CHAPTER III - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in › bitstream › 10603 › 6753 › 11 › 11...The brackish water marsh, which could be reclaimed and used for brackish water Prawn

INLAND FISHERIES - A DETAILED ACCOUNT

CHAPTER III

Indian economy is predominantly an agro-rural

economy. A cursory glance at the rural economy of India generally

presents the portraits of a number of people living under conditions of

poverty and penury. This segment of the Indian economy is characterized

by inadequate momentum and motivation necessary for economic

upliftment and emancipation. Consequently, the rural sector in totality

appears to be a spectrum of incohesive and disjointed block of immense

but inert resources and potentialities.

This is particularly true of the fishing community of

Kerala. It is usually assumed that most, if not all, small scale fishing

communities, particularly in tropical countries represents the poorest and

the most disadvantaged part of rural societies. As a result, these

populations have been targeted for poverty alleviation by fisheries

development programmes, since the early 60’s. Unfortunately many of

these early programmes have failed in achieving their objectives due to

the lack of understanding of the complex livelihood strategies and

network of socio-economic and institutional relationships, which 70

characterize the different strata of these societies. In this chapter, an

attempt is made to address the detailed aspects of inland fisheries sector.

FRESH WATER RESOURCES:

It is beyond doubt that the inland fisheries resources

globally are quite extensive and rich in potential. Some of the resources

are under exploited and a large part of them are unexploited. The study of

Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) Fisheries Department gives

the details of inland fisheries resources, the state of world fishers and

fishing vessels. Table 3.1 provides an idea of the inland fisheries

resources of the World.

Table 3.1-Inland Fishery Resources of the World. Sl. No. Resources Size

1. Lakes 1.7 million km2

2. Swamps, Marshes and Wet lands 4 million km2

3. Rivers 299,000 km2

4. Reservoirs 400,000 km2

Source: FAO,“The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture” part. 3. 2003, p.4

India’s inland fishery resources are as diverse as they

are plentiful, comprising rivers, flood plains, estuaries, mangroves,

estuarine impoundments, lagoons, upland lakes, reservoirs and ponds

(Table 3.2). 71

Table 3.2 Inland Fisheries Resources of India: Sl. No. Resources Size

1. Rivers and Canals 173287 Kms. 2. Swamps and other Wet lands 1097787 Kms.

3 Flood plain Lakes 202213 ha

4 Upland lakes 72000 ha

5. Mangroves 356500 ha

6. Estuaries 285000 ha

7. Lagoons 190500 ha

8. Reservoirs 3153366 ha

9. Fresh water ponds 2254000 ha

10. Brackish water ponds 1235000 ha

Source: Sugunan. V.V (1995), Reservoir Fisheries of India, FAO-Fisheries Technical paper 345, Rome, p.423.

The management of capture fisheries is provided by

the rivers, estuaries and the lakes, but the culture fisheries are provided

by tanks and ponds. Besides extensive river system, there is a variety of

inland water ranging from icy- cold tanks to tropical fresh water ponds.

The major fresh water inland water bodies are Ganga system, the

Brahmaputra system and the Indus system in the northern part of India

and the East coast river system and the West coast river system in the

southern India.

In India, inland fisheries are classified as fresh water

aquaculture, including the pond culture of carps, brackish water

aquaculture involving mostly shrimp culture and capture fisheries in

rivers, estuaries, lakes, reservoirs etc.

72

State wise details of inland water resources of various

types in India are given in the appendix.1.The water resources for the

development of inland fisheries in Kerala are very abundant

(Appendix.II). The inland water area with their dynamic environment and

rich fauna and flora are known to be potentially rich in fishery resources.

However, due to greater emphasis in the development of marine fisheries

of the State, the inland fisheries have not received the desired attention.

There are 41 west flowing rivers and 3 east flowing

rivers in Kerala. The details of rivers in Kerala are shown in

Appendix.III.

Reservoir fisheries have attracted much attention

these days. A large number of reservoirs are associated with various river

systems all over the country. Surface area of reservoirs owned by States

in India is given in Appendix.IV. This great water mass is now exploited

for developing the fisheries of a large number of exotic and local species.

Several carps and Tilapia contribute much in developing fisheries of the

reservoirs. Under the pilot project assisted by Germany, culture fisheries

were taken up on an organized scale during the eighth Five-year Plan.

Although it is intended to develop in all the reservoirs, it is adopted only

in ten reservoirs with an area of 6776 hectares in Kerala. The per

reservoir annual production of Kerala is estimated to be very low, falling

73

in the range of 5-8 kgms / hectare / Year (G.O.K.2000) 1. Appendix .V,

gives the list of important reservoirs of Kerala and Table 3.3 shows the

important reservoir heads where farm or nursery facilities are available in

Kerala. It helps in the supply of seedlings to the farmers for culture.

Table 3.3-Reservoir Heads in where Farm/ Nursery Facilities Available:

Sl. No. Name of reservoirs District

1. Malampuzha Palakkad

2. Meenkara Palakkad

3. Mangalam Palakkad

4. Pothundi Palakkad

5. Walayar Palakkad

6. Peechi Thrissur

7. Neyyar Thiruvananthapuram

8 Vazhani Thrissur

Source : Government of Kerala (2000) –“ Facts and Figures- 2000”, Department of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.104.

The coast of Kerala is strikingly boarded by a string

of backwaters, generally running parallel to the shore – line. These water

bodies locally known as Kayals occupy extensive areas. The backwaters

are found to be prominently existent in the southern half of Kerala coast,

and most of the inland fishermen depend on these water bodies for their

livelihood. The details of important estuaries and backwaters of Kerala

are given in the Appendix.VI.

74

In addition to the resident fauna of the backwaters, it

provides a migratory passage to several catadromous and anadromous

varieties of fishes. It is also an accepted fact that the backwaters of

Kerala provide a good nursery ground for some species of Prawns of the

South- West coast of India. This provides additional opportunities for

exploitation of these important resources of Kerala fishermen.

Lately the State has embarked upon a big programme

to develop brackish water fishery. When fully developed, this may also

cover an area of more than one lakh hectare.

Many of the brackish water resources of Kerala have

now been converted into fish farms by the Brackish Water Fish Farmers

Development Agency (BFFDA). This is a centrally sponsored scheme

with the objective of popularising shrimp farming and to give technical

advice and extension support to fish and prawn farmers. The capture

fishery in brackish water is widely practiced in Ernakulam, Alappuzha

and Kollam and to a limited extent in the other northern coastal districts

and in Kottayam. District wise details of brackish water area available

under the control of BFFDA is given in Table 3.4.

75

Table 3.4 - District Wise Details of Brackish Water Area Available under BFFDA: Sl. No. Districts Area in Hectare 1. Thiruvananthapuram 1423. 98 2. Kollam 8603.62 3. Alappuzha 15222.92 4. Ernakulam 16212.71 5. Thrissur 4271.94 6. Malappuram 1796.26 7. Kozhikode 4162.44 8. Kannur 5944.10 9. Kasarkode 3248,25 10. Kottayam 4326.74

Source: Government of Kerala (2004), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala-2000,” Dept. of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.4.

The brackish water marsh, which could be reclaimed

and used for brackish water Prawn culture, is given in Table 3.5.

Table.3.5- Extent of Brackish Water Marsh Which could be Reclaimed and used for Brackish Water Prawn Culture: Sl.No. Region District Area in

Hectare 1. Kuttanad. Alappuzha 49000 2. Cherthala Alappuzha 49000 3. Cochin- Kanayannur Ernakulam 5700 4. Paravur Ernakulam 1,0000 5. Vaikom Kottayam 10000 6. Thrissur Thrissur 10000 7. North Kerala Thrissur,

Malappuram, Kannur and Kasargode

32000

Total 121600 Source: Government of Kerala (2000), Facts and Figures- 2000, Dept. of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.104.

Malabar is famous for brackish water fisheries. The

areas near the backwaters of Kerala, the Vembanad Kayal have been

76

reclaimed for paddy cultivation. There is only a single annual paddy crop

from July to September. After the harvest, the bunds are raised and

strengthened. At high tide, seawater is let in which carries fishes and

prawns to this confined areas where they live and grow for about six

months, when they are ready for capture. Narakkal has become an

important fish-rearing farm in India. Originally it was a swamp. The farm

consists of several ponds with bunds and sluice gates and occupies an

area of 50 sq. Kms. A similar farm has been set up in Ayiramthengu near

Kayamkulam Lake (Mary Chandy, 1997) 2.

The fishing gears such as Dragnets, Gill nets, Stake

nets, Chineese net, Hooks and Lines are being used in dug- out or plank-

built canoes. Only a very few Vala fishermen have undergone training in

mechanized fishing in inland sector. They use mechanized fishing boats.

The various fishing gears used in inland fisheries are Pattu kannivala

,Vativala, Oduvala, Veezhu vala, Koruvala, Peruvala, Koorivala, Cheena

vala and Stake nets. District –wise details of the total number of fixed

engines in the backwaters of Kerala from 1976- 2003 is shown in the

Appendix.VII.

In brackish water, the State has an age-old traditional

practice of Prawn filtration called Chemmeen vattu which is the mainstay

of brackish water aquaculture. Chemmen vattu existed in about 13,000

77

hectares of paddy and other fields adjacent to the back waters and has led

to the indiscriminative trapping of juvenile prawn and fish

( Sangeevaghosh, 1995). 3

Mangrove areas are the natural nurseries and

breeding grounds of both fin fish and shellfish species and offer shelter to

many more species. The extent of mangrove in Kerala has shrunk

significantly to around 70, 000 hectares. Loss of mangrove area has

mainly been due to urbanization programmes, shrimp farming,

construction of ports etc.

TRENDS IN INLAND PRODUCTION:

The trends in the total fish production of the world

are very interesting. Asia is the most important continent of inland

capture fisheries and it is here that the largest increase in inland

production is occurring. (Table 3.6, Figure 3.1). Since 1992, an average

growth rate of more than 8 percent / annum has been recorded. Six of the

top ten countries of inland fisheries are in Asia (Table 3.7, Figure 3.2).

Africa, the second most important region, the overall trend is towards a

very slight annual increase. In contrast, inland capture is decreasing in

CIS and Baltic States and in North America. In CIS and Baltic States the

decline is due to overexploitation and loss of habitat and is also linked

78

with the region’s political and economic changes that result in the new

approaches.

Table 3.6- Trends in Inland Capture Fisheries by Continental Regions: Period Asia Africa South

America

CIS

&

Baltic

States

North

America

Europe Oceania

1984 3000 2300 1830 1422 1000 480 380

1985 3100 2360 1825 1423 1000 495 375

1986 3175 2360 1825 1423 1000 495 375

1987 3250 2400 1823 1425 993 500 376

1988 3275 2430 1826 1410 976 503 376

1989 3300 2455 1828 1406 965 500 375

1990 3340 2470 1826 1400 960 490 378

1991 3380 2485 1828 1380 958 495 376

1992 3400 2490 1825 1360 950 495 378

1993 3465 2500 1830 1330 947 500 380

1994 3480 2510 1830 1315 947 510 380

1995 3600 2525 1833 1310 940 518 377

1996 3950 2535 1831 1303 936 560 379

Source: Food and Agricultural Organization (2002), “ The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”, Part III, p.5.

79

Figure3.1-Trends in Inland Capture Fisheries by Continental Regions:

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Asia Africa S America CIS &Balitic

N.America Europe Oceania

YEAR

Thou

sand

kilo

tonn

es

Source: Food and Agricultural Organisation (2002), “The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”, Part 111,p.6.

80

Table. 3.7-Inland Capture Fisheries: Top Ten Countries in1996 (Figure 3.2):

Countries Amount of Capture

(in Thousand k. tones)

China 1750

India 650

Bangladesh 600

Indonesia 350

Tansania 325

Russia 300

Thailand 200

Uganda 195

Philippines 185

Brazil 170

Source: Food and Agricultural Organization (2002), “The state of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”, Part III ,P.6.

to resources management. In North America the declining trend is due to

the continuous displacement of commercial fisheries by recreational

fisheries. The recent trend in Europe is towards an increase, while South

America and Oceania have been fairly stable over a long time

(FAO 2002)4..

81

Figure.3.2- Inland Capture Fisheries : Top Ten Countries in 1996:

1750

650 600

350 325 300200 195 185 170

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

Chi

na

Indi

a

Ben

gala

desh

Indo

nasi

a

Tans

ania

Rus

sia

Thai

land

Uga

nda

Phi

lippi

nes

Bra

zil

Source: Food and Agricultural Organisation (2002), “The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”, Part 111, p.7.

Tho

usan

d K

. ton

nes

India is one of the few countries in the World, which

has substantially exploited its inland fisheries potential. With a view to

get better analysis the trends in the year- wise inland production have

been analysed. Regarding the trends in inland production, it can be said

that in general, there was a continuous increase in fish production from

1998- 2002(Appendix VIII). The contribution from inland fisheries to

national fish production has been consistently increasing.

In Kerala also, the total inland production from 1980-

2003 has shown an increasing trend (Table 3.8).

82

Table 3.8- Inland Fish Production in Kerala: (From1980-81 2002-2003): Period Quantity in Tonnes Period Quantity in Tonnes

1980-81 255526 1992-93 42390

1981-82 26059 1993-94 45482

1982-83 26385 1994-95 48192

1983-84 27240 1995-96 49586

1984-85 27617 1996-97 52105

1985-86 28578 1997-98 58215

1986-87 28194 1998-99 65855

1987-88 26932 1999-2000 74130

1988-89 32500 2000-01 85234

1989-90 33312 2001-02 78039

1990-91 36342 2002-03 75036

1991-92 40365 ________ _______

Source; Government of Kerala (2004), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala-2004 “, Department of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.19. From a meagre 25,526 tonnes in 1980-1981, it has

reached 36342 tonnes in 1990- 1991 and 75036 tonnes in 2002- 2003,

with the largest increase in the last decade due to Janakeeya Matsya

Krishi (JMK) initiated by the State. The composition of inland fish

production is changing in favour of culture fisheries from capture

fisheries. The productivity of inland water varies from

83

5 kgms-500kgms/hectare. Studies conducted indicate that this can be

raised to 30 Kgms- 300 Kgms/ hectare (GOK 1987) 5.

Table 3.9 shows the Statewise inland fish production

in India.

Table 3.9 - Statewise Inland Fish Production in India- 1997-1998. States Percentage States Percentage

West Bengal 32 Maharashtra 5

AndhraPradesh 10 Karnataka 4

Bihar 8 Tamil Nadu 4

Uttar Pradesh 7 Kerala 3

Orissa 6 Gujarath 3

Assam 6 Goa 1

MadhyaPradesh 5 Others 6

Source: Government of Kerala(2000), “Facts and Figures-2000”, Department of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram p.12.

Even though Kerala has abundant inland water

resources, the average inland production is about 2.21 percent of the

country’s total inland fish production (Table 3.10).

84

Table. 3.10- Percentage of Kerala in All India Inland Production of Fish from 1980-81 to 1996-97): Period Kerala India % of Kerala in all

India production 1980-81 25526 999200 2. 55 1981-82 26059 939600 2. 77 1982-83 26385 987400 2. 67 1983-84 27240 1082100 2. 51 1984 –85 27617 1090100 2. 53 1985-86 28578 1214100 2. 35 1986-87 28194 125900 2. 23 1987-88 26932 1369400 1. 96 1988-89 32500 1381050 2. 35 1989-90 33312 1483633 2. 24 1990-91 36342 1483231 2 .45 1991-92 40365 1699791 2. 37 1992-93 42390 1930707 2. 19 1993-94 45482 2028544 2. 24 1994-95 48192 2215541 2. 17 1995-96 49586 2340044 2. 11 1996-97 52105 2456290 2. 12

Source: Government of Kerala (1997), “Kerala Economic Review”, 1997,Thiruvananthapuram, State Planning Board, p.71. Above all, there are considerable annual fluctuations

through- out the period in the inland sector. This may be due to the

inadequate measures taken for the conservation and management of the

fisheries resources in this sector.

Kerala has a place of pride in the production and

export of shrimp, the valuable foreign exchange earner. Even though

wide fluctuations have been recorded in the production of shrimp during

the last decades, Kerala has been contributing a substantial share to the

All -India production. The shrimp production reached a record level of

85

83800 tonnes in 1994. Table 3.11 shows the share of Kerala in shrimp

production and export of the country.

The percentage of Kerala share to the All India

export is oscillating between 29 percent and 49 percent (Government of

Kerala 2000) 6. Within fish and fish products, India is highly competitive

in shrimp and prawn and it should try to exploit this strength (Anjani

Kumar 2004) 7.

Table 3.11- The Share of Kerala in Shrimp Production and Export of the Country from 1990-2000.

Year

Marine Shrimp production-

Inland Shrimp Production

Total Export from India

Export from Kerala

% of Kerala’s share

1990 45608 8615 54223 57842 28049 48.49 1991 60780 9648 70437 62378 29784 47.74 1992 51337 10526 61863 26080 36839 48.42 1993 48159 10948 59107 74393 24229 32.56 1994 72426 11374 83800 86541 31691 36.61 1995 43533 12618 56151 101985 34021 33.35 1996 46391 13165 59556 95982 35974 34.47 1997 56827 12878 69699 105482 35432 33.59 1998 58639 13015 71654 100720 19780 29.56 1999 42119 15617 60736 102484 30560 29.81 2000 69167 13548 82715 101275 31468 31.07

Source: (1) Government of Kerala (2004), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics of Keral-2004”, p. 40 (2) Government of Kerala ( 1997), “Economic Review-1997”, State Planning Board,Thiruvananthapuram, p. 572.

The share of inland fisheries to total fish production

has gradually risen from 29 percent in 1951 to 49.6 percent in 1999-2000.

The aquaculture in India, which play a significant role in meeting

86

people’s nutritional requirements, augmenting food supply, earning

foreign exchange and in generating employment is presently making a

constriction on 1.9 million tones against 0.51 million tones in 1984

resisting an increase in about 372 percent. Over the years, the average

national productivity of aquaculture has shown a quantum leap from less

than 500 Kgm/ hectare/ year to 2000 Kgm/ hectare/ year through

adoption of cost effective scientific cultural technologies. Though

aquaculture in India is carp based, the country possesses vast potential in

terms of other species resources for diversification (Reddy and Mohanty.

2003). 8

The annual fish landings in Kerala are subjected to

heavy fluctuations (Appendix.IX and Table 3.12). Most of the inland

species that show wide order of fluctuations belong to capture fisheries.

But the reasons for irregular nature of these have been rarely studied in

full and precise contributory cause has not been determined. But they

have been variously attributed to depletion caused by over fishing,

environmental failures like rainfall, or no management of the system as a

whole. The ecological changes brought about by floods, droughts,

construction of dams and barrages and by water pollution also contribute

to the fluctuations.

The variations in culture fisheries may be because of

87

insufficient management, under stocking of ponds, insufficient use of

inputs for growth of fish, absence of regular water supply, non

availability of specific fish – seed and fingerlings in adequate quantities,

discontinuing of certain varieties of species and such other factors

contribute to fluctuations in inland fish supply.

Table 3.12 - Species wise and Year wise Inland Fish Landings in Kerala (Quantity in tonnes) Sl. No. Name of fish 2000 2001 2002

1 Prawn 16754 16585 16683 2 Etroplus 4750 7345 4203 3 Murrels 4402 4121 3895 4 Mullets 4718 3807 4174 5 Cat- Fish 5050 4465 4468 6 Jew- fish 2946 2642 2606 7 Tilapia 8179 7418 7236 8 Labeofimbriatus 2195 3347 1942 9 Barbus 545 464 482 10 Mrigal 5033 5433 4453 11 Crabs 770 674 681 12 Catla 7046 8016 6231 13 Common carps 7517 7083 6651 14 Chanos 465 309 411 15 Eels 58 82 51 16 Labeo rohita 7150 6426 6326 17 Miscellaneous 3998 3319 3537

Total 81576 81536 74033

Source : Government of Kerala ( 2004 ), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics – 2004”, Dept. of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.18. Prices of fish vary according to the variety, quality

and its supply to the retail market. Variations in prices are being

discussed in Table 3.13.

88

Table 3.13- Inland Fish Production and Their Prices in Kerala –From 1980-81 to 2002 - 03: Year Quantity

(in Metric tones)

Value (Rs. In Lakhs)

Year Quantity (in metric tones)

Value (Rs. In Lakhs)

1980-81 25526 1092 . 91 1992-93 42390 9138 . 78 1981-82 26059 1301 . 60 1993-94 45482 9719 . 71 1982-83 26385 1403 . 59 . 1994-95 48192 13094 . 33 1983-84 27240 1480 . 68 1995-96 49586 14346 . 83 1984-85 27617 1567 . 60 1996-97 52105 15274 . 06 1985-86 28578 1779 . 13 1997-98 58215 17018 . 97 1986-87 28194 2177 . 09 1998-99 65855 24710 . 99 1987-88 26932 2423 . 74 1999-2000 74130 30755 .32 1988-89 27310 4000 . 28 2000-2001 85234 29995 . 20 1989-90 33312 4889 . 09 2001-2002 78039 28867 . 00 1990-91 36342 5828 . 68 2002-2003 75036 30014 . 00 1991-92 40365 7584 . 91 _______ ________ _____

Source; Government of Kerala (2004, “ Inland Fisheries Statistics- 2004”, Dept. of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p. 19.

Prices of some varieties of seasonal fish vary too

much depending upon their supply during festive occasions also.

Culture and export of ornamental fishes is another

source of inland fishery. Annual World export in ornamental fisheries is

around US $ 200 millions. Asia supplies more than 50 percent of world

supply of ornamental fishes. In value terms fresh water species account

for 90 percent of the trade. The State has good potential to exploit the

ornamental trade both in domestic and export markets (Economic

Review. 2003) 9.

89

FISHERMEN POPULATION:

Fishery occupation is hereditary and fishermen get

this work in heritage. This is the first and last occupation for most of

them. To get this work and engage one self, a fisherman does not need

any one’s influence or recommendations. Though fishery can be treated

as an industry, there is no particular type of recruitment system in fishing

industry as it prevails in other industries and services

(Mahesh.V.Joshi1996). 10

In many parts of the world, fishing is a seasonal or

part- time occupation. For this reason, Food and Agricultural

Organization distinguishes between full- time and part- fishers, when

reporting on the population of fishermen. *

* Those deriving at least 90 percent of their income from fishing or aquaculture are

classed as full- time fishers, where as those deriving between 30 percent and 89 percent

of their income from fishing or aquaculture are classed as part- time fishers. ( FAO .

1997, Number of fishers, FAO fisheries Circular No:929, Rome ).

90

Table: 3.14 – Number of Fishers and Aquaculturists in the World: Category of fishers and aquacultuarists

1970

1980

1990

Full- time Fishers 6108000 7988000 11896000

Part- time Fishers 3659000 4784000 9708000

Other occasional Fishers

2639000 3792000 6977000

Total 12406000 16564000 28511000

Source : Food & Agricultural Organization (2002), “ The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”, Part III,p. 8.

In the twenty years from 1970–1990, the

number of full–time fishers and agriculturists grew faster than the

World’s population and the number of part-time fishers grew even faster

(Table 3.14). As a result, 11.8 million fulltime fishers accounted for 41

percent of all fishers in 1990 down from 51 percent in 1970.

The data available for the period from 1990- 1995

indicate a slower increase in the number of fishers. FAO estimates the

number of fishers and aqua culturist in 1997 to have been about 30

million. Closely reflecting the distribution pattern of the world’s

population, 84 percent of the fishers and aqua culturists in 1990, were

active in Asia, and the vast majority of them in China. However, India,

Indonesia and Vietnam also reported more than one million full- time

fishers in 1990.

91

While the number of people employed in fishing and

aquaculture has been growing steadily in most low and middle-income

countries; in industrialized countries like Japan and Norway the numbers

of fishers have been declining or are stationary. In 1990, fishers

represented more than 5 percent of economically active population in the

agricultural sector of 38 countries, in 15 of which the percentage was

about 10 percent. In 1970 and 1990, the number of fishers increased

faster in Asia than anywhere else. In 1970, Asian fishers accounted for 77

percent of the World total; in 1990, they accounted for 83 percent.

During the same period in Africa, where artisanal fisheries still dominate,

the number of fishers also grew but at a slower rate than in Asia. African

fisheries accounted for some 6.5 percent of the World total in1990. South

American fishers accounted for about 3 percent of the World total, where

as in Europe, there were more fishers in 1970 than in 1990. However, the

number of European fishers increased between 1980 and 1990 owing to

the emerging aquaculture industry. In Oceania, the numbers of

commercial fishers are considerably less than one percent of the World

total.

It is also worth noting that the number of part- time

fishers has grown more rapidly than the number of full – time fishers for

the world as a whole in 1990; for every ten full-time fishers, there were

92

nine part-time fishers. Twenty years earlier, the relationship had been six

part-time to ten full-time fishers. However, this is largely an Asian

phenomenon. For the rest of the world, the increase in part- time fishers

between 1970 and 1990 was relatively small. The data of Asia support

the view that fisheries may indeed have been an occupation of last resort

during this period (Food and Agricultural Organization, 2003). 11

The total population of India as per 2001 census was

102.7 crore people i.e. 17 percent of World’s population, on 2.4 percent

of the globe’s land area (Government of India, 2001). 12 Kerala’s

population as per census 2001 is 318.39 lakhs (Government of Kerala,

2001) 13, and the estimated fishermen folk population in Kerala during

2003- 2004 was 10.95 lakhs, which include 8.43 lakhs in marine and

2.52lakhs in the inland sector. The number of active fishermen during the

period was 2.20 lakhs, which comprises 1.79 lakhs in marine and

0.41lakh in inland sector (Government of Kerala, 2004). Ernakulam

district is in the first place in the number of inland fisher folk with a

population of 66342 followed by Alappuzha (64187) and Kollam(35313).

The district – wise details of fisher folk population are presented in

Table3.15.

There are 222 fishing villages in the marine and 113

fishing villages in the inland sector, where fishing and related activities

93

provide livelihood to a vast majority of the population. In Kerala, there

are 249105 inland fishermen and among them 44053 fishermen

(17.68percent) are engaged actively in fishing in 2002- 2003. The district

–wise distribution of active fishermen is given in Table 3.16

Table 3.15 Inland Fishermen Population of Kerala:

SourSoSource:GoveSource: Government of Kerala (2004 ) , “ Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala 2004”, Department of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.7.

Sl. No.

Districts

No. of fishing villages

Population 2000-2001

(Estimated) 2001-02

2002-2003

2003- 2004

1 Thiruvana-nthapuram

4 1390 1403 1417 1431

2 Kollam 26 35313 35646 36002 36352

3 Pathana-mthitta

3 2392 2415 2439 2462

4 Kottayam 8 25705 25947 26206 26461

5 Alappuzha 24 64187 64792 65440 66075

6 Idukki 1 803 811 819 827

7 Ernakulam 15 66342 66986 67638 68293

8 Thrissur 8 20522 20715 20922 21126

9 Palakkad 2 2690 2715 2742 2769

10 Malappuram 6 4514 4557 4603 4647

11 Kozhikode 8 12473 12691 12717 12840

12 Wayanad 1 279 282 285 287

13 Kannur 5 6743 6807 6875 6941

14 Kasergode 2 981 990 1000 1010

Total 113 244334 246639 249105 251521

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Table 3.16- Active Inland Fishermen Population during 2002 – 2003(estimated): Sl. No Districts Total

number of fishermen

Total number of active fishermen

Percentage of active fishermen

1 Thiruvananthapuram 1417 _____ _____

2 Kollam 36002 8490 23.58

3 Pathanamthitta 2439 434 17.79

4 Alappuzha 65440 10834 16. 56

5 Kottayam 26206 7304 27. 87

6 Idukki 819 142 17. 34

7 Ernakulam 67638 9859 14. 58

8 Thrissur 20922 1719 8. 28

9 Palakkad 2742 465 16. .96

10 Malappuram 4603 1332 28. 94

11 Kozhikode 12717 1705 13. 41

12 Wayanad 285 _____ ______

13 Kannur 6875 1410 20. 51

14 Kasergode 1000 359 35. 90

Total 249105 44053 17. 68

Source: Government of Kerala (2004), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics- 2004”, Dept. of Fisheries, Tvm, p. 6.

Even though fishing is the mainstay of the working

population in the fishing communities, other activities are also followed

by supplementing their income. In the inland sector, agriculture, animal

husbandry etc. are some of the subsidiary activities followed. There are a

large number of persons who work as casual labourers also. In recent

years many members of the fishing community have got Government

jobs. In addition to fishing, a good number of persons in the fishing

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community are also engaged in marketing of fish. They are mostly

persons who carry the day’s catch by head load to the nearby households

or markets for selling direct to the consumers (Government of Kerala,

1990) 14.

Lack of alternative viable employment opportunities

remain as a big hindrance in diversification of occupation among the

fishing community. Lack of necessary skills and entrepreneurship also

limits the employment diversification. The situation combined with

regional concentration and low mobility of fisherfolk has direct effect on

increasing pressure on sea resources and increased competition in already

existing occupations. The State has not yet made any considerable

achievements in generating alternative employments. Besides 2.2 lakhs

active marine and inland fishermen, the fisheries sector also offers

employment to a large number of post harvest workers i.e.. Women fish

vendors, cycle / M- 80 fish vendors, fish merchants, export processing

plant workers, head loaders, net pullers, middlemen, helpers etc.

Among the inland fishing community, the possibility

of mobility to other sectors is high. It is observed that in Cochin

backwaters, many of the traditional fishermen have left the sector due to

increasing urbanization and availability of other jobs.

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INLAND FISH MARKETS AND MARKETING:

For any commodity or product marketing is very

important. Marketing process brings together producers and consumers,

the two main participants in exchange. In earlier days fishermen used to

sell their daily catch to consumers locally. This fish-marketing concept

has changed with the rapid increase in fish production. There are four

types of fresh fish retailing business namely retailing in organized

markets, retailing on the road side, door to door retailing and retailing

through cold storages. With the emergence of fish markets, a system of

sales through auction also has come into existence. The fish markets in

Kerala are shown in the Table 3.17.

Kerala is dotted with numerous retail markets at

different localities where different varieties of fish are sold. These

markets are not exclusively fish markets; vegetables and groceries are

also sold there.

The prices of fish vary according to the variety,

quality and its supply to the retail markets. In Kerala, the price of fish has

increased at very high rates in later 1980’s and 1990’s when compared to

1970’s and 1980’s. The inland fishes are sold in the nearby local fish

retail markets. The producers also sell directly to consumers from their

farms and also the hotels nearby, getting the maximum possible price.

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The landing price of inland fishes from 2000- 01 to 2002-03 is shown in

Appendix.X. The average landing price of various inland fishes per

kilogram from 2000-2003 is given in Appendix .XI. All these years show

different pictures. Increased marketability of fish has meant a manifold

increase in the value of the fish for the producers. With increasing

distances and sophistication of packing and marketing, many new players

and intermediaries entered in to the fish marketing activity. This may

have provided employment to some poor people.

Table 3.17-District –wise Details of Fish Markets in Kerala: Sl.No. District Wholesale

Markets Retail markets

Total

1 Thiruvananthapuram 12 313 325

2 Kollam 21 303 324

3 Pathanamthitta 3 154 157

4 Alappuzha 8 228 236

5 Kottayam 28 67 95

6 Idukki 11 117 128

7 Ernakulam 7 190 197

8 Thrissur 12 124 136

9 Palakkad 5 79 84

10 Malappuram 19 178 197

11 Kozhikode 24 352 376

12 Kannur 17 170 187

13 Wayanadu 16 81 97

14 Kasergode 2 162 164

Total 185 2518 2703

Source: Government of Kerala (2004), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala- 2004”, Department of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p.11.

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In the marketing process of fish, a middleman

(tharakan) appear between production and marketing activity. He helps to

conduct auction on behalf of fishermen and also lend money for the

needy fisher -folk. Then the fishermen would sell their catch only

through these tharakans and he takes 10 percent of the sales as his

commission. In order to avoid middleman’s exploitation, the fishermen

have set up co- operative fish marketing societies, Matsya Vipana

Sanghom and Ulnadan Matsya Thozhilali Vikasana shema Sahakarana

Sanghom in different parts of the State.

Some farmed fish and some estuarine species such as

eels seem to reach markets in live condition. Field observation has shown

that fish such as Varal (Channa) and crabs are being transported live to

urban markets (Crabs are exported to Singapore and other South Asian

countries), from the backwaters.

Little information is available on the place of

transaction of inland fish in Kerala. As the inland fish production

constitutes only around 12 percent, there does not exist exclusive markets

for inland fish. Rather they find their way to already existing, widely

dispersed markets in the State and get absorbed there (Field observation).

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ROLE OF AQUACULTURE

In addition to traditional agriculture, ancillary and

allied activities like dairy, poultry, sericulture, horticulture etc. have

attracted considerable attention of the rural people. However, a very

profitable activity like aquaculture came to be ignored till very recently.

Aquaculture is the technique of utilising any body of water, irrespective

of its nature and size for rearing aquatic animals and cultivating aquatic

plants of commercial importance. The role of aquaculture for augmenting

protein food production, improving rural economy and providing large-

scale employment opportunities has been well organized. The high

demands for prawn and shrimps in World markets and their in ability of

the natural fisheries to meet this demand has developed an almost world

wide interest in their culture in the last twenty years. Although a variety

of species are found to be amenable for culture, the commonly cultivated

fishes are carps, cat- fishes, Tilapia and ornamental fishes. The rapid

extension of aquaculture has been to a large extent in the production of

relatively high priced species like shrimps, prawns, cray- fishes, trout,

salmon and oysters. Another important item in aquaculture is the sea-

weed, which is largely used as food and in industry. The returns from

aquaculture are 2- 15 times higher than traditional aquaculture. The

productivity is also higher in aquaculture (Menon, 1991). 15

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However, several observations made on the capture

of fish d stock indicate that the fish landings are either stagnant or

depleted in traditional fishing areas. Compared to the sluggish growth of

fisheries supply, the consumption of fishery products has been increasing

in tandem with exponential growth of population, creating a huge gap

between supply and demand for fisheries. (MPEDA 1992) 16.

Aquaculture development is expected to bridge the gap between the

demand for and the supply of fish because aquaculture yields more fish

per unit area than that of natural resources (Srinivasa Sasthri. 1989). 17

Fresh water, brackish water and marine farms are

commonly used for aquatic farming. Brackish water fish culture appears to

have developed in India as an interim phase of resource utilization of

expensive saline swamps found in deltaic regions and mud flats occurring

contiguous to lagoons, bays and creeks for paddy cultivation. Modern

aquaculture farm consists of nurseries, rearing and stocking ponds, and it

needs selective stocking of compatible species in appropriate densities. It

also includes the proper management of pond fertilization and proper

feeding to obtain predicable harvests.

Fish seed is one of the crucial inputs in fresh water

fisheries. There are at present 400 fish seed production hatcheries all over

India, mostly in the private sector producing Carp seeds on a commercial

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basis. For timely availability of quality seed in adequate quantities,

Government of India launched the National Fish Seed Production

Programme, 47 commercial fish seed hatcheries were planned for

construction with 70 percent cost provided by Government of India as

loans to State Government and Corporations. Test check of the

implementation of seed production activities in various States revealed that

construction of fish seed farms was faulty in some cases, closed mid- way

resulting in infructuous expenditure, production of fish seed was far below

the target, rate of mortality of spawns was high, cost of production of seed

was high etc. There are ten fish seed farms under the State Government in

Kerala (Table 3.18).

Fish Farmer’s Development Agency (FFDA),

Brackish Water Fish Farmer’s Development Agency (BFFDA), Agency

for the Development of Aquaculture (ADAK), Fisheries Resource

Management Society (FIRMA), and the Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute (CIFRI), Alappuzha etc. are the agencies for implementing

various aquaculture developmental activities in the State.

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Table3.18- Fish Seed Farms and Fish Seed Production from 1999-03

Sl. No.

Name of farms 1999-2000 2000- 2001 2001-2002 2002-2003

1 NFSE, Malampuzha

64,46719 44,94000 28,76323 43,95000

2 FFDA, Meenkara 38,1653 85,8050 86,698 75,600

3 Ullanam 49,7472 36,96512 54,0000 30,4795

4 Kodungalloor _____ 11,0055 53,650 64,400

5 Pallom Fish Farm 37,1200 34,0960 10,000 12,2694

6 NFSE, Polachira 14,39000 14,76600 10,99780 72,5025

7 Pannivelichira 15,16100 76,7569 68,2495 77,6257

8 Neyyar Dam 19,0000 19,5000 15,2226 21,9600

9 Azhikode 18,043200 18,045720 56,63864 53,63435

10 BFFDAShrimp hatchery, Kollam

38,3500 50,35000 10,955000 20,12475

Source: Government of Kerala ( 2004), “ Inland Fisheries Statistics- 2004” , Department

of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, p. 24.

FISH FARMER’S DEVELOPMENT AGENCY:

It is a centrally sponsored scheme to promote fish

farming and to overcome the constraints in respect of extension, training

and financing of fresh water aquaculture development programmes. It is

functioning at the District level and is registered under the Charitable

Societies Act. It helps the fish farmers:

To arrange leasing of water area.

To bring all the cultivable water area under the scheme.

To create a new cadre of fish farmers.

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To popularize fish culture.

To provide increased employment opportunities to rural

people.

To improve rural economy through fish culture.

PATTERN OF ASSISTANCE PROVIDED BY FFDA:

20 percent subsidy for construction of new ponds.

20 percent subsidy for pond renovation.

20 percent in put subsidy (Fish seed, Fish feed etc.).

20 percent subsidy for integrated fish culture.

Aerator subsidy at 25 percent.

20 percent subsidy for fish feed unit.

10 percent subsidy for setting up of integrated units including

hatcheries for ornamental fish.

Grant for Fish farmer’s Training center.

There are 14 FFDAS in the 14 Districts of Kerala.

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BRACKISH WATER FISH FARMER’S DEVELOPMENT

AGENCY (BFFDA):

It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 50 percent assistance

from Government of India and registered under the Charitable Societies

act. BFFDA helps to popularise:

Shrimp farming.

Provide technical, financial and extension support to prawn farmers.

Survey and identification of areas suitable to prawn culture.

Impart training to prawn farmers.

PATTERN OF ASSISTANCE:

Provision of 25 percent subsidy for Prawn farm construction.

10 percent subsidy for establishment of Shrimp hatchery.

Incentive for training in Shrimp farming.

Rs.30, 000/- as subsidy per hectare for construction of new ponds to

undertake semi- intensive prawn farming.

BFFDA’s in Kerala are at Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam,

Kozhikode and Kannur.

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AGENCY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE ,

KERALA ( ADAK ):

It was established in the year 1989 by the Government of

Kerala as an autonomous agency to implement various aqua cultural

development activities. The Head Office of ADAK is at

Thiruvananthapuram and the regional offices are at Kannur and

Ernakulam. At present ADAK is implementing two major schemes for the

development of Shrimp farming in the State - integrated development of

aquaculture in Kuttanad and integrated development of Pokkali paddy

fields. During the Tenth Five-year plan ADAK proposes to implement

sustainable development of shrimp farming in 2500 hectares of Pokkali

fields in Ernakulam and Thrissur Districts.

FISHERIES RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SOCIETY

(FIRMA):

It is sponsored by Government of Kerala and registered

under Travancore – Cochin Literary Scientific and Charitable Societies

Act. It reviews and evaluates all fishery development, management and

conservation programmes in Kerala. It also undertakes comprehensive

inter disciplinary research studies and build up appropriate contracts with

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other research and developmental agencies such as CMFRI, CIFT,

MPEDA and Universities.

The programmes of FIRMA include,

Afforestation of mangroves and creation of natural breeding grounds

of Shrimp / Prawns.

To study the social and economic impact of trawling ban during

monsoon period.

Mahseer project on Western Ghats.

Enlisting of aquatic organism’s threatened extinction in the rivers

and other water bodies in the Western Ghats.

Project for the alleviation of poverty in the coastal areas through self

help groups.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(CIFRI):

The Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,

Alappuzha under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Government

of India established in 1994, based on a request of the Government of

Kerala,is undertaking research in this region, on the following aspects:

To study the environmental quality of the inland water resources of

the South West Coast of India both in terms of spatial and temporal

variations.

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To ascertain the productivity status of the inland resources of the

region and optimising fish production.

To evaluate the bio- diversity of various aquatic organisms in the

water bodies.

To collect and study the catch data, stock, composition, abundance,

biology and other population parameters of commercially important

species in the water bodies.

Based on the environmental and bio- diversity assessment, suitably

long term management norms for eco- friendly exploitation to be

suggested.

JANAKEEYA MATSYA KRISHI:

The Janakeeya Matsya Krishi (JMK) is implemented

by the State Government to augment inland fish production with the active

participation of people since 1997- 1998.During 1999-2000, 862 local

bodies have participated in this programme. A total of 9149 hectare has

been brought under fish culture. A production of 21600 tonnes of fish,

1600 tonnes of fresh water prawns and 2100 tonnes of brackish water

prawns has been achieved during the year. Around 43,000 farmers have

benefited. Organising “ Farmers Rearing Groups” under the scheme

produced around 108 lakhs of quality fish seeds. Fresh water aquaculture is

108

on the verge of growth due to “JMK” programme (Government of Kerala

2000).

With a view to fishery resources in inland

water bodies and to increase the income of inland fishermen, ‘ ranching of

fish seeds’ was carried out in selected rivers and other water bodies under

social fisheries scheme. During the last four years 3.68 crores of fish

fingerlings and fresh water prawn seeds were stocked. The State has

claimed to have to become self sufficient in fish and prawn seed

production through the establishment of new hatcheries by MATSYAFED

at Mopila Bay, Veliamcode and Thirumullavaram. ADAK’s scheme for

the development of 1000 hectare Pokkali field in Ernakulam district is

expected to Produce 1940 tonnes of Prawn per year. As a result of various

programmes successfully implemented in the inland sector, inland fish

production increased from 49600 tonnes (1995-1996) to 74,200 tonnes

(1999-2000). The performance of Janakeeya matsya krishi is presented in

Appendix.XII.

Aquaculture has an important role in the economic

development of Kerala. Kerala is rich in water resources and the

productivity of water is many fold compared to that of soil and can be

utilized in a three dimensional manner. However, high input based, high

tech farming system, while generating beneficial effects also contributes

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significantly to the degradation of aquatic environment (mainly

commercial coastal Shrimp culture).

PROBLEMS IN INLAND FISHING:

Problems plaguing the inland fishery resources

include the depletion of water bodies and fish habitat destruction,

pollution hazards, destructive fishing, fish diseases, clandestine

introduction of exotic species, intensive seed collection for aquaculture

and the use of banned gears (GOK 2000). Sangeevaghosh (1995)

observed that in the case of capture brackish water fisheries the level of

fishing pressure exerted by Chinese net and Stake net is excessive.

However, due to the transitory and migratory nature of certain fish and

other fauna, the system is surviving and sustaining some yield.

Sangeevaghosh (1995) also observed that in the case of brackish water

culture fisheries juvenile prawns and fish are indiscriminately trapped

and fished out in the traditional Prawn filtration practice chemmeen

vattu. The task force on fisheries and aquaculture observed that Stake

nets which are formally installed in back waters against the ebbing tidal

currents, are now used against the following tidal current to sift the

juvenile and new born prawns that move to the back waters in the tidal

waves. The mesh size of the stake nets, Cast nets and Dragnets has

become smaller in the eagerness to extract what ever is available.

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Consequently the size of prawn has declined and where 120 Prawns were

enough to weigh one kilogram, now it requires1000-1200 prawns

(Government of Kerala 1997. b) 18.

The inland fishing resources are prone to various

types of destructive fishing such as dynamiting, poisoning, electric

fishing etc.. Indiscriminative use of banned gear such as Peruvala and

other destructive fishing methods such as Padal, Andapadal, unethical

fishing practices such as Ettamkettal are still prevalent in the inland

waters of Kerala. A sizeable fraction of the juvenile fishery of the inland

waters is accounted for from these types of gears (GOK 2000).

BIO- DIVERSITY LOSS:

The bio diversity of inland fishery resources of the

State is under significant threat from various types of diseases such as

‘ epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS)’ in indigenous fish, ‘ white spot

disease’ in shrimp etc. The outbreak of disease is mostly attributed to

deteriorating water quality parameters prevailing in the inland water

bodies of Kerala. The clandestine introduction of exotics and other

intrusions into the natural waters also threatens the indigenous fish bio-

diversity; as such fish compete with the indigenous fauna for food and

habitat. Procurement of seed fish, Prawns and Crabs from natural water is

111

a regular feature for the purpose of aquaculture activities, which

adversely affects the stock of the candidate species, besides resulting in

the destruction of non- target species and their stock in the natural waters

(GOK2000). The degradation of mangroves could also have serious

repercussions on the fishery resources. Studies have shown that the

number of fish species in the Cochin backwaters might have declined to

around 70 from 159 earlier, mainly due to pollution and over

exploitation.

A number of barriers and anicuts were constructed

across the major rivers and lakes of Kerala during the past three decades,

which have eventually resulted not only in the transformation of aquatic

ecosystem, but have also obstructed the spawning migration of

commercially important fish and prawns. As a result of deforestation in the

catchment areas, the depth of river and lakes has reduced significantly

through increasing siltation.

The inland water bodies of Kerala receive the

wastewater from around 200 major and medium factories. The wastewater

so released is rich in ammonia, heavy metals like mercury, copper as well

as nitrate, nitrite, hydrochloric acid etc. This upsets the physical and

chemical conditions of water and thus leads to the depletion of inland

species.

112

GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES IN FISHERIES SECTOR:

Initially the Fisheries Department was the sole agency

engaged in the implementation of social security and welfare measures

among the fisher folk. Later newly created agencies such as Fishermen

Welfare Corporation, Kerala State Co- operative Federation for Fisheries

Development (MATSYAFED) and Kerala Fishermen Welfare Fund Board

(Matsyaboard) has entered the arena for supplementing social security

initiatives. The finance for the scheme comes from Plan and Non- plan

assistance of the State, Central Government schemes, financial institutions

and other participants in fishery.

Fishermen co- operatives, which for long time were a

failure, have now become popular after the success of a few fishermen-

initiated societies. Currently there are 594 Primary Co- operative societies

(including 115 women co-operatives, 161 inland co-operatives and 10

project districts), under MATSYAFED, a State level apex body. The co-

operatives take up activities such as supply of inputs (crafts, gears, out

board motors etc.) at subsidized prices, supplying credit, access to

marketing at first point of sale and welfare schemes.

113

INLAND FISHERY REGULATION:

The laws relating to inland fisheries of Kerala are

contained in the rules and orders made under the Inland Fisheries Act 1897

and Travancore- Cochin Fisheries Act 1950. The former Act extends to the

Malabar are namely Palakkad, Malappuram, Kozhikode, Kannur,

Kasergode and Wayanad districts and the latter to the remaining districts of

the State. Both the Acts contain more or less similar provisions for

prohibiting the use of dynamites and poison in all waters and making such

an Act punishable under the Indian Fisheries Act. Other important

provisions common to both the Acts are those that empower the State to

make rules prohibiting or regulating the

Erection and use of fixed engines

Dimensions and kinds of nets to be used and mode of using them.

Fishing in any special water area for a period not exceeding two

years.

Applying the rules so made to waters specified by notification.

Realising the fact that the existing provisions of law

relating to inland fisheries operations are outdated and also realizing the

need to have unified legislation applicable to the entire inland areas of the

114

State, the Department of Fisheries has drawn up a Draft bill. The Draft bill

is under the active consideration by the Government.

In order to introduce aquatic reforms in the State, in the

pattern of land reforms, which transfer ownership of the means of

production to the fishermen and ensures them the right for the first sale of

fish, a committee under the chairman ship of Dr. Raveendran, Director,

CIFT, Cochin will study and submit draft legislation. Another Committee

under the Chairmanship of Dr. Devraj, former Director, CMFRI, has been

constituted to prepare a master plan which will pave the way for sustained

growth of fish production, as well as improvement of socio-economic

conditions of fishermen folk.

REFERENCES:

1. Government of Kerala. (2000), Kerala Calling, Fisheries special,

Department of Public relations,Vol.20 (12), Thiruvananthapuram, pp.8,11,19,23.

2. Mary Chandy. (1997), Fishes, National Book Trust, India, pp.123-124. 3. Sangeevaghosh. (1995), Brackish Water Fishery Resources of

Kerala, Procedings of the Seminar on Fishes, a multi Billion Dollar Industry, August 1995, Madras.

4. Food and Agricultural Organisation. (2002), The State of World

Fisheries and Aquaculture, Part 111, pp. 4-6, 7-9.

115

5. Government of Kerala. (1987), Seminar on Fishery Crisis and Policy

approach- Kerala, Fisheries Research cell, Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 54- 55. 6. Government of Kerala. (2000), Facts and Figures- 2000, Department

of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 33, 90. 7. Anjani Kumar. (2004), Export performance of Indian Fisheries

Strength and Challenges ahead, Economic and political Weekly, September 2004, pp 4264-4270.

8. Reddy, G.P, Mohanty, D.R. (2003), Impact of Aquaculture on

Environment, Yojana, June2003, pp. 23- 25. 9. Government of Kerala. (2003), Economic Review- 2003, State

Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 84, 91. 10. Mahesh, Joshi, V. (1996), Economics of Fisheries, APH Publishing

Corporation, Ansari Road, New Delhi. 11. Food and Agricultural organization. (2003), The State of World

Fisheries and Aquaculture, Part IV, pp. 7-9. 12. Government of India. (2001), Census of India-2001, p. 15. 13. Government of Kerala. (2001), Data Book on Agriculture-2000,

Agricultural Division, State Planning Board, March2001, p. 11. 14. Government of Kerala. (1990), Techno Socio –Economic Survey of

Fisher folk in Kerala, Department of Fisheries, Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 12-27.

116

15. Menon,K.K.G. (1991), BasicAapproaches for Higher Aquaculture

Productivity, V.R. P.Sinha & H.C. Srivastava (Eds), Aquaculture Productivity,OxFord & IBM,New Delhi,p.11.

16. Marine Products Exports and Development Authority (MPEDA).

(1992), Hand Book of Shrimp Farming, Kochi, p.6. 17. Srinivasa Sasthri,C. (1989), Key Note Address to the National Work

shop on Brackish Water Prawn Farming for Higher production, Banglore, October 23- 25,p. 4.

18. Government of Kerala. (1997, b), Report of the Task Force on

Fisheries and Aquaculture, State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram.

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