CHAPTER NINETEEN · Web viewA reaction in self-contained breathing apparatuses is: 4 KO2(s) + 2 CO2(g) → 2 K2CO3(s) + 3 O2(g); Potassium superoxide reacts with exhaled CO2 to produce

CHAPTER NINETEEN

THE REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS: GROUPS 1A THROUGH 4A

For Review

1. Oxygen and silicon are the two most abundant elements in the earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere. Oxygen is found in the atmosphere as O2, in the oceans in H2O, and in the earth’s crust primarily in silicate and carbonate minerals. Because oxygen is everywhere, it is not too surprising that it is the most abundant element. The second most abundant element, silicon, is found throughout the earth’s crust in silica and silicate minerals that form the basis of most sand, rocks, and soils. Again, it is not too surprising that silicon is the second most abundant element, as it is involved in the composition of much of the earth.

The four most abundant elements in the human body are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Not surprisingly, these elements form the basis for all biologically important molecules in the human body. They should be abundant.

2. Hydrogen forms many compounds in which the oxidation state is +1, as do the Group 1A elements. For example, H2SO4 and HCl compare to Na2SO4 and NaCl. On the other hand, hydrogen forms diatomic H2 molecules and is a nonmetal, while the Group 1A elements are metals. Hydrogen also forms compounds with a 1 oxidation state, which is not characteristic of Group 1A metals, e.g., NaH.

3. Alkali metals have a ns1 valence shell electron configuration. Alkali metals lose this valence electron with relative ease to form M+ cations when in ionic compounds. They all are easily oxidized. Therefore, in order to prepare the pure metals, alkali metals must be produced in the absence of materials (H2O, O2) that are capable of oxidizing them. The method of preparation is electrochemical processes, specifically, electrolysis of molten chloride salts and reduction of alkali salts with Mg and H2. In all production methods, H2O and O2 must be absent.

One would predict the alkali metal oxides to all have the M2O formula. However, only lithium does this in the presence of excess oxygen gas. Two other types of oxides can form with alkali metals, hence, making prediction of the oxide formula difficult. The two other oxides formed are peroxides, M2O2, and superoxides, MO2. In peroxides, certain alkali metals form an ionic compound with the peroxide anion, O2

2. In superoxides, certain alkali metals form an ionic compound with the superoxide anion, O2

.

A reaction in self-contained breathing apparatuses is: 4 KO2(s) + 2 CO2(g) → 2 K2CO3(s) + 3 O2(g); Potassium superoxide reacts with exhaled CO2 to produce O2, which then can be breathed.

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CHAPTER 19 THE REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS: GROUPS 1A THROUGH 4A

The formulas of the compounds between alkali metals and other nonmetals are much easier to predict. From Table 19.6, MF, M2S, M3N (Li only), MH, and MOH are the predicted formulas when alkali metals react with F2, S, N2, H2, and H2O, respectively. These formulas exhibit the typical oxidation states as predicted by the periodic table.

4. The two major industrial uses of hydrogen are ammonia (NH3) production and hydrogenation of vegetable oils.

The three types of hydrides are ionic, covalent, and metallic (or interstitial). The ionic and covalent hydrides are true compounds obeying the law of definite proportions and differ from each other in the type of bonding. The interstitial hydrides are more like solid solutions of hydrogen with a transition metal and do not obey the law of definite proportions.

5. Alkaline earth metals have ns2 for valence electron configurations. They are all very reactive, losing their two valence electrons to nonmetals to form ionic compounds containing M2+

cations. Alkaline earth metals, like alkali metals, are easily oxidized. Their preparation as pure metals must be done in the absence of O2 and H2O. The method of preparation is electrolysis of molten alkaline earth halides.

The alkaline earth ions that give water the hard designation are Ca2+ and Mg2+. These ions interfere with the action of detergents and form unwanted precipitates with soaps. Large scale water softeners remove Ca2+ by precipitating out the calcium ions as CaCO3. In homes, Ca2+

and Mg2+ (plus other cations) are removed by ion exchange. See Figure 19.7 for a schematic of a typical cation exchange resin.

6. Table 19.8 summarizes the formulas of alkaline earth metals with typical nonmetals. With a rare exception or two, there aren’t many surprises. The typical formulas are MF2, MO, MS, M3N2, MH2, and M(OH)2, when alkaline earth metals are reacted with F2, O2, S, N2, H2, and H2O, respectively.

7. The valence electron configuration of Group 3A elements is ns2np1. The lightest Group 3A element, boron, is a nonmetal as most of its compounds are covalent. Aluminum, although commonly thought of as a metal, does have some nonmetallic properties as its bonds to other nonmetals have significant covalent character. The other Group 3A elements have typical metal characteristics; its compounds formed with nonmetals are ionic. From this discussion, metallic character increases as the Group 3A elements get larger.

As discussed above, boron is a nonmetal in both properties and compounds formed. However aluminum has physical properties of metals like high thermal and electrical conductivities and a lustrous appearance. The compounds of aluminum with other nonmetals, however, do have some nonmetallic properties as the bonds have significant covalent character.

An amphoteric substance is one that can behave as either an acid or as a base. Al 2O3 dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions. The reactions are:

Al2O3(s) + 6 H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Al2O3(s) + 2 OH(aq) + 3 H2O(l) → 2 Al(OH)4(aq)

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8. The formulas that aluminum form with nonmetals (as well as the formulas of other heavier Group 3A elements) are summarized in Table 19.10. The compounds formed between aluminum and F2, O2, S, and N2 follow what would be predicted for ionic compounds containing Al3+. However, there is some covalent character in these compounds. The formulas are AlF3, Al2O3, Al2S3, and AlN.

9. The valence electron configuration of Group 4A elements is ns2np2. The two most important elements on earth are both Group 4A elements. They are carbon, found in all biologically important molecules, and silicon, found in most of the compounds that make up the earth’s crust. They are important because they are so prevalent in compounds necessary for life and the geologic world.

As with Group 3A, Group 4A shows an increase in metallic character as the elements get heavier. Carbon is a typical nonmetal, silicon and germanium have properties of both metals and nonmetals so they are classified as semimetals, while tin and lead have typical metallic characteristics.

Carbon forms strong covalent bonds with itself as well as with other nonmetals like H, O, N, and P. Carbon also forms bonds. Silicon, on the other hand, forms a very strong single bond with oxygen and does not form bonds. Silicon would rather have SiO bonds than any other type of bond, including multiple bonds. This is unlike carbon.

The two major allotropic forms of carbon are graphite and diamond. See Section 10.5 for their structures and a description of their properties.

10. Germanium is a relatively rare element and is classified as a semimetal. Its main uses are in the manufacture of semiconductors. Tin is a metal and is used to form alloys with other metals. Some alloys containing tin are bronze, solder, and pewter. Tin’s major current use is as a protective coating for steel which helps prevent the corrosion of iron in steel. Lead is a metal, but has a relatively low melting point. Lead is very toxic and the use of lead paints and lead additives to gasoline are not allowed in the United States. The major use of lead is for electrodes in the lead storage battery used in automobiles.

Ge forms GeF4 when reacted with F2 and forms GeO2 when reacted with O2. Both these compounds have Ge in the predicted +4 oxidation state as determined from its position in the periodic table. However, the fluorine compound is strictly covalent in nature, while the oxygen compound has more ionic character.

Questions

1. The gravity of the earth is not strong enough to keep the light H 2 molecules in the atmos-phere.

2. The small size of the Li+ cation results in a much greater attraction to water. The attraction to water is not as great for the other alkali metal ions. Thus, lithium salts tend to absorb water.

3. The acidity decreases. Solutions of Be2+ are acidic, while solutions of the other M2+ ions are neutral.

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4. Compounds called boranes have three-centered bonds. Three-centered bonds occur when a single H atom forms bridging bonds between two boron atoms. The bonds have two electrons bonding all three atoms together. The bond is electron deficient, and makes boranes very reactive.

5. In graphite, planes of carbon atoms slide easily along each other. In addition, graphite is not volatile. The lubricant will not be lost when used in a high-vacuum environment.

6. Quartz: crystalline, has long range order; the structure is an ordered arrangement of 12-membered rings, each containing six Si and six O atoms.

Amorphous SiO2: no long range order; irregular arrangement that contains many different ring sizes. See Chapter 10.5 of the text.

7. Group 3A elements have one fewer valence electron than Si or Ge. A p-type semiconductor would form.

8. Size decreases from left to right and increases going down the periodic table. So, going one element right and one element down would result in a similar size for the two elements diagonal to each other. The ionization energies will be similar for the diagonal elements since the periodic trends also oppose each other. Electron affinities are harder to predict, but atoms with similar size and ionization energy should also have similar electron affinities.

9. For groups 1A-3A, the small size of H (as compared to Li), Be (as compared to Mg), and B (as compared to Al) seems to be the reason why these elements have nonmetallic properties, while others in the groups 1A-3A are strictly metallic. The small size of H, Be, and B also causes these species to polarize the electron cloud in nonmetals, thus forcing a sharing of electrons when bonding occurs. For groups 4A-6A, a major difference between the first and second members of a group is the ability to form bonds. The smaller elements form stable bonds, while the larger elements are not capable of good overlap between parallel p orbitals and, in turn, do not form strong bonds. For group 7A, the small size of F as compared to Cl is used to explain the low electron affinity of F and the weakness of the FF bond.

10. Counting over in the periodic table, the next alkali metal will be element 119. It will be located under Fr. One would expect the physical properties of element 119 to follow the trends shown in Table 19.4. Element 119 should have the smallest ionization energy, the most negative standard reduction potential, the largest radius and the smallest melting point of all the alkali metals listed in Table 19.4. It should also be radioactive like Fr.

11. Solids have stronger intermolecular forces than liquids. In order to maximize the hydrogen bonding in the solid phase, ice is forced into an open structure. This open structure is why H2O(s) is less dense than H2O(l).

12. Beryllium has a small size and a large electronegativity as compared to the other alkaline earth metals. The electronegativity of Be is so high that it does not readily give up electrons to nonmetals as is the case for the other alkaline earth metals. Instead, Be has significant covalent character in its bonds; it prefers to share valence electrons rather than give them up to form ionic bonds.

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Exercises

Group 1A Elements

13. a. ΔH° = 110.5 [75 + (242)] = 207 kJ; ΔS° = 198 + 3(131) [186 + 189] = 216 J/K

b. ΔG° = ΔH° TΔS°; ΔG° = 0 when T = = = 958 K

At T > 958 K and standard pressures, the favorable ΔS° term dominates, and the reaction is spontaneous (ΔG° < 0).

14. a. ΔH° = 2(46 kJ) = 92 kJ; ΔS° = 2(193 J/K) [3(131 J/K) + 192 J/K] = 199 J/K;

ΔG° = ΔH° TΔS° = 92 kJ 298 K(-0.199 kJ/K) = 33 kJ

b. Because ΔG° is negative, this reaction is spontaneous at standard conditions.

c. ΔG° = 0 when T = = = 460 K

At T < 460 K and standard pressures, the favorable ΔH° term dominates and the reaction is spontaneous (ΔG° < 0).

15. a. lithium oxide b. potassium superoxide c. sodium peroxide

16. a. Li3N b. K2CO3 c. RbOH d. NaH

17. a. Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2 LiOH(aq) b. Na2O2(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 NaOH(aq) + H2O2(aq)

c. LiH(s) + H2O(l) → H2(g) + LiOH(aq)

d. 2 KO2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2 KOH(aq) + O2(g) + H2O2(aq)

18. 4 Li(s) + O2(g) → 2 Li2O(s)

16 Li(s) + S8(s) → 8 Li2S(s); 2 Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 LiCl(s)

12 Li(s) + P4(s) → 4 Li3P(s); 2 Li(s) + H2(g) → 2 LiH(s)

2 Li(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 LiOH(aq) + H2(g); 2 Li(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2 LiCl(aq) + H2(g)

19. 2 Li(s) + 2 C2H2(g) → 2 LiC2H(s) + H2(g); This is an oxidation-reduction reaction.

20. We need another reactant beside NaCl(aq) because oxygen and hydrogen are in some of the products. The obvious choice is H2O.

2 NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2 NaOH(aq)

Note that hydrogen is reduced and chlorine is oxidized in this electrolysis process.Group 2A Elements

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21. a. magnesium carbonate b. barium sulfate c. strontium hydroxide

22. a. Ca3N2 b. BeCl2 c. BaH2

23. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

24. 2 Sr(s) + O2(g) → 2 SrO(s); 8 Sr(s) + S8(s) → 8 SrS(s)

Sr(s) + Cl2(g) → SrCl2(s); 6 Sr(s) + P4(s) → 2 Sr3P2(s)

Sr(s) + H2(g) → SrH2(s); Sr(s) + 2 H2O(l) → Sr(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Sr(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → SrCl2(aq) + H2(g)

25. In the gas phase, linear molecules would exist.

In the solid state, BeF2 has the following extended structure:

26. BeCl2, with only four valence electrons, needs four more electrons to satisfy the octet rule. NH3 has a lone pair of electrons on the N atom. Therefore, BeCl2 will react with two NH3

molecules in order to achieve the octet rule, making BeCl2(NH3)2 the likely product in excess ammonia. BeCl2(NH3)2 has 2 + 2(7) + 2(5) + 6(1) = 32 valence electrons.

27. = 5.3 × M F = 5 × M F

CaF2(s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + 2 F(aq) Ksp = [Ca2+][ F]2 = 4.0 × ; Precipitation will occur when Q > Ksp. Let’s calculate [Ca2+] so that Q = Ksp.Q = 4.0 × = [Ca2+]o = [Ca2+]o(5 × )2, [Ca2+]o = 2 × M

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F Be F

BeFF

F FBe

F

FBe

H N Be N H

H Cl H

H Cl H


CaF2(s) will precipitate when [Ca2+]o > 2 × M. Therefore, hard water should have a calcium ion concentration of less than 2 × M in order to avoid CaF2(s) formation.

28. CaCO3(s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + CO32(aq)

Initial s = solubility (mol/L) 0 0Equil. s s

Ksp = 8.7 × = [Ca2+] [CO32] = s2, s = 9.3 × mol/L

29. Ba2+ + 2 e → Ba; 6.00 hr

= 3.84 × 106 g

Ba

30. Alkaline earth metals form +2 charged ions so 2 mol of e- are transferred to form the metal, M.

mol M = 748 s × = 1.94 × mol M

molar mass of M = = 24.3 g/mol; MgCl2 was electrolyzed.

Group 3A Elements

31. a. AlN b. GaF3 c. Ga2S3

32. Tl2O3, thallium(III) oxide; Tl2O, thallium(I) oxide; InCl3, indium(III) chloride; InCl, indium(I) chloride

33. B2H6(g) + 3 O2(g) → 2 B(OH)3(s)

34. B2O3(s) + 3 Mg(s) → 3 MgO(s) + 2 B(s)

35. Ga2O3(s) + 6 H+(aq) → 2 Ga3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Ga2O3(s) + 2 OH(aq) + 3 H2O(l) → 2 Ga(OH)4(aq)

In2O3(s) + 6 H+(aq) → 2 In3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l); In2O3(s) + OH(aq) → no reaction

36. Al(OH)3(s) + 3 H+(aq) → Al3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Al(OH)3(s) + OH(aq) → Al(OH)4(aq)

37. 2 Ga(s) + 3 F2(g) → 2 GaF3(s); 4 Ga(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Ga2O3(s)

16 Ga(s) + 3 S8(s) → 8 Ga2S3(s); 2 Ga(s) + N2(g) → 2 GaN(s)

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Note: GaN would be predicted, but in practice, this reaction does not occur.

2 Ga(s) + 6 HCl(aq) → 2 GaCl3(aq) + 3 H2(g)

38. 2 Al(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) + 6 H2O(l) → 2 Al(OH)4(aq) + 2 Na+(aq) + 3 H2(g)

Group 4A Elements

39. CF4, 4 + 4(7) = 32 e- GeF4, 4 + 4(7) = 32 e- GeF62-, 4 + 6(7) + 2 = 48 e-

tetrahedral; 109.5°; sp3 tetrahedral; 109.5°; sp3 octahedral; 90°; d2sp3

In order to form CF62−, carbon would have to expand its octet of electrons. Carbon

compounds do not expand their octet because of the small atomic size of carbon and because no low energy d-orbitals are available for carbon to accommodate the extra electrons.

40. CS2 has 4 + 2(6) = 16 valence electrons. C3S2 has 3(4) + 2(6) = 24 valence electrons.

41. a. SiO2(s) + 2 C(s) → Si(s) + 2 CO(g)

b. SiCl4(l) + 2 Mg(s) → Si(s) + 2 MgCl2(s)

c. Na2SiF6(s) + 4 Na(s) → Si(s) + 6 NaF(s)

42. Sn(s) + 2 Cl2(g) → SnCl4(s); Sn(s) + O2(g) → SnO2(s)

Sn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → SnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

43. Lead is very toxic. As the temperature of the water increases, the solubility of lead increases. Drinking hot tap water from pipes containing lead solder could result in higher lead concentrations in the body.

44. Pb(OH)2(s) ⇌ Pb2+ + 2 OH Ksp = 1.2 × = [Pb2+][OH]2

Initial s = solubility (mol/L) 0 1.0 × MEquil. s 1.0 × + 2s ≈ 2s

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Ge

F

FF F

2-

Ge

F

FF

F F

FC

F

F FF

S C S linear; S C C C S linear


Ksp = (s)(2s)2 = 1.2 × , 4s3 = 1.2 × , s = 6.7 × mol/L; Assumption good.

Pb(OH)2(s) is more soluble in acidic solutions. Added H+ reacts with OH to form H2O. As OH is removed through this reaction, more Pb(OH)2(s) will dissolve to replenish the OH.

45. C6H12O6(aq) → 2 C2H5OH(aq) + 2 CO2(g)

46. Sn(s) + 2F2(g) → SnF4(s), tin(IV) fluoride; Sn(s) + F2(g) → SnF2(s), tin(II) fluoride

47. The π electrons are free to move in graphite, thus giving it greater conductivity (lower resistance). The electrons in graphite have the greatest mobility within sheets of carbon atoms, resulting in a lower resistance in the plane of the sheets (basal plane). Electrons in diamond are not mobile (high resistance). The structure of diamond is uniform in all directions; thus, resistivity has no directional dependence in diamond.

48. SiC would have a covalent network structure similar to diamond.

Additional Exercises

49. Heat released = 0.250 g Na × = 2.00 kJ

To melt 50.0 g of ice requires: 50.0 g ice × = 16.7 kJ

The reaction doesn't release enough heat to melt all of the ice. The temperature will remain at 0°C.

50. If Be3+, the formula is Be(C5H7O2)3 and molar mass ≈ 13.5 + 15(12) + 21(1) + 6(16) = 311 g/mol.

If Be2+, the formula is Be(C5H7O2)2 and molar mass ≈ 9.0 + 10(12) + 14(1) + 4(16) = 207 g/mol.

Data Set I (molar mass = dRT/P and d = mass/V):

molar mass = = = 209

g/molData Set II:

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molar mass = = = 202

g/molThese results are close to the expected value of 207 g/mol for Be(C5H7O2)2. Thus, we conclude from these data that beryllium is a divalent element with an atomic mass of 9.0 amu.

51. 15 kWh = = 5.4 × 107 J or 5.4 × 104 kJ (Hall process)

To melt 1.0 kg Al requires: 1.0 × 103 g Al × = 4.0 × 102 kJ

It is feasible to recycle Al by melting the metal because, in theory, it takes less than 1% of the energy required to produce the same amount of Al by the Hall process.

52. Borazine (B3N3H6) has 3(3) + 3(5) + 6(1) = 30 valence electrons. The possible resonance structures are similar to those of benzene, C6H6.

53. HgbO2 → Hgb + O2 ΔG° = (70 kJ)Hgb + CO → HgbCO ΔG° = 80 kJ____________________________________________HgbO2 + CO → HgbCO + O2 ΔG° = 10 kJ

ΔG° = RT ln K, K = = 60

54. CO, 4 + 6 = 10 e; CO2, 4 + 2(6) = 16 e; C3O2, 3(4) + 2(6) = 24 e

There is no molecular structure for the diatomic CO molecule. The carbon in CO is sp hybridized. CO2 is a linear molecule, and the central carbon atom is sp hybridized. C3O2 is a linear molecule with all of the central carbon atoms exhibiting sp hybridization.

55. n = 2 for this reaction (lead goes from Pb → Pb2+ in PbSO4).

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N

BN

B

NB

HH

HH

H

HN

BN

B

NB

HH

HH

H

H


E = E° = 2.04 V

E = 2.04 V + 0.077 V = 2.12 V

56. For 589.0 nm: ν = = 5.090 × 1014 s1

E = hν = 6.6261 × J s × 5.090 × 1014 = 3.373 × J

For 589.6 nm: ν = c/λ = 5.085 × 1014 ; E = hν = 3.369 × J

The energies in kJ/mol are:

3.373 × J × = 203.1 kJ/mol

3.369 × J × = 202.9 kJ/mol

57. Strontium and calcium are both alkaline earth metals, so they have similar chemical properties. Because milk is a good source of calcium, strontium could replace some calcium in milk without much difficulty.

58. The Be2+ ion is a Lewis acid and has a strong affinity for the lone pairs of electrons on oxygen in water. Thus, the compound is not dehydrated easily. The ion in solution is Be(H 2O)4

2+. The acidic solution results from the reaction: Be(H2O)4

2+(aq) ⇌ Be(H2O)3(OH)+(aq) + H+(aq)

59. The "inert pair effect" refers to the difficulty of removing the pair of s electrons from some of the elements in the fifth and sixth periods of the periodic table. As a result, multiple oxidation states are exhibited for the heavier elements of Groups 3A and 4A. In +, In3+, Tl+ and Tl3+

oxidation states are all important to the chemistry of In and Tl.

60. Element 113 would fall below Tl in the periodic table. Element 113: [Rn] 7s25f146d107p1.

61. Major species present: Al(H2O)63+ (Ka = 1.4 × 10-5), NO3

(neutral) and H2O; Kw = 1.0 × . Al(H2O)6

3+ is a stronger acid than water so it will be the dominant H+ producer.

Al(H2O)63+ ⇌ Al(H2O)5(OH)2+ + H+

Initial 0.050 M 0 ~0x mol/L Al(H2O)6

3+ dissociates to reach equilibriumChange x → +x +xEquil. 0.050 x x x

Ka = 1.4 × =

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x = 8.4 × M = [H+]; pH = log(8.4 × ) = 3.08; Assumptions good.

62. Tl3+ + 2 e → Tl+ E° = 1.25 V 3 I → I3

+ 2 e E° = -0.55 V ______________________________________ Tl3+ + 3 I → Tl+ + I3

= 0.70 V

In solution, Tl3+can oxidize I to I3. Thus, we expect TlI3 to be thallium(I) triiodide.

63. Ga(I): [Ar]4s23d10, no unpaired e; Ga(III): [Ar]3d10, no unpaired e

Ga(II): [Ar]4s13d10, 1 unpaired e; Note: s electrons are lost before the d electrons.

If the compound contained Ga(II), it would be paramagnetic, and if the compound contained Ga(I) and Ga(III), it would be diamagnetic. This can be determined easily by measuring the mass of a sample in the presence and in the absence of a magnetic field. Paramagnetic compounds will have an apparent increase in mass in a magnetic field.

64. a. Out of 100.0 g of compound there are:

44.4 g Ca × = 1.11 mol Ca; 20.0 g Al × = 0.741 mol Al

35.6 g O × = 2.23 mol O

= 1.50; = 1.00; = 3.01; Empirical formula is Ca3Al2O6.

b. Ca9Al6O18

c. There are covalent bonds between Al and O atoms in the Al6O1818- anion; sp3 hybrid

orbitals on aluminum overlap with sp3 hybrid orbitals on oxygen to form the sigma bonds.

65. 750. mL grape juice ×

= 1.54 mol CO2 (carry extra significant

figure)

1.54 mol CO2 = total mol CO2 = mol CO2(g) + mol CO2(aq) = ng + naq

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= = 326 ng

= = 43.0 naq

= 326 ng = 43.0 naq and from above, naq = 1.54 ng; Solving:

326 ng = 43.0(1.54 ng), 369 ng = 66.2, ng = 0.18 mol

= 326(0.18) = 59 atm in gas phase

C = = × 59 atm = 1.8 mol CO2/L in wine

66. Pb3O4: We assign 2 for the oxidation state of O. The sum of the oxidation states of Pb must be +8. We get this if two of the lead atoms are Pb(II) and one is Pb(IV). Therefore, the mole ratio of lead(II) to lead(IV) is 2:1.

67. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H3AsO4(aq) → PbHAsO4(s) + 2 HNO3(aq)

Note: The insecticide used is PbHAsO4 and is commonly called lead arsenate. This is not the correct name, however. Correctly, lead arsenate would be Pb3(AsO4)2 and PbHAsO4 should be named lead hydrogen arsenate.

Challenge Problems

68. Table 19.2 lists the mass percents of various elements in the human body. If we consider the mass percents through sulfur, that will cover 99.5% of the body mass which is fine for a reasonable estimate. In our calculation, we assumed an average human mass of 150 lb = 68,000 g.

mol O = 0.650 × 68,000 g × 1 mol O/16.00 g O = 2760 molmol C = 0.180 × 68,000 g × 1 mol C/12.01 g C = 1020 molmol H = 0.100 × 68,000 g × 1 mol H/1.008 g H = 6750 molmol N = 0.030 × 68,000 g × 1 mol N/14.01 g N = 150 molmol Ca = 0.014 × 68,000 g × 1 mol Ca/40.08 g Ca = 24 molmol P = 0.010 × 68,000 g × 1 mol P/30.97 g P = 22 molmol Mg = 0.0050 × 68,000 g × 1 mol Mg/24.31 g Mg = 14 molmol K = 0.0034 × 68,000 g × 1 mol K/39.10 g K = 5.9 molmol S = 0.0026 × 68,000 g × 1 mol S/32.07 g S = 5.5 mol

Total mol elements in 150 lb body = 10,750 mol atoms

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10,750 mol atoms × = 6.474 × 1027 atoms 6.5 × 1027 atoms

69. The reaction is: X(s) + 2H2O(l) → H2(g) + X(OH)2(aq)

mol X = mol H2 = = 0.249 mol

molar mass X = = 40.2 g/mol; X is Ca.

Ca(s) + 2 H2O(l) → H2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq); Ca(OH)2 is a strong base.

[OH] = = 0.0499 M

pOH = log(0.0499) = 1.302, pH = 14.000 – 1.302 = 12.698

70. GaAs can be either 69GaAs or 71GaAs. The mass spectrum for GaAs will have 2 peaks at 144 (= 69 + 75) and 146 (= 71 + 75) with intensities in the ratio of 60:40 or 3:2.

Ga2As2 can be 69Ga2As2, 69Ga71GaAs2, or 71Ga2As2. The mass spectrum will have 3 peaks at 288, 290, and 292 with intensities in the ratio of 36:48:16 or 9:12:4. We get this ratio from the following probability table:

69Ga (0.60) 71Ga (0.40)69Ga (0.60) 0.36 0.2471Ga (0.40) 0.24 0.16

71. CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq); H2CO3(aq) is a diprotic acid with = 4.3 ×

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144 146


and = 5.6 × . Because >> , the H+ contribution from the reaction will be insignificant.

H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3

Initial 0.50 mol/1.0 L ~0 0Change x +x +xEquil. 0.50 M x x x

= 4.3 × = , x = [H+] = 4.6 × M; Assumptions good.

pH = log(4.6 × ) = 3.34 HCO3

⇌ H+ + CO32

Initial 4.6 × M 4.6 × M 0Change x +x +xEquil. 4.6 × x 4.6 × +x x

= 5.6 × = = x

x = [CO32] = 5.6 × M; Assumptions good.

72. a. K+ (blood) ⇌ K+ (muscle) ΔG° = 0; ΔG = RT ln ; ΔG = wmax

ΔG = (310. K) ln , ΔG = 8.8 × 103 J/mol = 8.8 kJ/mol

At least 8.8 kJ of work must be applied to transport 1 mol K+.

b. Other ions will have to be transported in order to maintain electroneutrality. Either anions must be transported into the cells, or cations (Na+) in the cell must be transported to the blood. The latter is what happens: [Na+] in blood is greater than [Na+] in cells as a result of this pumping.

c. ΔG° = RT ln K = (8.3145 J/K mol)(310. K) ln 1.7 × 105 = 3.1 × 104 J/mol = 31 kJ/mol

The hydrolysis of ATP (at standard conditions) provides 31 kJ/mol of energy to do work. We need 8.8 kJ of work to transport 1.0 mol of K+.

8.8 kJ × = 0.28 mol ATP must be hydrolyzed.

73. Pb2+ + H2EDTA2 ⇌ PbEDTA2 + 2 H+

Before 0.0010 M 0.050 M 0 1.0 × M (buffer, [H+] constant)

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Change 0.0010 0.0010 → +0.0010 No change Reacts completelyAfter 0 0.049 0.0010 1.0 × New initial

conditionsx mol/L PbEDTA2 dissociates to reach equilibrium

Change +x +x ← xEquil. x 0.049 + x 0.0010 x 1.0 × (buffer)

K = 1.0 × 1023 = =

1.0 × 1023 ≈ x = [Pb2+] = 2.0 × M; Assumptions good.

74. SiCl4(l) + 2 H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 Cl(aq)

ΔH° = 911 + 4(0) + 4(167) [-687 + 2(286)] = 320. kJ

ΔS° = 42 + 4(0) + 4(57) [240. + 2(70.)] = 110. J/K; ΔG° = ΔH° - TΔS°

ΔG° = 0 when T = ΔH°/ΔS° = 320. × 103 J/(110. J/K) = 2910 K

Due to the favorable ΔH° term , this reaction is spontaneous at temperatures below 2910 K.

The corresponding reaction for CCl4 is:

CCl4(l) + 2 H2O(l) → CO2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 Cl(aq)

ΔH° = 393.5 + 4(0) + 4(167) [135 + 2(286)] = 355 kJ

ΔS° = 214 + 4(0) + 4(57) [216 + 2(70.)] = 86 J/K

Thermodynamics predict that this reaction would be spontaneous at any temperature.

The answer must lie with kinetics. SiCl4 reacts because an activated complex can form by a water molecule attaching to silicon in SiCl4. The activated complex requires silicon to form a fifth bond. Silicon has low energy 3d orbitals available to expand the octet. Carbon will not break the octet rule; therefore, CCl4 cannot form this activated complex. CCl4 and H2O require a different pathway to get to products. The different pathway has a higher activation energy and, in turn, the reaction is much slower. (See Exercise 19.75.)

75. Carbon cannot form the fifth bond necessary for the transition state because of the small atomic size of carbon and because carbon doesn't have low energy d orbitals available to expand the octet.

76. White tin is stable at normal temperatures. Gray tin is stable at temperatures below 13.2°C. Thus for the phase change: Sn(gray) → Sn(white), ΔG is () at T > 13.2°C and ΔG is (+) at T

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< 13.2°C. This is only possible if ΔH is (+) and ΔS is (+). Thus, gray tin has the more ordered structure.

77. PbX4 → PbX2 + X2; From the equation, mol PbX4 = mol PbX2. Let x = molar mass of the halogen. Setting up an equation where mol PbX4 = mol PbX2:

; Solving, x = 127.1; The halogen is iodine, I.

Integrative Exercises

78. 1.75 × 108 g pitchblende

= 6.7 × 1022 atoms Ra

Radioactive decay follows first order kinetics.

= kt = = , N = 14.4 mg Ra

14.4 × g Ra = 3.84 × 1019 atoms Ra

79. a. mol In(CH3)3 = = 0.0693 mol

mol PH3 = = 0.0561 mol

Because the reaction requires a 1:1 mole ratio between these reactants, the reactant with the small number of moles (PH3) is limiting.

0.0561 mol PH3 = 8.18 g InP

The actual yield of InP is: 0.87 × 8.18 g = 7.1 g InP

b. = 9.79 × m = 979 nm

From the Figure 7.2 of the text, visible light has wavelengths between 4 × m and 7 × m. Therefore, this wavelength is not visible to humans; it is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum.

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c. [Kr]5s24d105p4 is the electron configuration for tellurium, Te. Because Te has more valence electrons than P, this would form an n-type semiconductor (n-type doping).

80. a. SnF3: 4 + 3(7) + 1 = 26 e; Assuming covalent bonding:

trigonal pyramid; sp3 hybridization

b. 4 NaF(aq) + 3 SnF2(aq) → Na4Sn3F10(s)

c. mol NaF = 0.0350 L × = 4.38 × mol

mol SnF2 = 0.0155 L × = 2.29 × mol

= 1.91

The balanced equation requires a 4:3 (= 1.33) mol ratio between NaF and SnF2. Because actual > theoretical, the denominator (SnF2) is limiting.

2.29 × mol SnF2 = 4.87 g Na4Sn3F10

Marathon Problem

81. The answer to the clues are: (1) BeO is amphoteric; (2) NaN3 is the compound used in airbags; (3) Fr is radioactive; (4) Na has the least negative E value (the symbol in reverse is an); (5) K2O is potash; (6) Only Li forms Li3N; (7) In is the first group 3A element to form stable +1 and +3 ions in its compounds (the second letter of the symbol is n).

Inserting the symbols into the blanks gives Ben Franklin for the name of the American scientist.

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CHAPTER NINETEEN · Web viewA reaction in self-contained breathing apparatuses is: 4 KO2(s) + 2 CO2(g) → 2 K2CO3(s) + 3 O2(g); Potassium superoxide reacts with exhaled CO2 to produce

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