Chapter Seventeen Politics in India Comparative Politics Today, 9/e Almond, Powell, Dalton & Strøm Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2008.

Chapter Seventeen

Politics in India

Comparative Politics Today, 9/eAlmond, Powell, Dalton & Strøm

Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2008

Country Bio: IndiaCountry Bio: India

Population: 1,103,37 billion (2005)

Territory: 1,269,338 sq. miles

Year of Independence: 1947

Year of Current Constitution: 1950

Number of Constitutional Amendments: 93 (as of April 2006)

Head of State: President A.P.J. Abdul Kalem

Head of Government: Prime Minister Manmohan

Singh

Population: 1,103,37 billion (2005)

Territory: 1,269,338 sq. miles

Year of Independence: 1947

Year of Current Constitution: 1950

Number of Constitutional Amendments: 93 (as of April 2006)

Head of State: President A.P.J. Abdul Kalem

Head of Government: Prime Minister Manmohan

Singh

Language: English, Hindi (primary tongue

of 30% of the people), Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kasmiri, Sindhi, Sanskrit

Note: There are 24 languages, each of which is spoken by a million or more people

Religion: Hindu 80.5%, Muslim 13.4%,

Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, Buddhist 0.8%, Jain 0.4%, other 0.6% (Census 2001)

Scheduled Castes 16.2% of population

Scheduled Tribes 8.2% of population

Language: English, Hindi (primary tongue

of 30% of the people), Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kasmiri, Sindhi, Sanskrit

Note: There are 24 languages, each of which is spoken by a million or more people

Religion: Hindu 80.5%, Muslim 13.4%,

Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, Buddhist 0.8%, Jain 0.4%, other 0.6% (Census 2001)

Scheduled Castes 16.2% of population

Scheduled Tribes 8.2% of population

BackgroundBackground Poverty and underdevelopment New sense of optimism Integration into a global market economy

But will it bring sustained growth Good case for cross-cultural comparisons of the

transition to democracy Has democratic political system Secular constitution Liberalized but still mixed economy Mass poverty Complex ethnic composition

Poverty and underdevelopment New sense of optimism Integration into a global market economy

But will it bring sustained growth Good case for cross-cultural comparisons of the

transition to democracy Has democratic political system Secular constitution Liberalized but still mixed economy Mass poverty Complex ethnic composition

Current Policy ChallengesCurrent Policy Challenges New international environment has posed a sharp challenge to

India’s traditional policy of non-alignment Panchasheela

Indo-Pakistani rivalry – source of great anxiety Potential for nuclear war 1998 nuclear tests Series of negotiations and confidence-building measures Kashmir

Key strategic partner with U.S. – South Asia policy Poverty Mass literacy

Few elite institutions: IIT, IIM No infrastructure for mass literacy Education is the responsibility of India’s regional governments

Infrastructure problems in road transport and shipping facilities

New international environment has posed a sharp challenge to India’s traditional policy of non-alignment Panchasheela

Indo-Pakistani rivalry – source of great anxiety Potential for nuclear war 1998 nuclear tests Series of negotiations and confidence-building measures Kashmir

Key strategic partner with U.S. – South Asia policy Poverty Mass literacy

Few elite institutions: IIT, IIM No infrastructure for mass literacy Education is the responsibility of India’s regional governments

Infrastructure problems in road transport and shipping facilities

The Twin Legacies of Colonial Rule and the Anti-Colonial Movement

The Twin Legacies of Colonial Rule and the Anti-Colonial Movement Historical controversies

Highly organized feudal state in India versus “segmentary” early state

Colonial rule Mahatma Gandhi

Satyagraha – nonviolent resistance Cross-community coalitions – Hindi-Muslim unity Indian National Congress India Act of 1935

Impact of British rule on India Congress Party

India became independent in 1947 Jawaharlal Nehru- India’s first prime minister

Historical controversies Highly organized feudal state in India versus “segmentary”

early state Colonial rule Mahatma Gandhi

Satyagraha – nonviolent resistance Cross-community coalitions – Hindi-Muslim unity Indian National Congress India Act of 1935

Impact of British rule on India Congress Party

India became independent in 1947 Jawaharlal Nehru- India’s first prime minister

The “Givens” of Indian Society: From Hierarchy to PluralityThe “Givens” of Indian Society: From Hierarchy to Plurality Religious diversity and political conflict

Hindu’s divided Jammu and Kashmir have Muslim majority Punjab has a Sikh majority Several other small states have a Christian majority Ayodhya Hindu nationalism Partition of British India and the creation of Pakistan Sikhism

Castes and politics Jatis – basic social units that still govern marriages, social networks, food

taboos, and rituals in India In the past it regulated the choice of occupation: hereditary and caste-specific More than 2,000 jatis in India; divided into four varnas

The Brahmins – priests Kshatriyas – rulers and warriors Vaisyas – mercantile class Sudras – service groups, agriculturists, and artisans

Dharma Dalits

Religious diversity and political conflict Hindu’s divided Jammu and Kashmir have Muslim majority Punjab has a Sikh majority Several other small states have a Christian majority Ayodhya Hindu nationalism Partition of British India and the creation of Pakistan Sikhism

Castes and politics Jatis – basic social units that still govern marriages, social networks, food

taboos, and rituals in India In the past it regulated the choice of occupation: hereditary and caste-specific More than 2,000 jatis in India; divided into four varnas

The Brahmins – priests Kshatriyas – rulers and warriors Vaisyas – mercantile class Sudras – service groups, agriculturists, and artisans

Dharma Dalits

The “Givens” of Indian Society: From Hierarchy to PluralityThe “Givens” of Indian Society: From Hierarchy to Plurality

Language Key component of identity Divided into two main groups: Indo-Aryan languages of

the North and the Dravidian languages of the South Largest single language is Hindi, which, along with

English, is recognized as an official language of India. Social Class

Did not develop a revolutionary peasant movement Industrial working class is quite small and only a

fraction is unionized Middle peasant cultivators Pressures of mechanization; more landless

Language Key component of identity Divided into two main groups: Indo-Aryan languages of

the North and the Dravidian languages of the South Largest single language is Hindi, which, along with

English, is recognized as an official language of India. Social Class

Did not develop a revolutionary peasant movement Industrial working class is quite small and only a

fraction is unionized Middle peasant cultivators Pressures of mechanization; more landless

Political Institutions and the Policy ProcessPolitical Institutions and the Policy Process Like many former British colonies, India adopted a

parliamentary democracy Has survived many challenges including political change,

societal change and wars Decentralization of power; devolution; rule of five

The President Designed with the British monarch in mind; in practice, the

office combines ceremonial roles with some substantive powers Power formally vested in the president, and he is expected to

exercise these powers on the advice of the Council of Ministers, with the prime minister at its head.

The Prime Minister Controls and coordinates the departments of government and

determines policy through the submission of a program for parliamentary action

If he commands a majority in the Lok Sabha, his government is secure.

Like many former British colonies, India adopted a parliamentary democracy Has survived many challenges including political change,

societal change and wars Decentralization of power; devolution; rule of five

The President Designed with the British monarch in mind; in practice, the

office combines ceremonial roles with some substantive powers Power formally vested in the president, and he is expected to

exercise these powers on the advice of the Council of Ministers, with the prime minister at its head.

The Prime Minister Controls and coordinates the departments of government and

determines policy through the submission of a program for parliamentary action

If he commands a majority in the Lok Sabha, his government is secure.

Political Institutions and the Policy Process: The ParliamentPolitical Institutions and the Policy Process: The Parliament Upper House – the Rajya Sabha (the Council of

States) has some features of the U.S. Senate (India is a federation)

Lower House – Lok Sabha (House of the People) 545 members; 543 are directly elected and two are

nominated by the president of India as representatives of the Anglo-Indian community

Simple majority; single member constituencies; 5 year term; can be dissolved

Guaranteed representation of former untouchables and trials in the Lok Sabha – “reserved seats”

Designed to be an instrument of democratic accountability

Upper House – the Rajya Sabha (the Council of States) has some features of the U.S. Senate (India is a federation)

Lower House – Lok Sabha (House of the People) 545 members; 543 are directly elected and two are

nominated by the president of India as representatives of the Anglo-Indian community

Simple majority; single member constituencies; 5 year term; can be dissolved

Guaranteed representation of former untouchables and trials in the Lok Sabha – “reserved seats”

Designed to be an instrument of democratic accountability

Political Institutions and the Policy Process: The ParliamentPolitical Institutions and the Policy Process: The Parliament Zero hour Ultimate control over the executive lies in the

motion of no-confidence Rajya Sabha consists of a maximum of 250

members, of which twelve are nominated by the president for their special knowledge or practical experience.

The legislative process generally follows the British practice. Once both houses pass a bill, it requires the

president’s assent to become a law. Joint sessions are used to resolve conflicts. Lack of party discipline

Zero hour Ultimate control over the executive lies in the

motion of no-confidence Rajya Sabha consists of a maximum of 250

members, of which twelve are nominated by the president for their special knowledge or practical experience.

The legislative process generally follows the British practice. Once both houses pass a bill, it requires the

president’s assent to become a law. Joint sessions are used to resolve conflicts. Lack of party discipline

Political Institutions and the Policy Process: The JudiciaryPolitical Institutions and the Policy Process: The Judiciary Constitution committed to individual rights of equality

and liberty System that is both independent from external control

and free to interpret the law Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction in

disputes between the Union government and one or more states, or disputes between two or more states

It has appellate jurisdiction in any case, civil or criminal that involves a question of law in the meaning and intent of the Constitution

Supreme Court determines the constitutionality of any enactment.

Constitution committed to individual rights of equality and liberty

System that is both independent from external control and free to interpret the law

Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction in disputes between the Union government and one or more states, or disputes between two or more states

It has appellate jurisdiction in any case, civil or criminal that involves a question of law in the meaning and intent of the Constitution

Supreme Court determines the constitutionality of any enactment.

Political Institutions and the Policy Process: The BureaucracyPolitical Institutions and the Policy Process: The Bureaucracy

Bureaucratic apparatus that is both professionally organized and politically accountable

Enormously complex system that combines national or all-India services with regional and local services IAS, IPS

Bureaucratic apparatus that is both professionally organized and politically accountable

Enormously complex system that combines national or all-India services with regional and local services IAS, IPS

The Federal StructureThe Federal Structure

Fear of “balkanization” Special features of the Indian Constitution

Produce highly centralized form of federalism Division of powers between the central government and the

states with a bias in favor of the center The financial provisions affecting the distribution of revenues

Kashmir Test of the integrative ability of the Indian political system

Union List Special powers: emergency powers; use of executive

powers, special legislative powers State List Pattern of cooperation between center and the states

Fear of “balkanization” Special features of the Indian Constitution

Produce highly centralized form of federalism Division of powers between the central government and the

states with a bias in favor of the center The financial provisions affecting the distribution of revenues

Kashmir Test of the integrative ability of the Indian political system

Union List Special powers: emergency powers; use of executive

powers, special legislative powers State List Pattern of cooperation between center and the states

The Articulation of InterestsThe Articulation of Interests

Trade Unions and Employer’s Associations Under India’s labor law, any seven workers

can set up a trade union All India Trade Union Congress All India Railwaymen’s Federation Interest groups closely affiliated with parties

Indigenous Interests Satyagraha Chipko Indian Peasant Union

Kisans

Trade Unions and Employer’s Associations Under India’s labor law, any seven workers

can set up a trade union All India Trade Union Congress All India Railwaymen’s Federation Interest groups closely affiliated with parties

Indigenous Interests Satyagraha Chipko Indian Peasant Union

Kisans

The Articulation of InterestsThe Articulation of Interests

Local Politics Social activists Dharna Gherao Rajiv Gandhi

Local Politics Social activists Dharna Gherao Rajiv Gandhi

The Articulation of InterestsThe Articulation of Interests

Democracy and the challenge of governance Indian case demonstrates how

transactional politics within firm boundaries laid down and defended with overwhelming force by the state have helped in the functioning of representative political institutions.

Democracy and the challenge of governance Indian case demonstrates how

transactional politics within firm boundaries laid down and defended with overwhelming force by the state have helped in the functioning of representative political institutions.

The Articulation of InterestsThe Articulation of Interests

The Military Professional and apolitical character of the

army Office corps of India has remained

nonpartisan even during political turmoil. Absence of leadership vacuum at the upper

and middle levels of the system and the fragmented character of the command structure = relative immunity of the Indian political system from a military takeover

The Military Professional and apolitical character of the

army Office corps of India has remained

nonpartisan even during political turmoil. Absence of leadership vacuum at the upper

and middle levels of the system and the fragmented character of the command structure = relative immunity of the Indian political system from a military takeover

The Party SystemThe Party System

The Congress System The Congress Party

The Bharatiya Janata Party The Communist Party The social bases of the parties

Congress Party cuts across all social groups and cleavages of India; catch-all party

Hindu nationalist BJP is very much a party of the Hindu-Hindi-belt – has extended somewhat beyond the upper social order and Hindu upper caste

Communist parties (CPM and CPI) attracts more support from lower social classes and the more educated voters.

The Congress System The Congress Party

The Bharatiya Janata Party The Communist Party The social bases of the parties

Congress Party cuts across all social groups and cleavages of India; catch-all party

Hindu nationalist BJP is very much a party of the Hindu-Hindi-belt – has extended somewhat beyond the upper social order and Hindu upper caste

Communist parties (CPM and CPI) attracts more support from lower social classes and the more educated voters.

The Political Socialization and Political CultureThe Political Socialization and Political Culture

The interaction of tradition and modernity W.H. Morris-Jones: three idioms: the modern,

the traditional, and the saintly Political learning

Schooling is limited, and primary schooling is not a federal subject

Mass illiteracy Liberalization and penetration by the

electronic media Elections

Participation has stabilized around 60%

The interaction of tradition and modernity W.H. Morris-Jones: three idioms: the modern,

the traditional, and the saintly Political learning

Schooling is limited, and primary schooling is not a federal subject

Mass illiteracy Liberalization and penetration by the

electronic media Elections

Participation has stabilized around 60%

Political RecruitmentPolitical Recruitment

Percentage of politicians of rural origin has grown in the Lok Sabha over the years

Percentage of Brahmins has dropped significantly

Many regional governments have become important recruitment ground for new leaders and a school for training these potential leaders.

Percentage of politicians of rural origin has grown in the Lok Sabha over the years

Percentage of Brahmins has dropped significantly

Many regional governments have become important recruitment ground for new leaders and a school for training these potential leaders.

Policies to address the Economy, Welfare and PovertyPolicies to address the Economy, Welfare and Poverty

Politics of incremental growth and redistribution Mass poverty has always been high on the nation’s

political agenda National Development Council Eliminated famine and a reliance on imported food Green Revolution Food procurement Planned development based on mixed economy

“commanding heights” – dominated by the public sector achieved some welfare and some negative side-effects

Quota-permit-raj Corruption and inefficiency Manmohan Singh - liberalization

Politics of incremental growth and redistribution Mass poverty has always been high on the nation’s

political agenda National Development Council Eliminated famine and a reliance on imported food Green Revolution Food procurement Planned development based on mixed economy

“commanding heights” – dominated by the public sector achieved some welfare and some negative side-effects

Quota-permit-raj Corruption and inefficiency Manmohan Singh - liberalization

Conclusion: Democracy and DevelopmentConclusion: Democracy and Development

What kind of democracy will emerge over the nest decades in India? An elitist, affluent, and secure India A majoritarian democracy, reforming but still poor,

armed with nuclear teeth, threatening its neighbors Democratic potential of politics from below Its “million mutinies” ensconced in the context

of a responsive state and elites well versed in the art and science of governance, can pave the transition to liberal democracy despite predictions to the contrary.

What kind of democracy will emerge over the nest decades in India? An elitist, affluent, and secure India A majoritarian democracy, reforming but still poor,

armed with nuclear teeth, threatening its neighbors Democratic potential of politics from below Its “million mutinies” ensconced in the context

of a responsive state and elites well versed in the art and science of governance, can pave the transition to liberal democracy despite predictions to the contrary.