D

Enclosure A

Enclosure B

Enclosure C

Quercu

s sp.

Ilex a

quifo

lium

Carpinu

s betu

lus

Ulmus

sp.

Corylus

avell

ana

Acer c

ampe

stris

Betula

sp.

POMOIDEAE

Cornus

sp.

Prunus

sp.

Genist

a sp.

Fraxinu

s exc

elsior

Alnus s

p.

Salix s

p.

Indete

rmina

ble

Fig. 12. Percentage charcoal diagram for buildings and enclosures of La Hersonnais (Plechatel, Ille-et-Vilaine). Black dots correspond to sparsely occurring taxa

(�1%).

evolution of woodland potential around the site. It seems thata single forest was exploited throughout the occupation of thesite. Following the same pattern, buildings became smaller andthe walls, previously made of big oak posts, were replaced bythinner wattle walls.

The samples of oak charcoal have an average ringwidthdmeasured on 1501 fragmentsdthat varies between1.26 and 1.94 mm. This average value increases from groupAeB to group D (Fig. 14). The Student t-test shows that thedifference between A and B is not significant and that oaksused for the construction of these two groups probably camefrom the same ecosystem. Between the groups A and C, andbetween B and C, the average values are significantly differentat a 99% confidence level.

The narrowness of oak rings in groups A and B indicatesthe existence of dense supplier forests. Then, the increase ofthe average width observed during the development of occupa-tion over the next century informs us about the opening up ofthe forest, leading to a damaged formation of scattered andisolated large trees.

From woods designated for the construction of buildings,we can interpret the dendro-anthracological data in terms ofpalaeo-ecology. The growing proportion of heliophilic species(birch, hazel, maple, broom, etc.) used during the differentphases of occupation of the site follows the clearing of the en-vironment and the greater availability of these species aroundthe settlement (Fig. 12).



In north-western France, the average width of the growthrings in oak charcoal from domestic hearths, coming fromabout 40 sites and 55 samples, shows a significant increasefrom the Neolithic to the end of the Iron Age. Linearregression analysis gives a relationship between time (t years)and ring width ( y mm) that can be expressed asy ¼ 0.0028t þ 1.2682 (r ¼ 0.57) (Fig. 15A).

The graph shows the average width of growth rings ob-served, along with the standard deviation. Two sets of samplesare quite clearly contrasted:

e width of about 1.5 mm during the middle Neolithic period,corresponding to narrow rings,

e width of about 2.4 mm during the Iron Age, with a largedispersion of values, corresponding to wide rings ingeneral.

The increase in oak ring width and the greater dispersion ofthe values suggests a clearing of the forest between these twoperiods. This observation supports the increasing taxonomicrichness and abundance of recorded heliophilic taxa amongthe charcoals from domestic fires, some of which are charac-teristic of heathland (Fig. 15B). This phenomenon is the resultof an increasing exploitation of the forest (Gaudin, 2004). Atthe same time, there is evidence for the development of helio-philic vegetation over time. During the establishment of Neo-lithic peoples in north-western France, trees with low growth



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were the first to be felled or collected as deadwood withindense forest. With the considerable growth of human popula-tion in north-western France during the Late Iron Age(Audouze and Buchsenschutz, 1989), wood collection led tosignificant deforestation and people made use of numerousdifferent varieties including many heliophilic species. How-ever, the Iron Age corresponds to a period of developmentof regressive heathland in Brittany. Similarly, we can observemore frequent use of oak firewood of small diameter frombranches or young trees.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 - 0

.25

0.25

- 0.

50.

5 - 0

.75

0.75

- 1

1 - 1

.25

1.25

- 1.

51.

5 - 1

.75

1.75

- 2

2 - 2

.25

2.25

- 2.

52.

5 - 2

.75

2.75

- 3

3 - 3

.25

3.25

- 3.

53.

5 - 3

.75

3.75

- 4

4 - 4

.25

4.25

- 4.

54.

5 - 4

.75

4.75

- 5

5 - 5

.25

5.25

- 5.

55.

5 - 5

.75

5.75

- 6

6 - 6

.25

6.25

- 6.

56.

5 - 6

.75

6.75

- 7

7 - 7

.25

ALa Hersonnais A

mm

N charcoals

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 - 0

.25

0.25

- 0.

50.

5 - 0

.75

0.75

- 1

1 - 1

.25

1.25

- 1.

51.

5 - 1

.75

1.75

- 2

2 - 2

.25

2.25

- 2.

52.

5 - 2

.75

2.75

- 3

3 - 3

.25

3.25

- 3.

53.

5 - 3

.75

3.75

- 4

4 - 4

.25

4.25

- 4.

54.

5 - 4

.75

4.75

- 5

5 - 5

.25

5.25

- 5.

55.

5 - 5

.75

5.75

- 6

6 - 6

.25

6.25

- 6.

56.

5 - 6

.75

6.75

- 7

7 - 7

.25

BSaint-Symphorien 1555

mm

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

0 - 0

.25

0.25

- 0.

50.

5 - 0

.75

0.75

- 1

1 - 1

.25

1.25

- 1.

51.

5 - 1

.75

1.75

- 2

2 - 2

.25

2.25

- 2.

52.

5 - 2

.75

2.75

- 3

3 - 3

.25

3.25

- 3.

53.

5 - 3

.75

3.75

- 4

4 - 4

.25

4.25

- 4.

54.

5 - 4

.75

4.75

- 5

5 - 5

.25

5.25

- 5.

55.

5 - 5

.75

5.75

- 6

6 - 6

.25

6.25

- 6.

56.

5 - 6

.75

6.75

- 7

7 - 7

.25

CLa Talvassais 629

mm

Fig. 13. Different bar charts of the ring-widths of charcoals A: unimodal fre-

quency distribution, La Hersonnais, building A. B: multimodal frequency dis-

tribution, Saint-Symphorien, P 1555. C: bimodal frequency distribution,

Talvassais, St. 629.



The dendrological analysis of various samples of Medievaland post-Medieval charcoals from the Anjou region, near An-gers (Fig. 4), reveals large variations in the average ring width.We were unable to detect any chronological trend. Thecharcoals collected from the fireplaces of the Dark agesarcophagus quarry of Doue-la-Fontaine yield an averagering width of 2.33 mm (standard deviation ¼ 0.96, Ncharcoals ¼ 93). By contrast, oak charcoals from the mortarof the abbey church of Fontevraud (early 12th century) havean average width of 1.20 mm (standard deviation ¼ 0.43, Ncharcoals ¼ 197). The various results in space and time overthis region point out a Medieval landscape where dense forestscoexisted with over-exploited open zones.

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

A B C1 C2 DC3

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

A B C1 C2 D

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

A B C D

Buildings

Enclosures

Groups

Wid

ths

of o

ak c

harc

oals

ring

s (m

m)

Wid

ths

of o

ak c

harc

oals

ring

s (m

m)

Wid

ths

of o

ak c

harc

oals

ring

s (m

m)

Fig. 14. Evolution of average ring widths of oak charcoals within architectural

groups of La Hersonnais.



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6000 5700 5400 5070 4770 4470 4170 3870 3570 3270 2970 2670 2370 2070 1770 BP

N taxa

mmA

B

ρ = 0.57

ρ = 0.49

5

4

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

3

2

1

0

2

Fig. 15. Average widths of the growth rings of oak charcoals (A) and number of taxa (B) found in domestic fires from western France from the Neolithic to the Iron

Age (horizontal axis is time scale).

4. Conclusion

The application of dendrochronological methods supple-ments the analysis of charcoals. We can interpret the resultsof dendrology applied to charcoal analysis through a conver-gence of criteria, without taking into account the small varia-tions found in some of the parameters. This new tool incharcoal analysis is more than just an identification of thespecies or genus used, since it provides fundamental data ongathering modes, fuel economy, types of supplier areas, timberselection, catchments areas and, of course, the environment.By considering these extrinsic criteria in association with theanalytical results, we can obtain palaeo-ethnographic andpalaeo-environmental information.

In north-western France, our work in this field over manyyears has led to information of an ethnographic and environ-mental nature on a local and regional scale.

In the study of fuel used in domestic and craft combustionstructures, dendrology provides us with information aboutthe calibre and state of the wood chosen for combustion.These studies of kilns show that craftsmen chose theirwood fuel according to the wood’s technical characteristics.Similarly, detailed examination of woodwork from the Neo-lithic site of La Hersonnais allows us to assess its prove-nance, initial calibre and rate of growth. On wood withporous zones, such as oak, growth rate confers the particular



technical properties that would be appreciated by Neolithicbuilders.

From a palaeo-environmental point of view, the informationobtained at La Hersonnais, based on measurements of theaverage radial growth rate of oaks used in the various con-struction phases, concerns the evolution of the forest environ-ment exploited around the site and its progressive degradation.From the systematic measurement of the average ring-widthsof oak charcoals on forty sites in north-western France, weare able to distinguish two states of the forest environment:tree cover remained dense during the Neolithic, but wasdegraded and varied during the Late Iron Age.

Palaeo-environmental interpretations based on the measure-ment of growth-ring width in charred and fragmented materialare only valid only when applied to large charcoals (with weakring curvature) belonging to the same taxon in the same geo-graphical area and ecological setting, while also coming fromthe same archaeological context (i.e. domestic fire places) andsize of wood.

The next step in this application of dendrology to anthracol-ogy will be to increase the precision of the wood anatomyobservations. It is important to distinguish the phenomena re-sponsible for a given width of ring. The morphometric analysisprovides valuable information on the conditions affectinggrowth, such as climate, local conditions, cultural uses,domestication, tree treatments, etc.



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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Drs. V. Bernard, Y. Le Digol,and N. Marcoux for their collaboration in the laboratory ofAnthracology and Dendrochronology in Rennes and to J. LeLannic for his assistance in the Scanning Electron MicroscopeLaboratory of the University of Rennes 1 (C.M.E.B.A.).M.S.N. Carpenter post-edited the English style.

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Charcoal analysis and dendrology: data from archaeological sites in north-western France

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