Characterization of Indigenous Chicken Products and Productivity in Malawi

CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIGENOUS CHICKEN PRODUCTS AND

PRODUCTIVITY

STEWARD FELIX CHIKOM OLA

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF

SCIENCE IN ANIMAL SCIENCE

Lilon gwe Univers i t y o f Agr icu l tu re and Natural Reso urces

Bunda Col l ege Campus

P . o box 219

Li lon gwe

May, 2014

ii

APPROVAL

We certify that the material presented in this research is the result of the Steward Felix

Chikomola’s own work and that it has not been submitted for any award at any tertiary

institution.

This research report is submitted with our approval

SUPERVISOR : …………………………… ….……………………

Mr. T. Sanudi and Mr. W. Mvula

DATE : ………………………………………………………....

HAIR OF DEPARTMENT : …………………………………………………………

Dr Fanny Chigwa

DATE : …………………………………………………………

DEAN OF FACULTY : ………………………………………………………..

DATE : …………………………………………………………

iii

DECLARATION

This is to declare that the work presented in this project report is that of my own and I

have not submitted previously to the Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural

Resources or any establishment for a degree. All other sources of information have been

acknowledged by means of references.

SIGNED : …………………………………………………………………………

Steward Felix Chikomola

DATE : …………………………………………………………………………

iv

DEDICATION

This paper is dedicated to my mum for the love, my brother and sisters for the financial

support and words of encouragement towards my studies.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My foremost gratitude and indebtedness goes to the Maker of the universe, the

Almighty Jehovah. He is the one who gave me the strength and wisdom, due to

His abundant mercy and loving kindness, to complete this work.

The first person I would like to acknowledge and express my sincere appreciation to, is

my supervisor, Mr. T. Sanudi who did not only supervise my work. He was always there

for me concerning this research work. And also my regards goes to my tutor Mr. W.

Mvula, who was also there for me when I need help and for the courage he render to

me. I pray and hope that God will reward them.

I highly acknowledge the financial support and experimental materials from

InCIP Team that contributed to the completion of my work.

“Knock and it shall be give onto you” James 1:5.

vi

CONTENTS

Approval ........................................................................................................................ ii

Declaration .................................................................................................................... iii

Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iv

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ v

Contents ........................................................................................................................ vi

Tables .......................................................................................................................... viii

Figures ........................................................................................................................... ix

Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... x

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... xi

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background Information. ............................................................................... 1

2 Literature review .................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Productivity of the different IC ecotypes ....................................................... 3

2.1.1 Eggs per Clutch and Number of clutches per year................................... 3

2.1.2 Hatchability .............................................................................................. 3

2.2 Egg composition ............................................................................................ 4

2.3 Albumen (Egg white) ..................................................................................... 4

2.4 Nutritive value ............................................................................................... 5

2.5 Albumin ......................................................................................................... 5

2.6 Globulin ......................................................................................................... 6

3 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 6

3.1 Overall objective ............................................................................................ 6

3.1.1 Specific Objectives .................................................................................. 6

4 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................... 7

4.1 Study Area ..................................................................................................... 7

4.2 Experimental design, treatments .................................................................... 7

vii

4.3 Hatchability measurement ............................................................................. 7

4.4 Separation of Albumin and Globulin Proteins ............................................... 8

4.5 Protein concentration determination procedure ............................................. 8

4.5.1 Sample Solution preparation .................................................................... 8

4.5.2 Reading the absorbance of the solutions .................................................. 9

5 Results and discussion ......................................................................................... 10

5.1 Production Performance of different IC ecotypes........................................ 10

5.2 Albumin Protein Concentration ................................................................... 12

5.3 Egg weight effect on Albumin Concentration ............................................. 12

5.4 Egg weight effect on Globulin Concentration ............................................. 12

6 conclusion and recommendations ........................................................................ 17

6.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 17

6.2 Recommendation ......................................................................................... 17

7 References ............................................................................................................ 18

viii

TABLES

Table 2-1: Ranges in chemical composition of the edible portions of eggs .................. 5

Table 4-1: Protein concentration determination procedure............................................ 8

Table 5-1: Production Performance of IC (Mean ± SE) .............................................. 11

Table 5-2: Egg weight effect on Albumin and Globulin Concentration ...................... 13

Table 5-3: Albumin and Globulin Concentration Percentage between phenotypes .... 14

ix

FIGURES

Figure 5-1: Protein Concentration in IC Phenotypes ................................................... 15

Figure 5-2: Albumin and Globulin Concentration of IC Phenotypes .......................... 16

x

ACRONYMS

ANOVA : Analysis of Variance

BA : Black Australorp

CRD : Complete Randomised Design

FAO : Food and Agricultural Organization

IC : Indigenous Chicken

InCIP : Indigenous Chicken Improvement Programme

USDA : United State Development Agencies

Kaphulusa : Multicolored

Mawanga : Spotted

Katsumba : Crested hair

xi

ABSTRACT

CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIGENOUS CHICKEN PRODUCTS AND PRODUCTIVITY

Chikomola Steward

The study was conducted to characterise existing Indigenous Chicken (IC) phenotypes

at Bunda College in Malawi. The objectives of this study was to characterise egg

albumin and globulin in IC phenotypes. 200 birds were collected from Mzimba and

Lilongwe and brought to Bunda where they were allowed to breed to phenotype. 10

eggs from 6 IC phenotypes (Naked Neck, Normal black, Kaphulusa, Spotted, crested

hair and Frizzled) raised under the same management) were collected for egg white

characterization and productivity traits data was also collected to calculate the

productivity of each phenotype. For comparison purposes, eggs from Black Australorp

were also collected. The results of the study showed that different IC phenotypes have

different protein fraction concentrations. Crested hair was found to have higher

significant amount of protein 0.8386g/ml (p<0.005), also higher albumin fraction

(0.4203g/ml) compared to others despite having almost equal quantities of the

fractions. Frizzled was found to contain medium protein and albumin quantities, the

Normal black being the least significant different (p<0.005) in both protein and

albumin concentration, 0.1915g/ml, 0.1400g/ml respectively. Based on the results IC

can also be characterised using the productivity (Table 5-1), where it has shown that

different IC phenotypes have different productivity performance. It is concluded that

the Kaphulusa being the best IC phenotypes since it has a higher significant (p<0.005)

value of hatchability percentage (71%) and number of eggs per clutch (14) despite

having least significant value on the egg weight compared to others. According to

Benarjee, 1998 reported that hatchability and number of eggs per clutch determine the

rate of productivity. Therefore it is important to consider hatchability and a number of

eggs per clutch in order to increase productivity.

Key words: Indigenous Chicken, ecotypes, characterization, productivity, albumin

& globulin

1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information.

Indigenous chicken (IC) (Gallus domesticus) production represents an important system

for supplying resource poor rural households in Africa (Gondwe and Wollny, 2005)

with high quality protein by consuming eggs or meat (FAO, 2012) and income from

sales of eggs and birds, like many developing countries. Data on livestock populations

in Africa show that chicken population is the highest (Sonaiya et al. 1998). Poultry

production in Malawi largely depends on IC providing almost 75-80% of animal protein

in rural communities. (GONDWE and WOLLNY 2005). Despite their low productivity,

indigenous chicken are known to possess desirable characteristics such as thermo-

tolerance, resistance to some diseases, good egg and meat flavour, presence of hard egg

shells, high fertility and hatchability as well as high dressing percentage (Aberra 2000).

The origin of each strain or ecotype is the product of mutation, genetic drift, adaptation

and evolution with differing selection pressures imposed by climate, endemic parasites,

and diseases, available nutrition and selection criteria imposed by man (MOREKI,

Dikeme et al. 2010). As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals

with a world population of more than 50 billion in 2012 there are more chickens in the

world than any other species of domestic bird (Ed, 2003). Malawi has an estimated

poultry population of 58 million, of these, 70 million (44 %) are free-ranging (FAO

2011- 2012). Poultry keeping is especially attractive to poor households as they require

low start-up capital, low maintenance costs, and small space requirements (Welsh,

1986)

As a food eggs, are utilized as hard/soft cooked eggs, frozen scrambled eggs, omelets

and egg patties. The chicken egg is of high nutritional value to man that is mainly

attributed to the egg albumen and egg yolk which are edible components. (ECY and

C.P 1995). There is an increasing preference of eggs and meat from IC than from exotic

broilers and layers due to its strong texture and flavor (Welsh, 1986).

An average chicken egg comprises of the albumen (60%), yolk (30%) and

shell/membrane (10%). Egg albumen (also called egg white or glair) is a clear liquid

contained within the egg. It is formed by secretions of anterior section of a hen’s oviduct

2

during the passage of the egg yolk. Egg white consists of about 90% water and 10%

proteins (albumin and globulin). Egg white contains less or even no fats and

carbohydrates content is less than 1%. In an average egg, it makes up to 50% of the

protein. (Cantani 2008)

The primary function of the egg albumen is to protect the egg yolk and provide nutrition

for a growing embryo. The egg yolk is the yellow spherical part of an egg surrounded

by the albumen. It has a high fat value unlike the egg albumen. The egg yolk is

suspended in the albumen by one or two spiral bands of tissue called the chalazae.

Despite the increasing demand for IC products, consumer preferences in terms of

quality remain unknown. Similarly, the quality of products (egg and meat) from IC is

unknown. The IC subsector has been neglected for a long time and therefore their

potential to uplift the living standard of farmers and development of the rural areas has

been greatly under estimated. The low exploitation of IC has been attributed to scarcity

of initial breeding stock, poor breeding strategies inadequate quality and quantity of

feeds, diseases and parasite outbreaks, inadequate knowledge on consumer preference,

lack of proper marketing channels and lack of specialization in the production chain

(Mlozi et al 2003)

Therefore, the producers are unaware of the market demand thus leading to fluctuations

in productions. For improvement in productivity to translate into increased income,

there is need to evaluate the quality of products to determine those that meet consumer

quality demand. Hence the study to characterise different IC ecotypes by comparing

albumen compositions, molecular weights and determines productivity of different IC

ecotypes in Malawi.

3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Although there is extensive evidence of the important role that IC play in the lives of

rural households (Gondwe and Wollny 2005), not much has been done in terms of

improving the productivity of these chickens (Mlozi et al 2003). It is estimated that

indigenous chickens contribute up to 75 % of eggs and meat produced in Africa

(Benarjee and Sharma 1998).

2.1 Productivity of the different IC ecotypes

IC chickens are characterized with low productivity (Kondombo 2005) this is due to

low production and high mortality rate (Nigussie et al. 2003). Teakettle (1986) also

characterized the IC into the low productivity section due to low egg production

performance, production of small sized eggs, slow growth rate, late maturity, small

clutch size, an instinctive inclination to broodiness and high mortality of chicks.

2.1.1 Eggs per Clutch and Number of clutches per year

Eggs are laid in clutches which are demarcated by a clearly marked laying, incubation

and brooding period. (Okeno, Kahi et al. 2012), did report that IC Eggs per clutch ranges

from 7 – 18, with a number of clutches per year of 2-4. This is familiar with (Pym,

Guerne bleich et al. 2006) report of about 8 to 15 eggs per clutch depending on the

availability of feed. (Pym, Gurne Bleich et al. 2006) also reported that on average egg

production of between 40 and 60 eggs/hen/year from 3.5 clutches. Mostly number of

eggs per hen per year is mostly affected by feed (nutrition) and ecotype performance,

which lead to environmental and genetic effect respectively. Number of clutches per

year is affected by the number of eggs laid per clutch, that is higher number of eggs laid

per clutch tend to reduce the number of clutches per year.

2.1.2 Hatchability

Most IC hatch about 80% of the eggs they sit on. Indigenous chicken productivity can

be improved by proper husbandry practices. Information on egg weight requirements in

indigenous chickens for optimum hatchability is, however, limited. (Farooq and Mian,

2001).

4

2.2 Egg composition

The egg has long been known for its exceptional nutritional value. It consists of a porous

carbonate shell, yolk, and albumen commonly known as egg white. The yolk makes up

1/3 of the egg and contains most of the vitamins including A, D, E, K, and B complex

vitamins. The yolk also contains essentially all of the lipids, ¾ of the calories, and is a

good source of antioxidant carotenoids. In contrast, egg white contains over half of the

proteins in egg and is a source of the vitamin riboflavin (Mine, Y. et al 2006). Egg

whites are low in lipids at 0.01% (Mine, Y. et al 1995), making egg white a healthy

source of protein and other nutrients. In terms of weight

Albumen weight had been reported to be more closely associated with egg weight than

yolk weight (Harms and Hussein 1993), hence the eggs with higher egg weight tend to

have high albumin volume. Mohammed et al 2005 reported that the mean egg weight

for the Sudanese IC ecotypes were in the range of 38.0, 38.5 and 39.9g. In comparison

with the Tanzania study which it is reported 41.4g and 41.6g (Minga et al 1989;

Msoffeet al 2002) but different from 44.1g reported by Mwalusanya et al (2001). Where

ICs are characterised by their eggs being small in size with small weight when compared

to eggs from commercial layer chickens. Most of the IC in Africa produces eggs which

weigh from 35 to 45g (Katule 1990; Yakubu et al 2008). Egg weight is largely affected

by environmental factors, feeding, chicken ecotype, age, genetic makeup and parental

average body weight (Msoffe et al 2002; Yakubu et al 2008). The difference in weight

recorded in eggs from the farm and market may be contributed by poor storage and

laying duration.

2.3 Albumen (Egg white)

Egg white is a well-recognized functional and nutritional food ingredient and is well

recognized as an excellent nutrition source (Rastogi, N.K et al 2007).

In general, the term albumen refers to hen's egg white. In the egg, albumen is a relatively

pure mixture of numerous proteins dispersed in water. Egg white is composed of ~9.7-

10.6% protein by weight. Over 24 different proteins have been identified and isolated

from egg white (Mine,Y. et al 2006). Some of the major proteins include ovalbumin

(54%), ovotransferrin (12%), ovomucoid (11%), ovomucin (3.5%), and lysozyme

(3.4%) (Mine,Y. et al 1995).

5

Table 2-1: Ranges in chemical composition of the edible portions of eggs

Ingredient Whole egg (%) Egg white/albumen (%) Egg yolk (%)

Water 72.8-75.6 87.9-89.4 45.8-51.2

Protein 12.8-13.4 9.7-10.6 15.7-16.6

Lipid 10.5-11.8 0.03 31.8-35.5

Carbohydrates 0.3-1.0 0.4-0.9 0.2-1.0

Ash 0.8-1.0 0.5-0.6 1.1

Source: (ECY and C.P 1995)

As it can be seen on Table 2-1 above, the protein component accounts for the bulk of

the solids in albumen and the whole egg.

It is worth noting that the word albumen ("-men") refers to the protein mixture derived

from egg white while albumin ("-min") refers only to a specific class of proteins. As a

group, albumins are generally soluble in water and dilute saline solutions. They are

coagulated by heat and are found in the interstitial fluids of animals.

2.4 Nutritive value

It is reported that a complete egg comprises of the albumen (60%), yolk (30%) and

shell/membrane (10%). Egg white is about two third of the total egg weight out of its

shell, consists of about 90% water and 10% proteins (albumin and globulin. Egg white

contains less or even no fats and carbohydrates content is less than 1%. In a complete

egg, it makes up to 50% of the protein. (Ewing 1963)

2.5 Albumin

The predominant protein in egg white (54% of albumin) classified as a

phosphoglycoprotein with carbohydrate and phosphate moieties attached to the

polypeptide. Albumin in solution is readily denatured and coagulated by exposure to

new surfaces (e.g., shaking) but is resistant to thermal denaturation (84.5°c) (Awade

1996)

6

2.6 Globulin

Globulins is another general classification for proteins. These proteins resemble

albumins in that they are coagulated by heat and are soluble in mild saline solutions. As

a class they are generally insoluble in water. Like albumins, these proteins occur in the

interstitial fluids of animals

It is an excellent foaming agent in egg white composed of ovoglobulins G2 and G3.

This is the second largest egg glycoprotein after ovomucin constituting to 8% of the egg

white. Globulin has the ability to inhibit hemagglutination

3 OBJECTIVES

The study was set to characterize different IC in Malawi raised under the same

management. Through the evaluation of their products more especially eggs by

comparing albumen compositions by exploiting their differences in protein

concentration and determines productivity of different IC ecotypes in Malawi.

3.1 Overall objective

The overall objective of the study to characterize IC ecotypes based on their products

and productivity in Malawi

3.1.1 Specific Objectives

The study was carried out to: -

1. Characterise egg albumin in IC ecotypes

2. Characterise egg globulin in IC ecotypes

7

4 MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 Study Area

The study was conducted at Bunda student Animal Science Research laboratory of

Animal Science Department at Bunda College, the eggs collected from IC collected

raise at Bunda College student farm while parent stock were gathered and collected

from Lilongwe and Mzimba The study was conducted in the. This was an ideal place,

it has almost all the equipment needed to carry out this project.

4.2 Experimental design, treatments

200 birds were collected from Mzimba and Lilongwe and brought to Bunda where they

were allowed to breed to phenotype. 10 eggs from each of the 6 IC birds ; Kaphulusa,

Normal Black, Spotted, Naked neck, Crested hair (Katsumba) and Frizzled (raised

under the same management) were collected for egg white albumin and globulin

characterization

For comparison purposes, eggs from Black Australorp were also obtained for

characterization. Upon separation Biuret method will be used to quantify the quantity

of albumin and globulin per gram of each egg per phenotype.

During the time when the birds were allowed to breed the following data was collected

to compare productivity of the different IC ecotypes:- Number of eggs laid per clutch

per ecotype; number of clutches per year per ecotype; number of eggs laid per year per

ecotype and egg size (in grams) for each ecotype.

4.3 Hatchability measurement

A total of 169 fresh eggs were collected (stored for 10 days). Weight of the egg was

recorded for upon laid and before setting in the incubator. The incubation temperature,

humidity and turning device were adjusted according to the recommendations of the

manufacturer, temperature range, 37-39°C and a relative humidty of 58-60%. Candling

was done on the 2nd and 10th day of incubation. Finally hatchability was calculated as

follow.

Total Hatchability = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑔𝑔𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡 × 100

8

4.4 Separation of Albumin and Globulin Proteins

Six eggs from each phenotype/ecotype were collected and weighed before the analysis.

Each egg was carefully broken to release the egg white and yolk. The egg white was

filtered and volume was recorded, using a sieve cloth to separate the chalaza (thick part

of the egg white) and measuring cylinder respectively. 2ml of the solution (egg white)

was pipetted into 150ml beaker where 38ml of 0.5M NaCl was added to dilute the

sample and the solution was set aside ready for analysis. The remaining egg white was

then diluted with 170ml deionised water, to separate the protein contents (albumin and

Globulin), according to (Mine, 2006) it is known that globulins are a family of globular

proteins that have higher water solubility values than the albumins, since the albumin

family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in

concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation.

Upon dilution precipitate was formed where 50ml was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for

10 minutes, in order to separate the two fractions. The supernatant, albumin and the

precipitate, globulin after centrifugation were then diluted with 0.5M NaCl and set aside

for analysis.

4.5 Protein concentration determination procedure

Biuret method was applied in determining the albumin and globulin concentration

4.5.1 Sample Solution preparation

10 test tubes according to Ngwira, (2010) were set in the following protocol. The

amounts are all in the ml;

Table 4-1: Protein concentration determination procedure.

Tube # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Standard Protein

(casein) (ml)

- 0.30 0.60 0.90 - - - - - -

Diluted eggs white

(ml)

- - - - 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Water (ml) 1.00 0.70 0.40 0.10 0.5. 0.5. 0.5. 0.5. 0.50 0.50

Biuret Reagent(ml) 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

Tubes 6 to 10 represent the samples while tube 1 as the blank and tube 2 through 4 were

the standard protein (casein). Each tube was thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand for

30 min during which times the blue colour should developed.

9

4.5.2 Reading the absorbance of the solutions

Absorbance was then reads from tubes 2 through 10 at 540nm wavelength using tube #

1 as a blank (i.e. to zero the colorimeter).

10

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Production Performance of different IC ecotypes

The average number of eggs per clutch reported from overall study area (12.85) is

similar to the national average (12) as reported by CSA (2003). According to the results

it shows that different IC had different significant value on number of eggs per clutch.

Where the Naked Neck, Normal black, Kaphulusa and crested hair had similar number

of eggs laid per clutch. The naked neck reported to have higher number of eggs, 15 per

clutch. The observed average number of eggs laid per clutch ranges from 11 to 16 differs

with the compiled from different countries by Gueye (1998) which ranges from of 6 to

28 eggs per clutch reported by Mwalusanya et al. 2001 in Tanzania under scavenging

condition

It was also observed that the average number of clutch per year was 3.31 which is in

line with the finding by Fikere (2000) at 3.41. Based on the analysis it shows that there

was no significant differences (p<0.05) on the number of clutch per year in all the 7

different IC phenotypes. According to Fikere 2000, clutch size differs greatly

between species, sometimes even within the same genus. It may also differ within the

same species due to many factors including habitat, health, nutrition, predation

pressures, and time of year. Clutch size variation can also reflect variation in optimal

reproduction effort.

The BA were significantly superior (P<0.05) in egg size, number of eggs per clutch

and number of eggs per bird per year followed by the frizzle and the normal feathered

birds, respectively (Table 5-1). However, the number of clutches per year was

not significantly different (P>0.05) among the seven phenotypes.

Hatchability is one of the major determinant factors of productivity in poultry. There

was significant difference (p<0.05) in hatchability between the different IC phenotypes.

Eggs from Kaphulusa 69.64% had a significantly higher hatchability than those from

naked neck and the normal black, BA, Spotted and Crested hens.

11

Table 5-1: Production Performance of IC (Mean ± SE)

Phenotype Number of

Egg/Clutch

Number of

Clutch/Year

Average

Weight

Hatchability

Percentage

BA 12.50 ± 1.291b 3.25 ± 0.50a 49.71 ± 1.76a 48.89 ± .1491b

Naked Neck 15.00 ± 1.414a 4.00 ± 0.25 a 45.90 ± 4.10b 47.66 ± .4478b

NB 14.50 ± 2.121a 3.00 ± 0.10 a 43.75 ± 1.41b 69.64 ± .4292a

Kaphulusa 14.00 ± 0.110a 3.00 ± 0.00 a 44.00 ± 14.05b 71.43 ± .3467a

Spotted 11.50 ± 3.536b 3.50 ± 0.70 a 43.20 ± 1.34b 47.43 ± .1994b

Crested hair 14.00 ± 0.243a 3.23 ± 0.78 a 43.60 ± 4.54b 40.00 ± .4889c

Frizzled 13.38 ± 1.994b 3.00 ± 0.30 a 45.88 ± 2.32b 41.18 ± .3445c

F.pr 0.506 0.202 0.885 0.022

Grand Mean 12.85 ± 1.994 3.31 ± 0.480 46.00 ± 3.173 52.74 ± .2282

Note: a,b,c Means on the same line without a common superscript differ (p< 0.05)

BA: Black Australorp

NB: Normal Black

The mean percent total hatchability calculated for the indigenous chickens was 52.74

percent (percent of eggs set) (Table 5-1), the value of which is lower than those reported

from Guinea, 87 percent (Mourad et al., 1997). This may come due to management

conditions of the birds in addition to the environmental conditions.

The average hatchability of 52% observed in this study is close to the values

have been reported in Burkina Faso, Tanzania, Mali and Sudan: 60-90% (Bourzat

and Saunders, 1990), 50-100% (Minga et al., 1989), 69.1% (Wilson et al., 1987)

and 90% (Wilson, 1979) respectively. However, the 39-42% hatchability reported in

Ethiopia by Shanawany and Banerjee (1991) was far lower than what was realized in

this study. The high percentage of hatchability among the IC may be due to the fact that,

the hen does the incubation of eggs naturally. It knows by instinct when to provide the

right temperature for its eggs by sitting-on and turning the eggs with the beak.

12

5.2 Albumin Protein Concentration

Table 5-2 shows the egg mean weight of different IC phenotypes. It is observed that

egg weight had a significant differences (p<0.05) in all the IC phenotypes. Black

Australorp which was used as a control had the highest weight of the eggs than the

others. The Naked Neck, Normal Black and Kaphulusa had the same mean weight of

their eggs and not significantly different from the control at p<0.05). Where the Spotted

type were in between and not significantly differences from each other as well as from

the control (Black Australorp). However the mean egg weights in the study are higher

than the values of 38.0g, 38.5g and 39.9g reported for Sudanese indigenous chicken

ecotypes (Mohammed et al 2005). They are comparable to the previous studies in

Tanzania which reported 41.4g and 41.6g (Minga et al 1989; Msoffe et al 2002) but

different from 44.1g reported by Mwalusanya et al (2001). Most of the IC in Africa

produces eggs which weigh from 35 to 45g (Katule 1990; Yakubu et al 2008). Egg

weight is largely affected by environmental factors, feeding, chicken ecotype, age,

genetic makeup and parental average body weight.

5.3 Egg weight effect on Albumin Concentration

From Table 5-2, it can be observed that egg weight had effect on the albumin

concentration. Where the control, Black Australorp which recorded to have higher

weight had the lowest albumin concentration than the rest. The Naked Neck, Normal

Black, Spotted and Frizzled also had the same level of albumin concentration as the

control. Crested hair, 0.2938g/ml had registered with the highest albumin concentration

followed by the Kaphulusa.

5.4 Egg weight effect on Globulin Concentration

Table 5-2 below is showing the overall results of albumin and globulin concentration

that were observed on different IC phenotypes.

13

Table 5-2: Egg weight effect on Albumin and Globulin Concentration

Phenotypes

Average

egg

weight (g)

Egg White

Volume (ml)

Albumin

Concentration

(g/ml)

Globulin

Concentration

(g/ml)

Black Australorp 51.11a 18.00ab 0.1530c 0.1777c

Naked Neck 47.22ab 19.00a 0.1348c 0.0933cd

Normal Black 47.02ab 17.67ab 0.1053c 0.0862d

Kaphulusa 46.08ab 16.13ab 0.2938b 0.2760b

Spotted 45.21abc 16.83ab 0.1270c 0.0922cd

Crested hair 42.33bc 15.00b 0.4203a 0.4183a

Frizzled 38.83c 15.17ab 0.1400c 0.1088cd

Grand Mean 45.40 16.83 0.1963 0.1963

SD* * 2.202 0.1263 0.1158

Note: a,b,c Means on the same line without a common superscript differ (p< 0.05)

Table 5-2 summarises the effect of each phenotypes on the egg weight, egg white

volume albumin and globulin concentration. It is also observed that IC phenotype had

significant differences at p<0.05 on the egg weight, egg white volume, and albumin and

globulin concentration although among the phenotypes, there are others that are not

significantly different in terms of the albumin and globulin concentration. It was also

been observed that Crested hair, (Table 5-2) to be more dominant in all the

concentrations than the others. It has also been observed that eggs with high egg weight

had highest egg white volume except in Black Australorp, registered them highest egg

weight but on egg white volume was on second from naked neck. The results also shows

that egg white volume between phenotypes had a significant difference at p<0.05) on

albumin concentration. Where IC phenotype egg which had lower egg white volume

recorded to have higher albumin concentration as it is recorded with the Crested hair

(Katsumba) with the egg white volume of 15.00ml and albumin concentration of

0.1403g/ml. The Kaphulusa also followed the same trend. As for the naked neck which

had higher egg white volume. This can be concluded that albumin concentration is

affected by the egg white volume. It can also be concluded that egg weight have a

significant difference on the albumin concentration where eggs with the smallest weight

contains a lot higher amount of albumin concentration, that is eggs with smaller weight

tend to have lower egg white and higher albumin concentration.

14

This is the same with the globulin concentration where it found that Kaphulusa which

registered higher albumin concentration also had the highest globulin concentration

level followed by the Crested hair (Katsumba). It also shows that Naked Neck, Spotted

and Frizzled had no significant (p<0.05) difference in both albumin and globulin

concentration. However (Harms and Hussein 1993) reported that albumen/egg white

weight had been reported to be more closely associated with egg weight than yolk

weight, hence the eggs with higher egg weight tend to have high albumin volume.

Table 5-3: Albumin and Globulin Concentration Percentage between phenotypes

Phenotype Protein

concentration g/ml

Concentration %

Albumin Globulin

Black Australorp 0.3307 46.27 53.73

Crested hair 0.8386 50.12 49.88

Kaphulusa 0.5698 51.56 48.44

Normal Black 0.1915 54.99 45.01

Frizzled 0.2488 56.27 43.73

Spotted 0.2192 57.94 42.06

Naked Neck 0.2281 59.10 40.90

Average 0.375 53.748 46.252

Table 5-3 the total amount of protein found in an egg and the concentration percentage

of the albumin and globulin. According to the results it shows that albumin is the type

of proteins that is found in abundant both within and between ecotypes except in the

Control. Where albumen reported to contain an average of 53.748% and for globulin,

46.252%. The Table 5-3 also shows that the phenotype which had the highest albumin

concentration have the lowest in globulin concentration example the Naked Neck

registered the highest percentage of albumin concentration, 59.10% had the least in

globulin concentration, the same trend was observed for the rest of the phenotype

follows the same trend. This is in agreement with Guèye 2001, who reported that

globulin found in small amount in proportion to the amount of albumin. This simply

implies that Albumin is the type of protein that is found in larger quantity than Globulin

in an egg of all the IC phenotypes. As for the Crested hair (Katsumba) reported to have

higher protein concentration followed by the Kaphulusa.

15

Figure 5-1: Protein Concentration in IC Phenotypes

According to Figure 5-1, it shows that Crested hair (Katsumba) had the highest in

protein concentration, though looking at its fraction it has almost similar in term of its

albumin, and globulin composition 0.2760g/ml, 0.2938g/ml respectively. While the

normal black had the lowest protein concentration despite its fractions having higher

albumin levels than globulin. This simply implies that protein fractions, which is

albumin and globulin do not get affected by the amount of protein present in an egg,

other than the concentration of the protein.

16

Figure 5-2: Albumin and Globulin Concentration of IC Phenotypes

The Figure 5-2 shows the protein concentration percentage in 7 different IC phenotypes.

Albumin dominates almost in all the phenotype except in Black Australorp where it

indicates the lowest of all the phenotypes than the Globulin. This can be concluded that

Albumin is dominant protein that is found in IC chicken eggs than globulin, this findings

are in line with (Awade 1996) who reported that Albumin constitute 54% of the egg

white protein. However the level of albumin concentration differs among the

phenotypes (Tables 5-2 and 5-3). Example Naked Neck record the highest albumin

concentration followed by the spotted phenotype and Crested hair being the least of all

the IC phenotype, where the albumin is almost similar with the globulin concentration.

Guèye 2001, also find out that globulin is the second largest egg glycoprotein from

albumin after ovomucin constituting to 8% of the egg white.

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

BlackAustralorp

CrestedHead

Kaphulusa NormalBlack

Frizzled Spotted NakedNeck

Pro

tein

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

%)

Phenotypes

Albumin

Globulin

17

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

This research undertaking was aimed at characterizing Indigenous Chickens and assess

their productivity, by exploiting their products (Eggs). The results of the study showed

that different IC phenotypes have different protein fraction concentrations. Albumin

protein dominates in all the phenotypes. In characterising these phenotypes using

albumin fractions crested hair become one of the best IC phenotype which has the

highest protein concentration in addition to albumin fraction, followed by the

Kaphulusa, Black Australorp, Frizzled, naked neck, Spotted and Normal Black being

the least. This means that the IC with highest albumin fraction will definitely have the

smallest amount of globulin.

Based on the results IC can also be characterised using the productivity (Table 5-1),

where it has shown that different IC phenotypes have different productivity traits. It is

concluded that the Kaphulusa being the best IC phenotypes since it have a good

hatchability 71%, number of eggs per clutch, 14 above the average of all the phenotypes

despite having the egg weight below the average, followed by the Naked neck, normal

black and then the Black Australorp. Number of eggs and hatchability are the most

important traits in production that determine the progress or continuity of the species,

that implies there is higher possibility of having higher number of chicks in relation to

the number of eggs laid by the hen.

6.2 Recommendation

In summary the results of this study tends to suggest the following recommendations.

Experimental study aimed at improving hatchability and the number of eggs per

clutch urgently needed.

Further characterization of IC based on albumen molecular weights.

Genetic diversity studies need to be done to understand genetic basis of the

variations.

18

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