ChapterChapter M OTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONS FourFour.

ChapterChapterChapterChapter

MMOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONSOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

FourFourFourFour

After reading this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define motivation and explain its importance in the field of organizational behavior.

2. Describe need hierarchy theory and what it recommends about improving motivation in organizations.

3. Identify and explain the conditions through which goal setting can be used to improve job performance.

4. Explain equity theory and procedural justice, and explain how both may be applied to motivating people in organizations.

5. Describe expectancy theory and how it may be applied in organizations.

6. Distinguish between job enlargement and job enrichment as techniques for motivating employees.

7. Describe the job characteristics model and its implications for redesigning jobs to enhance motivation.

Motivation in Organizations: Its Basic Nature (Pp. 130-132)

Motivation - set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain humanbehavior toward attaining some goalComponents

Arousal - drive or energy behind our actionsDirection - choices that we make in pursuing some goalMaintaining - conditions that suggest continuance of our

actions

Key PointsMotivation and job performance are not synonymous

- motivation is one of several determinants of performanceMotivation is multifaceted

- several motives may be operative at the same timePeople are motivated by more than just money

- goals, other than financial goals, are operative at work

Motivating By Meeting Needs (Pp. 133-137)

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - theory specifying that there are five humanneeds that are arranged so that lower-level, more basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become activated

Deficiency needs - if these needs are not met, people will not develop either physically or psychologicallyPhysiological needs - biological drives such as the need

for food, air, water, and shelter Safety needs - need for a secure environment, free from

threats of physical or psychological harmSocial needs - need to be affiliative, i.e., to have friends

and to be loved and accepted by other people

Growth needs - gratification of these needs helps a person to reachher/his full potential Esteem needs - need to develop self-respect and to gain

the approval of othersSelf-actualization needs - need to discover who we are

and to develop ourselves to our fullest potential

Motivating By Meeting Needs (cont.)

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (cont.)Evaluation of the theory

- has not received much empirical support- other research has failed to confirm that there are

five categories of needs- needs do not have to satisfied in the order

prescribed in the hierarchy

Alderfer’s ERG Theory - asserts that there are three basic human needs that are not necessarily activated in any specific orderExistence needs - correspond to Maslow’s physiological and

safety needsRelatedness needs - correspond to Maslow’s social needsGrowth needs - correspond to Maslow’s esteem and self-

actualization needs

Evaluation of the theory - fits better with research evidence

Deficiency Needs

Growth needs

4. Esteem needs

5. Self-actualization needs• Growth needs

3. Social needs • Relatedness needs

1. Physiological needs

2. Safety needs • Existence needs

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Alderfer’s ERG theory

Figure 4.4Need Theories: A Comparison

Motivating By Meeting Needs (cont.)

Managerial Applications of Need Theories - makes sense to help peoplesatisfy their needs, especially if self-actualization will bring aboutgreater creativity on the job

Promote a healthy workforce - satisfy employees’ physiologicalneeds by providing incentives for mental and physicalhealth

Provide financial security - an important safety need- go beyond traditional forms of compensation- address issues of job security, including outplacement

Provide opportunities to socialize - organize events that help to satisfy social needs

Recognize employee’s accomplishments - award programs satisfyesteem needs- must clearly link award to desired behavior

Motivating By Setting Goals (Pp. 138-142)

Goal Setting - process of determining specific levels of performance forworkers to attain- one of the most important motivational forces in organizations

Locke and Latham’s Goal-Setting Theory - having a goal serves as a motivator because it influences:

- people’s beliefs about their ability to perform the task- self-efficacy

- the degree to which people invest themselves in the task- goal commitment is determined by the extent to

which an individual desires to attain thegoal and believes that s/he has a reason-able chance of doing so

Figure 4.7Cognitive Summary of the Goal Setting Process

Desire to attain goal Perceived chance of goal attainment

Goal commitment(accept goal as own)

Self-efficacybeliefs

Desire to feel competent

Recognize challengeof higher goal level

Performanceat goal level

Motivating By Setting Goals (cont.)

Managers’ Guidelines for Setting Effective Performance Goals

Assign specific goals - people perform at higher levels when asked to meet a specific, high-performance goal than when askedsimply to “do your best” or when no goal at all is assigned- improve output, reduce absenteeism, decrease accidents

Assign difficult - but acceptable - performance goals - peoplewill internalize the goal if it is perceived as challengingbut attainable- involve employees in the goal setting process

Provide feedback concerning goal attainment - informs individual about how closely s/he is approaching theperformance goal- without feedback, workers do their jobs blindly

Per

cent

age

of M

axim

um W

eigh

tC

arri

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n E

ach

Tri

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Beforegoal

After goal

Four-Week Periods

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 SevenYears Later

Figure 4.8Goal Setting: Some Impressive Effects

There was a dramatic improvement in performance after

a goal was set

Performance at the goal levelwas sustained seven years after

the goal was first set

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Goal level

Motivating By Being Fair (Pp. 142-148)

Organizational Justice - people’s perception of fairness in organizations, consisting of perceptions regarding how decisions are madeconcerning the distribution of outcomes Procedural justice - focus is on the process used to resource

allocation decisionsEquity theory - focus is on the perceived fairness of the outcomes

themselves

OrganizationalJustice

ProceduralJustice

EquityTheory

Adams Equity Theory - people strive to maintain a ratio of their own outcomes (rewards) to their own inputs (contributions) equal to theoutcome/input ratio of others with whom they compare themselves Outcomes - the rewards, such as salary and recognition, that

employees receive from their jobsInputs - people’s contributions to their jobs, such as their

experience, qualifications, or amount of time worked

Motivating By Being Fair (cont.)

Overpayment inequity - the condition, resulting in feelings ofguilt, in which the ratio of one’s outcomes to one’s inputsis more than the corresponding ratio of comparison person- individual may raise her inputs or lower his outcomes

Underpayment inequity - the condition, resulting in feelings of anger, in which the ratio of one’s outcomes to one’s inputsis less than the corresponding ratio of comparison person- individual may lower her inputs or raise his outcomes

Perceptual resolution of inequity - change how you think about the situation

SocialComparison

PersonA

PersonB

Outcomes

Inputs

Outcomes

InputsAngry

Guilty

Underpaymentinequity

for Person A Overpaymentinequity

for Person B

LessThan

Outcomes

Inputs

Outcomes

InputsSatisfied Satisfied

Equitablepayment

for Person A

Equitablepayment

for Person B

EqualTo

Figure 4.11Equity Theory

Overpaymentinequity

for Person A

Underpaymentinequity

for Person B

GreaterThan

Outcomes

Inputs

Outcomes

Inputs

Guilty

Angry

Motivating By Being Fair (cont.)

Procedural Justice: Making Decisions Fairly - for the outcome to be fair,the procedures must be fairStructural side of procedural justice - determining how decisions

need to be made for them to be considered fair- give people a say in how decisions are made - voice- provide an opportunity for errors to be corrected - appeal

process- apply rules and policies consistently- make decisions in an unbiased manner

Social side of procedural justice - quality of interpersonal treatmentreceived at the hands of decision makerInteractional justice - perceived fairness of the interpersonal

treatment used to determine organizational outcomes- informational justification - thoroughness of the

information received about a decision- social sensitivity - amount of dignity and respect

demonstrated when presenting an undesirableoutcome

Motivating By Being Fair (cont.)

Organizational Justice: Some Tips for Managers - implications of equitytheory for motivating people

Avoid overpayment - managers should strive to treat all employeesequitably- be open and honest about outcomes and inputs

Give people a voice in decisions that affect them - give people asay in matters that pertain to their jobs

Present information about outcomes in a thorough, socially sensitive manner - take sting out of undesirable outcomes

Avoid underpayment - employees may attempt to “even the score”Two-tier wage structures - payment systems in which

newer employees are paid less than employeeshired at earlier times who do the same work

Motivating By Altering Expectations (Pp. 149-153)

Expectancy Theory - characterizes people as rational beings who think aboutwhat they must do to be rewarded and how much that reward meansto them before they actually perform their jobs

Basic elements - three different types of beliefsExpectancy - belief that one’s effort will influence one’s

performance positivelyInstrumentality - beliefs regarding the likelihood of being

rewarded according to her/his own level of performance

Valence - value a person places on the rewards s/he expectsto receive from an organization

Combining all three components - motivation is a multiplicativefunction of the three components- if any component is zero, overall level of motivation is also

zero

Motivating By Altering Expectations (cont.)

Expectancy Theory (cont.)Other determinants of job performance - motivation is only one of

several important determinantsSkills and abilities - determine person/job fitRole perceptions - what employees believe their jobs

duties to beOpportunities - chance to perform the job

Managerial Applications of Expectancy TheoryClarify people’s expectancies that effort leads to performance

- train, make desired performance attainable, and helpemployee to attain level of performance

Administer rewards with a positive valence - “carrot must be tasty”Cafeteria-style benefit plan - incentive system in which

worker can select the fringe benefits s/he wants froma menu of available alternatives

Clearly link valued rewards and performance - enhance beliefsabout instrumentality by specifying what behaviorleads to what rewards

Skills andabilities

Role perceptionsand opportunities

JobPerformance

Effort

Performance

Expectancy

Instrumentality

Rewards

Figure 4.14Expectancy Theory: An Overview

Motivation

Valence ofRewards

X

X

Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting(Pp. 153-160)

Job Design - suggests that jobs can be structured to enhcance people’s interest in doing them

Job enrichment - gives employees a high degree of control overtheir work, from planning and organization throughimplementation and evaluation- employees determine how to do their jobs

- vertical job loading- although successful in many organizations, popularity is

limited by difficulty in implementation and lack ofemployee acceptance

Job enlargement - expansion of the content of a job to include more variety and more tasks at the same level- does not increase responsibility nor skills needed to do job

- horizontal job loading- may help to improve job performance, but its effects may

not be lasting

Task1

Task2L

evel

of

Res

pon

sib

ilit

y(v

erti

cal j

ob lo

adin

g)

(high)

(low)

Number of Tasks(horizontal job loading)

(high)(low)

Figure 4.15Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment: A Comparison

Enlarged Job

Task3

Task4

Job enlargement adds more tasks at the same level of responsibility.

Lev

el o

f R

esp

onsi

bil

ity

(ver

tica

l job

load

ing)

(high)

(low)

Number of Tasks(horizontal job loading)

Standard Job

(high)(low)

Task1

Task2

(low)

Number of Tasks(horizontal job loading)

Lev

el o

f R

esp

onsi

bil

ity

(ver

tica

l job

load

ing)

(high)

(high)(low)

Task1

Task2

Task1

Task2

Enriched JobJob enrichment addsmore responsibilityto the same number

of tasks.

Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)

Job Characteristics Model - specifies that enriching certain elements of jobsalters people’s psychological states in a manner that enhances theirwork effectiveness

Components of the Model - affect motivation, satisfaction, and performanceCore job dimensions

Skill variety - extent to which a job requires worker to usedifferent skills and talents

Task identity - extent to which an entire piece of work iscompleted from beginning to end

Task significance - impact of job on othersAutonomy - amount of discretion to do job as desiredFeedback - information about performance effectiveness

Critical psychological states - beliefs engendered by core dimensionsExperienced meaningfulness - importance and value of job

- stems from skill variety, task identity and significancePersonal responsibility and accountability - stems from

autonomyKnowledge of results - stems from feedback

Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)

Job Characteristics Model (cont.)Does model apply to everyone? - model is especially effective in

describing behavior of people who are high in growth needstrength

Putting it all together Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - questionnaire used to

measure the core dimensions present in a given job Motivating Potential Score (MPS) - mathematical index

describing the degree to which a job is designed to motivate people

MPS = Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance X Autonomy X Feedback

3

Evidence for the model - most empirical tests have supported manyaspects of the model

CORE JOBDIMENSIONS

Skill varietyTask variety

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGI-ICAL STATES

Experiencedmeaningfulness

of the work

Experiencedresponsibilityfor outcomesof the work

Knowledge ofthe actual

results of thework activities

Employee growthneed strength

PERSONAL AND WORKOUTCOMES

High internalwork motivation

High-qualitywork performance

High satisfactionwith the work

Low absenteeismand turnover

Figure 4.16Job Characteristics Model

Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)

Techniques for Designing Jobs that Motivate

Combine tasks - instead of having several workers performseparate parts of a whole job, have each person performthe entire job

Open feedback channels

Establish client relationships - person performing a job comes intocontact with the recipient of that service

Load jobs vertically - give people greater responsibility for the job