Chapter2 Foundation of Research

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Foundations of Research


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Copyright 2000 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved.

Challenge to the Researcher

The researcher must have the ability to

identify the sources of information

which is of high quality and value

which will give the best results when a

particular decision is made by themanagement


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SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The use of a set of prescribed

procedures for establishing and

connecting theoretical statements

about events and for predicting events

yet unknown.


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OVERVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Assessrelevant

existing

knowledge

Formulateconcepts &

Propositions

Statementof

Hypotheses

Design

research

Acquire

empirical

data

Analyze &

evaluate

data

Provide

explanation-

state new

problem


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The Essential Tenets of Science

Direct observation of phenomena

Clearly defined variables, methods, and

procedures

Empirically testable hypotheses

Ability to rule out rival hypotheses

Statistical justification of conclusions

Self-correcting process


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The Hall marks of Scientific

Research

Purposiveness There is a clear aim or purpose (ex: Organizational commitment)

Rigor Good theoretical base and sound methodological design

Testability Looks at the testability of hypotheses generated when data is available

Replicability Same research in another circumstance

Precision and Confidence Standard error of estimate and Probability of our estimation

Objectivity No elements of subjectivity or emotions

Generalizability Applicability of the findings to other settings

Parsimony Simplicity versus complexity


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Deductive reasoning

The logical process of deriving a

conclusion from a known premise or

something known to be true.

We know that all managers are human

beings.

If we also know that John Smith is amanager,

then we can deduce that John Smith is a

human being.


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Inductive reasoning

The logical process of establishing a

general proposition on the basis of

observation of particular facts. All managers that have ever been seen

are human beings;

therefore all managers are human beings.


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Induction/Deduction Process

Laws and

Theories

Facts from

Observation

Explanation and

Prediction

INDUCTION DEDUCTION


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Induction and Deduction

Observation/

Description Analysis

Explanation/

Hypothesis/

Theory

A B

C


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Deductive

Develop

Theory

Develophypothesis

Collect and

Analyze Data

Accept/Reject

hypothesis


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Inductive

Analyze pattern

and themes

Observe

phenomenon

Formulate

relationship

Develop

Theory


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Fundamentals of Theory Building

Concepts

Definition

Variables

Proposition and Hypotheses

Theory Model


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CONCEPT (OR CONSTRUCT)

A generalized idea about a class of

objects, attributes, occurrences, or

processes that has been given a name

Building blocks that abstract reality

leadership, productivity, and morale

gross national product, asset, and

inflation


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Concept

A conceptis a bundle of meanings or

characteristics associated with certain

events, objects, conditions, situations, andbehaviors

Concepts have been developed over time

through shared usage


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Concept and Construct

Vocabulary

Spelling

Syntax

ManuscriptErrors

Typing

Speed

Mostabstract

Work Interest Construct(Components unknown)

Language Skills

Construct

Presentation Quality

Construct

MostConcrete

AbstractLevel

Format

Accuracy


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A LADDER OF ABSTRACTION

FOR CONCEPTS

Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

RealityIncreasing

lymoreabs

tract


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Importance of Concepts in Research

How clear is our conceptualization?

To what extent others understand the

concept which is used?


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Definition and Operational

Definition

Definition is the process of clarifying

the meanings of the main variables of

the research in detail

Operational definition on the other

hand is the definition stated in ameasurable manner or procedure


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Example

Concept Definition Operationalization

Organizational

Commitment

A situation where the individual feels

he is compatible with the

organization and is willing to remainas a member to achieve the goal

Score from the Score

Organisational

Commitment (Mowday,Steers & Porter, 1979)

Job

Satisfaction

The attitude possessed by an

individual towards his work, as a

result of the perception about the

compatibility between the individualand the organization

Score from the Job

Diagnostic Survey (JDS)

Questionnaire (Hackman

& Oldham, 1975)

Attitude The individuals feeling towards a

person or an object

Answers from a series of

questions based on Likert

scale


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ABSTRACT LEVEL

Concepts abstract reality.

Propositions are statements concerned

with the relationships among concepts.


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Always makes

four sales calls

a day

Dollar bonus for

sales volume

over quota

Concept B(Habits)

Hypothesis at Empirical level

Proposition at abstract level

Concept A(Reinforcement)


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A hypothesis is a proposition that is

empirically testable. It is an empirical

statement concerned with therelationship among variables.

A variable is anything that may assume

different numerical values.

Hypotheses


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Types of Hypotheses

Descriptive Hypothesis Eighty percent of theshare holders of ABC Company agrees to

an increase in the cash dividend payout

Relational hypotheses divided into correlational

and causal:

Imported cars are perceived byMalaysian people possessinghigher quality as compared to local cars

An increase infamily income leads to increased in thesavings

percentage of families


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Types of Hypotheses

Directional

Non-directional


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The Role of the Hypothesis

Guides the direction of the study

Identifies facts that are relevant

Suggests which form of research design is

appropriate

Provides a framework for organizing the

conclusions that result


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What is a Good Hypothesis?

A good hypothesis should fulfill three

conditions:

Must be adequate for its purpose

Must be testable

Must be better than its rivals


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Theories

Theories are nets cast to catch what we

call the world: to rationalize, to explain,

and to master it. We endeavor to make

the mesh ever finer and finer.

Karl R. Popper


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TWO PURPOSES OF THEORY

Prediction

Understanding


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THEORY

A coherent set of general propositions

used as principles of explanation of the

apparent relationships of certainobserved phenomena.


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THEORY BUILDING A PROCESS

OF INCREASING ABSTRACTION

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects

and events (reality ) Increasinglymoreabstract


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Value of Theory to Research

Narrows the range of facts we need to study

Suggests which research approaches will

yield the greatest meaning

Suggests a data classification system

Summarizes what is known about an object

of study

Predicts further facts that should be found


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Model

Representation of a system developed to

study a part or the whole system

The difference between theory and model is

that theory is for explanation purposes

whereas the role of the model is to represent

the theory in a graphical or schematic way


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Variables

Independent

Dependent Moderating

Intervening


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Theoretical Framework

Conceptual model of how a researcher

formulates the relationship amongst the

variables identified as a function of

Past researches

Logic and belief

Helps in the process of understanding andtesting of the variables


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Developing a Research Model

Operationalize

ConceptDefine Concept

Explore relationship

between concepts

Identify Concept


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Th Ch i i f G d


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The Characteristics of a Good

Theoretical Framework

The main variables are identified and labeled

Explain the relationship between 2 or more variables

based on a theory If there are previous research about the phenomenon

then the positive or negative relationship must be

posited

Explain why the posited relationship exists

A schematic diagram must be presented so that the

readers can visualize the relationship


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Exercise 1

A manager believes that good supervision

and training will increase the production

level of the workers


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Exercise 2

A manager finds that off-the-job training

has a great impact on the productivity of the

employees in his department. However, healso observes that employees above 50

years do not seem to derive much benefit

and do not improve from such a training.


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Exercise 3

The manager of the ABC Company observes that

the morale of employees in her company is low.

She thinks that if the working conditions, payscales, and the vacation benefits of the employees

are bettered, the morale will improve. She doubts,

though, that the pay scales is going to raise morale

of all employees. Her guess is that those who havegood side incomes will be happy with the

increased pay and their morale will improve.

Chapter2 Foundation of Research

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