CHAPTER III - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/40316/4... · 2018-07-02 · Dravidian type of architecture. It is very difficult to explain what makes the taste

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Kanchipuram is the ancient capital of Pallava kingdom is

a renowned town dedicated to the presiding deity, Sri

Kamakshi. It is one of the sacred cities of Hindus.

Kanchipuram situated on the Chengelput – Arakkonam junction

of the Southern Railway. Kanchi is 77 kms distance from

Chennai.

Kanchi is one of the seven holy cities of India, the other

six being Haridwar, Ujjain, Varanasi, Madhura, Ayodya and

Dwaraka and Kanchipuram has been a centre of great activitiy

for religious leaders, among them Saint Appar and

Siruthondar, are famous saints. The city has had glorious

past, successively as the capital of Pallvas, the Cholas and the

Vijayanagar, although while under the Pallava, it had been

invaded and held for a short time by the Chalukyas of Badami

and Rashtrakutas.

Kanchi is one such place. It has been a seat of learning

from times immemorial a center of spiritual activities and a

place hailed as the temple town with more than thousand

temples. This is also the place, where Lord Siva is seen in the

form of Prithvi out of the five elements. Kanchipuram has been

a place enriched by ancient wisdom and further strengthened

by the existence of Kamakoti Pitham supposed to have been

established by Adi Sankara. Hailed as Nagaresu Kanchi (city of

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cities) Kanchipuram stands as a monumental testimony to

India’s rich culture heritage and ancient wisdom.

Kanchipuram is sanctified by Divinity, nourished by

Nature and inspired by Spiritualism. The triple divine

dispensation as manifest in the forms of Moksapuri,

Prthviksetra and Saktipitham, lends sanctity to the place.

Kanchipuram has always been a perennial source of knowledge

expounded by a galaxy of poet’s scholars, saints, and

philosophers. The sum total of wisdom acquired from Vedas

and other sources needs to be properly documented,

preserved and analyses for the benefit of mankind.

Innumerable temples for various Gods of the Hindu pantheon

are found everywhere in towns and villages of Kanchipuram.

Some of them are wonderful monuments with excellent

sculpture, architecture and murals.

Being closely linked with Mahabalipuram by geographical

proximity and historical ties Kanchipuram is imperative for a

fuller appreciation of the magnitude of Pallava architecture. In

this city, we find specimens

of buildings that reflect not only a maturity of Pallava art, but

the heightened effect on these produced by the significant

contributions of the Vijayanagar and Chola rulers.

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The Kanchipuram temples of Siva and Vishnu represent

the best in Dravidian architectural and sculptural traditions

going back to the 7th century A.D. to the creation of which

Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar rulers had contributed

substantially.

The name of Kanchipuram is associated with a cluster of

magnificent temple (and also gorgeously colored silks),

constituting virtually a complete record of the Dravidian

architecture. The artistic excellence of the temples, coupled

with its sanctity as one of the seven sacred cities of India,

Kanchipuram attracts streams of visitors from the nook and

corners of the world through the Year. It has been a centre of

learning and culture for centuries. Buddhism and Jainism once

flourished here, side by side with Hinduism. Adi Sankara, one

of the famous saints of India, established his Episcopal seat

(Kamakotipitam) here1.

3-1 History

Kanchipuram the city of temples, is one of the reputed

Muktishetras, played a dominant role on the political and

cultural history of our county from as early as the third century

B.C. Hiuen – Tsang, the Chinese traveler who came to

Kanchipuram early in the 7th Century A.D. had seen and

described the stupa, which was built by Ashoka here. Even

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earlier to that the pristine glory and importance of

Kanchipuram is well attested to in the puranic literature. But

an authentic and historical limelight of Kanchipuram is first

thrown only during the Sangam period. Perumpana uppadai

vividly describes Kanchipuram and its city plan, as compared

to the form of the Lotus2.

Kanchipuram was a reputed centre of learning, attracted

students from far and beyond, right from the earlier times.

Patanjali, the great grammarian of the 2nd Century B.C referred

to the word "Kanchipuraka" means one associated and hailing

from Kanchi. From the mention of the word "Kanchipuraka" it

can be conjectured that the place Kanchipuram would have

been an intellectual centre, acknowledged as such by Patanjali.

Mayurasarman, the founder of the kadamba dynasty came to

Kanchipuram for higher studies in the reputed University called

"Ghatika" Hiuen – Tsang has praised the city for its intellectual

eminence3.

Besides the Chola king Karikala, who according to the

Tiruvalangadu copper plates, rebuilt of embellished with gold

the city of Kanchi, there is yet another king whose association

with Kanchi is revealed by the verse of the Sangam work called

Perumpanaruppadai. It seems Kanchipuram served as his

Capital. During the Pallava regime (A.D. 4th cent – 9th cent.)

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Kanchipuram functioned as a nucleus of all their activities. The

temple building activity was in full swing during this period.

They have dotted the whole of Kanchipuram and its according

with cluster of monuments numbering more than thirty. Hiuen

Tsang, who visited Kanchipuram during this period,

enumerates some eight Deva temples, and hundreds of

Sangharamas here4.

Kanchipuram, continued to serve as the seat of the royal

power though as secondary capital in the Chola times, owing

to its earlier and traditional prominence, Vijayalaya, the

founder of the imperial Chola line extended the Chola

suzerainty over Kanchipuram. Though the centre of gravity of

the building activity was shifted to Thanjavur during this

period. Kanchipuram was not totally neglected, as is testified

not only by the inscriptions recording the construction and

renovation of the temples, but also by the existence of the

Chola temples there5.

After Chola, the Pandyas, Hoysalas, Telugu – Cholas and

other minor dynasties has their sway over Kanchi, for a very

short period. Finally, Kampana (A.D. 1344-77) son of Bukka I of

the Vijayanagar Empire supplanted the Sambuvaraya chiefs of

padaividy and established their rule over Kanchipuram. During

the Vijayanagar period many additions and alterations were

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made to the already existing temples. Supplementary to the

construction of new ones. Huge prakara, high gopura, pillared

mandapa are the characteristic features of the Vijayanagara

architecture6.

3-2 General characteristic features of Pallava art

In the South old dynasties, the Cheras, the Pandias and

the Cholas declined and new ones appeared of which the chief

was the Pallavas7. The Pallavas patronized learning art and

temple building both cave temples and structural temples

including monolithic rathas and stone carvings of mythological

scenes in Mahabalipuram. Their art is essentially religious8.

The temples were profusely decorated with carvings inside and

outside and their design was more that of monuments, than of

buildings a temple represented, so as to speak a fervent prayer

to the deity9.

Pallavas temple constructions were quiet new in their

style from that of the temples exist prior to Pallavas. There

were only temples constructed of bricks and wood in the

Dravidian type of architecture. It is very difficult to explain

what makes the taste of one period differ from that of another.

A period of elegant taste is some times followed by a reverse.

But however good art and good taste are as often a matter of

morality. In all the fine arts, though there may be certain

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definite standards of artistic merit, the opinion of respected

judges undoubtedly changes with every generation. The

architectural programme also obeyed consideration of political

nature. For instance, the holy city of Mahabalipuram was

founded by Pallava Mamalla10.

When we remember the religious conflicts with which

India was torn at that time and the part of the rulers played in

them, we realize the importance which the kings and

protectors of religion placed on religious edifices11. Almost of

our rulers contributed much to the development of temple

architecture and sculpture. Each of the dynasties remarkably

rendered their sincere services to fine arts. Though there had

been political rivalry between the ruling dynasties of different

region, there had been rivalry in architectural level also.

The rivalry between the Pallava and Chalukya rulers was

reflected on the architectural level; the existence of two

Kailasanatha one at Ellora and other at Kanchi reflects this

spirit of emulation.

Temples were constructed on different materials and in

different structures. But the ideas behind the construction are

the same. The art of ancient India, as we know it is mainly

almost exclusively religious, because secular works, to which

frequent references are made in literature, have not survived

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up to our own day. In fifty century the three religions of India

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were in keen rivalry with one

another. Architecture, sculpture, and painting at that time

attained a degree of technical skill which combined with

aesthetic sensitivity, gave the works produced at that period, a

harmony, a balance and profundity which place them on the

same level as the refinements of literature and the elevation of

contemporary thought12. The religious stir created by the holy

saints in Pallava period makes the rulers to pay more attention

on art.

A detailed analysis on bhakti movement of the saints is

dealt with in the forthcoming chapter. However, as the world

book Encyclopedia estimate, Dravidian art is seen in much of

the architectural of South India. Dravidian buildings are highly

decorated and have much curious sculpture13. The ancient

period temples were small in size, but right from the Pallava

period both building technology and the ritual use of

architecture became increasingly sophisticated. Percy Brown

observed, it is observable at Mamallapuram, now almost

obliterated still gave the town a magnificent look14.

K.V. Subramanya Aiyer declares that "The period which

followed on the wake of Hindu religious revival of South India

honored and invested the religious heads with super human

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powers, witnessed the construction and consecration

throughout the length and breadth of the country of

innumerable structural monuments, richly decorated with a

profusion of sculptural works entailing extraordinary

expenditure, saw the enthroning of the Hindu idolatry with

imposing pomp and resounded with the

public discussions of abstruse problems by the quantificial

heads who were respected to the utmost degree"15. He also

explained that the

earliest of the monuments of South India, shaped by the hands

of men, are the rock-cut caves which the Pallava king

Mahendravarman excavated after his conversion to Saivism

and dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, and other Prance deities.

The cave temple at Vallam, Mahendravadi,

Syamangalam, Dhalavanur, Mandagappattu, Pallavaram and

Tiruchirappalli owe this origin to Pallava king. The Pallava

trained their skill in building monuments also and they were

highly successful in it16. A detailed table

is enclosed at the end of this chapter to show the Pallavas

overall contribution to temple architecture and sculpture.

3-3 Pallavas chronological contribution to religious art

The stone inscription in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram

name the Pallava rules, recounting their great deeds but not

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much light is thrown on their origin17. The inscriptions are in

Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil probably denoting the order in point

of time in which the languages came in to use. Tamil was made

the official language of the realm by the Pallavas who are

believed to have come from the north18. Some scholars

consider them kin to the parathions19.

The main characteristics, however, as handed down by

history are undisputed a war light tradition, which enabled

them to set up a strong kingdom, ensuring a succession of

Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in the north, and the rising Tamil

Princes in the South, and an artistic temperament, which found

expression in a creative Endeavour that has earned for Tamil

Nadu a fame as imperishable as the rocks on which they spent

their skill20.

What is known of the Pallavas from the reign of

Simhavishun 575 – 600 A.D.21 is authentic, unlike those

particulars after often given going farther back to 350 – 500

A.D. Vassals of the Satavahana empire22 became independent

early in the 3rd century and expended their hold over the area

from Kanchipuram to the Krishna. It was during the time of

Simhavishnu, who, on coming to the throne assumed the title

of 'Svarishimha', known as 'Lion of the South23 that the

Pallavas began the career of conquest that brought

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Cholamandalam under their control. Among the sculptures at

Mahabalipuram is a relief of this doughty king with his two

queens. He is also known to have been the patron of Bairavi,

the Sanskrit poet who was the author of Kireetarjuniyam.

Mahendravarman -I is also credited with introducing the

concept of cave temples excavated from solid rock. Most of

monuments of Mahabalipuram, and certainly the rathas, are

said to have been carved during his reign.

The peaceful reign of Narasimhavarman - II 695 -722 A.D

saw the creation of the best of the early Pallava masonry

temples, beginning with the Kailasanatha temple at

Kanchipuram. He assumed the title of Rajasimha24. He greatly

assisted in his endeavors in the field of art by his queen

Rangapathaka25. Nandivarman, 717 – 719 A.D. was responsible

for the other famous temple at Kanchi, the Vaikundaperumal

temple.

Few cities rival Kanchi, the home of Pallava art and the

seat of administration, the wealth of literary, inscriptional and

sculptural work. The great Buddhist scholar Dharmapala

belonged to Kanchi so did Vatsyayana, the author of

Nyayabhasya. The Pallavas were ardent Hindus and Saivism

and Vaishanava literatures flowered during their period in what

may be called a great religious revivalist movement. The

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study of Sanskrit and the Vedas under the influence of Saivism

flourished in Kanchi in what must have been the final phase of

Sanskrit culture and Aryanaisation of the South26. Outside the

country, under the impetus which their rule provided, Sanskrit

culture spread far and wide in South East Asia27. Soon after

them, Tamil took over in the Pallava region under Chola –

Pandya hegemony, and Telugu held sway under the

Rashtrakutas in the Andhra country to the north28. Indian

history in both the north and the south entered a new phase.

Archaeological remains of the Pallava period are found

extensively in the kingdom, but the finest are in Kanchipuram

and Mahabalipuram. Worker of art so numerous and

fascinating as those found in Mahabalipuram could have been

undertaken by a prince of the ruling dynasty29. There are 14

cave temples, nine monolithic shrines, three structural stone

temples and four bas relief rock panels.

Scholars specializing Mahabalipuram have unraveled

some of the mysteries relating to who why and how. Two views

are prevalent on the origin of the monuments-one, that they

were commissioned by one king in particular,

Narasimhavarman - I and the other, it was Rajasimha known as

Narasimhavarma - II who was solely responsible for all of them

in the 8th century30. Historians have not pronounced finally on

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the authorship and the examination of the evidence goes on.

Some archeologists have come out with weighty arguments

against the multiple authorship theory, declaring that all these

monuments were ordered by Rajasimha31. This kings title,

'Atyantakama', which appear to refer to his achievement in

creating an "unlimited variety" of monuments and sculptures32.

But it is on this very variety of styles noted on the work that

the other theory, attributing the monuments to several rulers,

rests. These variation in style, it must be pointed out, are not

obvious at first glance.

The Pallava rulers occupy an important place in the

school on South Indian temple-building that is famous

throughout the world as Dravidian style. A product of a

thousand years of evolution, this style had its faint beginning

in the Pallava period and it was the Pallava rulers who gave it

direction and impetus. It was on their foundations that

significant contributions were made later by the Cholas and

Pandyas. The Pallava rathas were the core of this style and

this essential element of the temple complex took root under

Pallava patronage in the structures in Mahabalipuram and

Kanchipuram. This must have been proceeded simultaneously

with the declining importance of the Buddhist and Jain styles in

the region, south of the Krishna river in Mahabalipuram

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itself, three phases of the architectural development can be

traced corresponding to the periods of the three eminent

rulers, Mahendra varman, Narasimhavarman - I and Rajasimha,

reflecting progressive degrees of refinement that can be

discerned even by the lay man33.

3-4 Artistic style of the Pallavas

The vital artistic style of the Pallava period passed into

history in a process of absorption that censured the continuity

of Tamil cultural tradition34. The Pallava contribution in the

field of architecture and sculpture was prolific and far-flung

from Thirukalukundram in the north to Trichirappalli in the

South. It was a contribution made with rock as the basic raw

materials, as the transformation of the rocks of Mahabalipuram

testify. Where rock stood, figures were carved, sometimes

single sometimes in groups. Structures in the shape of

mandapas were created out of boulders and rathas with all

their ornamentation took shape as sculptured monolithic. The

artist's task was one of cutting, scooping, carving, grinding and

polishing, aided by a geometric conception of form and

features and the vision of the beautiful which is rare to come

by anywhere else in the world35. The Pallava artisans were

indeed the masters of the art of stone.

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Huge stone slabs cut out of rocks and boulders are still a

great part of South Indian temple architecture, to the evolution

of which Pallava artisans have made a significant

contribution36. It is their chariot like structures without wheels,

which find an echo in the Deccan temples. The seven rathas

of Mahabalipuram have pillars, roofs, tapering tops and spire

like endings besides square of rectangular bases marking them

as the forerunners of the latter day temples37. In the storied

upper portion of the rathas, architects have noted the

beginnings of the gopurams in pyramidal towers characteristic

of South Indian temples. The rathas were among the many

interesting monuments brought to light in the re-discovery of

Mahabalipuram at the beginning of 19th century38.

Besides the rathas the sculptured beauty is to be found in

Mahabalipuram in its pillared mandapams and wall panels.

Mandapams are cave like structure scooped from rocks. The

panels on the rock surface inside the mandapam and outside

are art galleries in miniature. The biggest of the bas relief is

carved on a huge rock canvas out in the open and is legendary

event of great significance commonly believed to be Arjuna's

penance. The Gangadhara panel shows Lord Siva holding back

river Ganga in his locks while the river hurtles down from the

heavens to the earth. In the Somaskanda panel Lord Siva is

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seen what his consort Uma and son Skanda. The reposing

Vishnu stretched on the coils of the snake Adisesha Lakshmi on

her lotus seat served buy Elephants, and an armed Durga

sallying forth to fight Mahishasura are other re-creations of

mythology in which the Mahabalipuram artisans revealed.

Art drew its inspiration from mythology because religion

dominated the Hindu life them as it does now39. The best in

Hindu art and letters are those that describe divine beings and

depict their deeds. Literature was a vehicle for the out pouring

of piety. Songs were hymns in praise of Gods and Goddess,

dance a dedication to the divine and sculpture and temples

were a revelation of the highlights of mythology40. The themes

of Hindu temples and sculpture were almost always taken from

the religious texts, legends and traditions41.

3-5 Pallava’s religion in art

The aim of all art was to glorify God and Mahabalipuram

sculptures were re-creations of familiar mythological anecdotes

on which the Hindu mind longs to dwell the Govardhana text,

Arjuna's penance, the Varaha and Vamana episodes and the

destruction of Mahishasura.

The basic tenet of Hinduism is faith in the supremacy of

the Trimurthis i.e., three Lords known as Brahma, Vishnu and

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Siva represented in these sculptures. Brahma is the creator

and has no temple dedicated to him Vishnu is the protector,

and his devotees, the Vaishnavities, Suriya as the destroyer of

evil and his devotees are Saivites like Pallavas. Their consorts

are respectively Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati of the ten

incarnations of Vishnu the most popular and lovable one is

krishnan the charming cowherd of Gokula who finds a place in

the creations on the boulders of Mahabalipuram.

The mythological themes in stone are a manifestation of

the Pallava faith in Hinduism. Buddhism and Jainism which

were making in roads into South India seemed to have suffered

a set back. Appar, the Tamil

Hindu Saint, is created with kindling a religious fervor in King

Narasimhavarman - I belonging to 600 – 630 A.D. which largely

accounted for the revivalist activity in the kingdom taking

various forms42. The sculptural representations of the Gods

and Goddesses of Hindu pantheon of both the Saivite and the

Vaishnavite sects were re-created without distinction, pointing

to the influence of Nayanmars and Alwars, Sages who had

already brought in being a bhakti cult. Siva and Vishnu

sculptures abound in Mahabalipuram as well as those of Devi

and Sakti, Buddhist and Jain motifs styles of architecture are

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meager here and have been absorbed in a totally Hindu mode

of creation43.

A delightful freshness, largely owing to the simplicity of

its folk are origins, marks the Pallava sculptural and

architectural out- turn in Mahabalipuram44. The objects varying

in size from the small to the stupendous, are so many in

number that the work must have gone on unceasingly,

depending probably only on the mood of the ruler and the

strength of his personal image-building impulse. The grace

that abounds in this works, the context of its antiquity – most

of it is nearly 12 centuries old is what matters, and is such as

to evoke admiration. The motivation is not clear enough to

explain the magnitude of the activity. But that only make the

creations of art with religious background, the scale and style

to be seen in Mahabalipuram45.

They have created cave temples rock-out shrines besides

masonry structures. They have filled hill sides with bas relief's

and panels populated with figures of exquisite beauty. The

representation of action is realistic, and of movement, whether

of birds animals or humans entirely natural. They eye is

compellingly drawn to the ideal proportions of the structures

hen out of rock as in the perfections of the Godly and human

forms. The spiritual theme dominates though the secular is

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not absent, both equally well conceived. Kings and warriors,

peasants and devotees, trials and hunters figures in several

panel. The female figures of queen and commoners impress

with their loveliness. What is perhaps the world's oldest

children's slide is also to be found here, close to the penance

panel and in stone too46.

It is the handsome figures of the God and Goddess of the

Hindu pantheon that the Mahabalipuram sculptures have

mainly chosen to provide. The incidents in which the

pantheons were involved as well as the postures, in which they

have been commonly represented, are familiar to every Hindu.

These are the same representations to be found here, only

original in details her and there. The Trimurthis, Brahma,

Vishnu and Siva appear singly or with their consorts, Saraswati,

Lakshmi and Parvati respectively. Siva is often shown as

Gangadhara containing the Ganga in his locks, or as

Somaskanda along with Uma and Skanda, or merly as the

phallic symbol in lingam in shrines. Vishnu gives darshan in

the Anantasayana pose, stretching out with characteristic

grace on the coils of the many-headed snake Adishesha.

His Avatars as Krishan, Varaha and Vamana are

presented. The others omitted47. Lakshmi is seated placidly in

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the lotus. Durga in the act of fighting a buffalo demon

symbolizes the conflict of good and evil.

There are sculptures of demi gods and demons, beings

floating in mid-heaven water nymphs, ragas dvarapalakas and

the mounts of Gods, none of which does any violence to the

senses of the beholder softened as he is by an art suffused

with the ideal of high purpose. Crude and coarse touches are

conspicuously absent; a certain refinement of approach

reigns supreme, eschewing the least suggestions of

roughness48. An art induced ennobling experience is what the

Pallavas had consciously aimed at in Mahabalipuram49.

Radhkamal mukerjee defines, that the school of

Mahabalipuram of on the coast shows a slender, super human

sublimity, delicacy and sensuousness, and maintains a subtle

and elegant balance between the vigor and tension of

movement, especially in serene flight and languorous repose,

worthy of gods and angles50. He has also emphasized that the

art of Mahabalipuram have superhuman sublimity and lyricism

in cosmic themes51. While Mukherjee discussed the techniques

applied in Mahabalipuram art creations he points out, that, the

Mamallapuram techniques, the first, of organizing a whole

boulder into the plastic composition on a large scale over-

stepping the shape and size of a regular frame and second of

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fitting the composition to a rectangular panel or recess, and

setting the figures against the flat surface of the rock or

making them appear as emerging from within the informed

rock "influenced not only cave sculpture but also relief on

temples wall in India and abroad"52.

The monuments fall into four groups in this cradle of

Dravidian temple architecture the monolithic, cave temples,

sculptured scenes and structural temples53. The monoliths free

standing, cut out of solid rock, known locally as rathas though

without the stone wheels as found in the sun temple at Konark,

mark the beginning of South Indian temple architecture. They

are not built up, but cut – out of the rock in a process that

starts with hewing in the rough squaring up then passing on to

cutting inwards to form pillars and tiers of roofs, and ending

with chiseling and filling to create the ornamentation. The

rathas except for the Draupati ratha are characterized by a

storied elevation of the roof. The walls are broken into niches

for sculptures on the ground floor and compact pavilions run

around the upper storey.

The Dharmaraja and Arjuna rathas are in square shape,

have their storied roofs capped by a dome, the stupi or

stupika. The Bhima and Ganesa rathas of rectangular shape

have barrel like vaults with gables at the two vital elements of

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the latter day temples, the pyramidal vimana above the

sanctum and the tall gopuram of the immense pile over the

gateway leading to the temple enclosure54. They are combined

in a single temple complex along with other elements familiar

in the Pallavan structure, such as the garbhagraha in front of it,

the mandapam and the porch with pillars. The courtyard and

the huge enclosing walls came later.

The Shore temple formed by two symmetrical shrines

joined each other, each with its own tower and stupika,

precedes the emergence of the organic and unified concept

found in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi with a walled court,

gopuram, pillared mandapam and vimana. The more

developed form of it in the even later Vaikunthaperumal

temple there. The Cholas unique contribution in later years

came in the form of metal images along with grand edifices of

superior engineering skill55.

It is in constructing the houses of Gods that the greatest

achievement of Indian architecture has been witnessed during

the ages. Reflecting the basic nature of the South Indian

people's communion with the God are the grandeur of the

Thanjavur 'vimana', the ornate Madurai 'gopuram' the

imposing 'Corridor' of Rameswaram and the exquisite

'Carvings' of the Blur and Haliberd temples56. The regional

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variations in the structure of the abodes of gods show the

richness of the spiritual resources of the notion as a whole that

sustained a consistent temple building effort. Both the utility

and decorative aspects played their part in the evolution of the

temple structure as a temple also served as a place of refuge

in times of war, famine floods and pestilence.

Art such as dance and music and letters and literature

have also flourished under their auspices and within their

precincts57. Stone built shrines for the gods and goddesses

had their beginnings in Aihole in the Bijapur district of modern

Karnataka during the Chalukyan regn between 450 and 600

A.D.58 this was the era when Gupta and Vaktaka shrines were

coming up in North Indian59. In the south the far-different

Deccan style was evolved in the Tamil country in Kanchipuram,

Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Trichirappalli with five dynasties

making ample contribution, the Pallavas of 600 – 900 A.D.

Cholas of 900 – 1150 A.D. Pandyan of 1100 – 1350 A.D.

Vijayanagar of 1340 – 1565 A.D. and the Nayaks of Madurai of

1600 – 1700 A.D.60 The Pallavas who laid the foundation of this

style were responsible for two of its forms, the rock – cut and

the structural. The technique of rock – cut shrines, in which

they distinguished themselves belong to an early period and

falls into two groups, the pillared halls and the monolithic

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shrines scooped out of huge boulders, both widely exemplified

in the Mahabalipuram monuments61.

The Mahabalipuram mandapams bear evidence of a

progressive refinement of technique traceable in three stages

the reigns of Mahendravarman of Mamalla and of Rajasimha62.

The mandapams were at first simple open pavilions excavated

in rock with one or more cells deeply cut into the rock wall the

pillars being massive, octagonal shaft with square upper and

lower parts. A row of pillars only 7 – feet high stands in the

front façade with immense bracket. Soon roll cornices

appeared above the pillars along with decorative motif

borrowed, probably from the Buddhist style63. In the Mamalla

period free standing monolithic shrines cut–out of massive rock

the rathas came into vogue. Further improvement is

demonstrated in the provisions of well ornamented slender

pillars with supporting squatting lions. What is more significant

was the adoption of 'pyramidal' design with one pillared

mandapam mounted on another.

There are ten mandapams in all each as tall as 15 to 20

feet with pillars forming the most graceful part of the structure.

The lion motif as the pillar base in some the curves of the

melon capital, the lotus motif above and wide abacus in others

point to the trend towards beautification, a principal aspect of

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which was the blending of sculptured figures with the

architectural frame work. The Durga and Varaha mandapams

amply prove this trend. Eight major cave temples with

dvarapalakas on either side of the entrance are often singled

out as being in a more complete state than the others. These

are the Kotikal mandapam dedicated to Durga, Dharmaraja

mandapam with three Sanctorums Adivaraha cave, varaha

cave, Ramanuja mandapam, the incomplete

Mahishsuramardini cave Trimurthi cave without mandapam

and sanctorums and the five called Koneri mandapam64.

The rathas fall into an entirely different category of

architecture though making their appearance along with the

improved cave temples. The Mahabalipuram rathas, in so far

as they foreshadow the Dravidian temple, mark a land mark

South Indian architectural history. The five Pandava rathas are

objects of beauty, the Draupathi ratha being the smallest and

simplest in style and the Dharmaraja ratha is the biggest.

Scooped from a monolithic rock and having multiple storeys

each is different from the other. Wars not as much as weather,

have caused the damage that cannot however diminish the

beauty of this petite unfinished shrines. The missing items

include numberless stupis on roofs at the upper levels, the

noses on the faces of human and Godly figures, and various

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limbs. The Chalukya invasions and battles in the region of

Chennai not far from Mahabalipuram during the period of

Mamalla may have resulted in some wanton destruction and

cessation of work at the spot65.

The second phase of Pallava architectural development to

which impetus was given by Narasimha-II of Rajasimha

favoured the structural type of construction with slender pillars

standing on rampant lions66. The style which came into

prominence in the last quarter of the 7th century, had its

rudimentary exposition in the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram

and more substantially, in the Kailasanatha and

Vaikuntaperumal temples at Kanchipuram. Other features are

large groupings of figures and increasing number of miniature

panels.

Whether there is a tendency deification of royalty in

these sculptures shrines and temples are better left to the

perception of the beholder. It would not however be surprising

if he were to be inclined to hold that one of the purposes of

architecture, generally speaking, must have been to glorify

kings and queens their rule and their achievements in peace

and war. The impression is strengthened by the inscriptions on

some of the monuments67. They describe not only the

monuments the religious ideologies but describe the rulers and

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their work, not excluding their

gifts, and list their titles, which are understandably, couched in

superlative terms68.

Royalty comparing itself of ten by implication some time

even directly to divinity is not uncommon. The Pallava rulers

did not lack behind in this respect. Claiming parity with the

Sun, Moon and Indira and mythological heroes like Arjuna, the

monarchs did try to show of in their own stone records. Some

scholars have seen in the Somaskanda panels as synthesis of

the divine and the human, in other words, the trio in the panels

as synthesis of the divine and the human, in other words the

trio in the panels as representing either the divine family or

King Rajasimha, his father and mother69. The scope for

assigning a double meaning to a sculptured figure will be

readily concerned by those familiar with the literacy device

called Dhavani, adopted so defectively by Dandin, the Sanskrit

poet of the time, in the Dvisamadanakavya, as pointed out by

Michael lock wood, a leading researcher in Mahabalipuram

studies70.

Before we get into a detailed study of Shore temple, we

must know also the monolithic rathas has reliefs and some of

the important sculptures along with Pallavas structural temples

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in detail which will add adjunct to this these. And thereby we

can clearly understand how far the religious and mythological

ideologies reflect in art form during the Pallava reign.

3-6 The temple

Temples are an essential part of believer’s life and

contribute greatly to providing him solace and peace of mind.

The ‘Murthi’ in every temple’s sanctum is full of grace and

blesses devotees who offer worship. Each temple has a hoary

legend associated with it.

Temples are the sacred places where we have the

privilege of worshipping the Almighty in a form appealing to

our thought and heart. The omniscient and omnipotent God

descends on to the earth to uphold ‘Dharma’ and protect the

virtuous from the wicked whenever exigencies arise. It is

described as Avathar or incarnation. In these incarnations, the

Lord performs many miracles to manifest. His greatness and

to establish faith in the hearts of his devotees our ancestors

have constructed temples to commemorate these incarnations

and also the perpetuate the faith in God. The Deity is installed

in the temple to enable devotees to think of the greatness of

God with undaunted faith that the deity installed there

sanctifies the place to shower blessings on the devotees for all

times to come. These temples are the sacred places of

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worship by means of which our thoughts are purified.

Purification of thought it the sure way to get rid of our sins,

egoism, and ensure purity of thought. Prayer protects us from

falling a prey to the impulses of ‘Maya’ and makes us worthy of

seeking liberation. Our ancestors have therefore laid stress on

the importance of temple worship as a means of mental peace.

It is no exaggeration to say that the pilgrims who visit Kanchi

will carry the impression that those who have a glimpse of the

glorious temple of Kanchi and offer prayers, in this Mukthi

shetra are indeed the blessed and are well on their path to

reach the goal of life.

Kanchipuram is a granary of art and architecture. It is

also the birth place of many saints and scholars. Sri Poigai

Alwar, first among the

Alwars was born in this sacred city. Nayanmars like Sakkiya

Nayanar, Thirukurippu Thonda Nayanar, Iyadigal Kadavarkon

lived in this city and attained salvation. The associations of

renowned religious teachers like SriAdi Sankara. Sri Mooka

Sankar and Sri Ramanuja and eminent Acharyas like

SriNigamantha Maha Desigar and Sri Manavalamamuni adds to

the greatness of this holy city. Great devotees like

Thirukachinambi and Thirukachichiappa Sivacharya who are

distinguished as the recipient of God’s grace and the learned

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scholar Sri Parimelazhagar, repured for his commentary of

‘Thirukkural’ dwelled in this city. In defense to the Prayers of

these noble souls affluent in God’s grace, the Almightly chose

to perform many miracles in this holy city of Kanchi. Kanchi is

therefore described as a theatre for God’s miracles.

Tamil Nadu is the name of a lyrical landscape which

stretches from lower Andhra Pradesh to the tip of

Kanyakumari, its lands watered by the Pennaitar, Kaveri,

Noyyal, Amaravati and other minor rivers which flow down

from Mysore mountains to the north and the ghats of Kerala to

the west with the Bay of Bengal washing its Eastern Shores

and the Indian Ocean kissing it on its chin. Tamil Nadu is truly

called the haven of the vibrant and live practitioners and

legatees of the architectural heritage. It is a land of art

treasury. Prior to the first known standing monuments like the

cave-art of the Pallavas and Pandyas there was existence of

structural forms of temples in very early times Tamilnadu. It is

however clear by both direct evidence like 'Mandagappattu'

record as well as indirect stylistic evidence that before temples

of durable materials were erected, brick, mortar and timber

were the media.

So it is obvious that, wood and brick had been used for

constructions of secular as well as religious edifices in the

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earlier times. A change in this situation was clearly heralded,

for the first times. A change in this situation was clearly

heralded, for the first time in the early Pallava period.

The strong traditional association of stone with the dead,

prevailing among the people of the South must have been a

deterrent to the adoption of stone as material in temple

building till about the close of the sixth century and in carving

images of gods for worship till the first half of the seventh

century.

As far as Kanchipuram is concerned, though we do not

have any material evidence to show the existence of the

monuments prior to the Pallava period, we have a vivid word

picture of it in the Sangam literature.

Mahendravarman - I, was really a Vichitrachitta (inventive

or curious minded) who initiated the art of scooping out the

rock for the abodes of Hindu deities, dotted in the suburb of

Kanchipuram with many such creations. Materially speaking

we do not have any temple built by Mahendravarman - I in

Kanchipuram. But a pillar found in the ruined mandapa near

the thousand pillared mandapa in the third prakara of the

Ekambareswara temple has an inscription in Pallava grantha

characters of the 7th century A.D. which gives various birudas

of Mahendravarman - I (A.D. 580-630). This pillar must have

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evidently formed part of a structural temple of the time of

Mahendravarman - I, probably built in the area.

The reign of Narasimhavarman - II, Rajasimha (A.D. 690-

800) who bestowed his wealth to temples and Brahman as was

popular in many respects. For art and architecture, this fairly

sustained and peaceful

reign was epoch making. In the sense that structural temples

in stones were reared up for the first time an extensive scale.

There are six or

seven temples built at Kanchipuram besides four major

temples at Mamallapuram and one more at Panamalai, during

his rule. Now let us see the Kanchipuram Pallava’s temple.

3-7 Kailasanatha temple

The Kailasanatha is the largest temple complex built by

Rajasimha and added to by his son Mahendravarman - III in his

father's life time. The main vimana of the Rajasimheswara is a

typical Dravidian Style of square sikara type with four tiers,

facing east, and its aditala is integrated with seven abutting

sub-shrines, square ones in the four corners and oblong ones

on the three sides on the diagonal and cardinal axial. All the

sub shrines have independent entrances and enshrined icons.

The main vimana has a high adhisthana with moldings

and excellent ornamentation. The Jagatai position of the

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adhisthana is embellished with friezes of bhutas, some with

animal and some with demon faces. They are depicted in

various poses of dance and merriment. The tripatta kumuda

found over the Jagatai in the adhisthana is also exquisitely

carved with various ornamentations. The wall of the temple

has been adorned with vyala based plasters. Unlike the

sculptures defined only in the cardinal niches, the whole wall

has been crowded with number of beautiful sculptures making

Kailasanatha temple as a veritable treasure house of saivite

Iconographic forms. This is the richest of all Pallavas shrines in

terms of figural decoration71.

The first and third tala has the usual hara with karnakutas

and bhadrasalas, but the second tala has panjaras in addition

to that, a pattern met with for the first time. The fourth tala

has bull figures at the corners. The octagonal griva shows

figures of Siva Dakahinamurthy, Vishnu and Brahma on the

East, South West and North directions respectively. The sikara

has Mahanasis on all eight of its faces72.

The garbhagraha has a Somaskanda panel on its rear

wall obscured partially from view by the centrally placed eight

foot prismatic dharalinga of black stone characteristic of

Rajashimhas's time, in which such Lingas seem to have been

introduced73.

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In front of the main vimana there is a detached mandapa

known as Rajasimha mandapa. It is flat topped, with cantoning

walls at the corners and pair of pillars at the intermediate

openings of its four faces and with more such pillars in rows

inside. Dvarapalakas appear in niches on

the east, Lakshmi and Saraswathi on the south and Durga and

Jyestha on the north74.

Standing in front in the same axial line is the

Mahendravarman - III in his scheme of elaboration of his

father's temple unit. It is a two tier vimana with wagon vaulted

roof like sikhara known technically as sala sikara. It is also

constructed in sandstone except the upana and Pattika of the

adhisthana which is made out of granite slabs. This vimana

contains a Somaskanda panel on its rear wall and a prismatic

Dharalinga of basalt in the centre of the floor of the

sanctorum75.

Another interesting feature of the Kailasanatha complex

is the fifty-eighth sub-shrine surrounding the main

Rajasimheswara, forming a connected cloister like chain found

the inner face of the prakara wall. All the sub shrines are of

(except the two coming opposites the north south median axial

line of the main vimana) two tiered square sikhara type,

enshrining mostly the form of Siva either in painting or in bas

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relifs. The two exceptions are two tiered Nagara vimanas with

wagon top roofs dedicated to Vishnu and Brahma. The

external walls of these parivara shrines of the malika contain a

verity of sculptures both Saivite and Vaishnavite of varied

iconography and plastic art. The sculpture includes the

Dikpalas, Ganesa, Saptamatrika, Chandesa and other parivara

deities76.

In front of the kailasanatha complex stands a row of

dedicatory shrines of memorial vimanas, six to the left and two

to the right of the main gopura entrance. The main objects of

worship in these shrines are Dharalinga, with the Somaskanda

panel on the back wall. The exterior of the shrines also depict

various saivite themes like somaskanda, Lingodbhava, Kalari,

Yogamurthi, Gajasamhara, Tripurantaka, and Dakshinamurthi.

Hara and others two of the North rows of shrines were gifted

by two queens of Rajasimha the fifth in the row was clearly

built by Rangapataka the favourite queen of Rajasimha77.

3-8 Vaikuntaperumal temple

This temple is situated in the North east side of

Kanchipuram. The Vaikuntaperumal or Parameswara

Vinnagaram is one of the magnificent creations during

Nadivarman - II reign. It is a typical Dravidian vimana with four

tiers, facing west with a frontal mukhamandapa, both

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standing over a tall adhisthana. The temple complex is

surrounded by a cloister mandapa, externally walled by the

prakara and internally colonnaded. The narrow path between

it and the temple is served as an open circumambulatory path

around the temple. The structure is built entirely of sandstone,

the floor below the adhisthana and the pattika on its top above

being of granite slabs. The three tiers below are functional,

providing cells for three forms of Vishnu (sitting, standing and

reclining) the top tier merely symbolic, without any opening, is

a solid cube and provably added to beautify the temple in

proportion to its base78.

All the three tiers have ambulatory passage, achieved by

the system of three concentric walls successively increasing its

height one behind the other, Up to the third tala, it has

harmamala consisting of Karnatakutas, bhadrasalas and

panjaras, whereas the fourth tier is devoid of the hara. It had

formerly four lions at the corners, now replaced by four seated

Garuda figures, both the Lion and Garuda being appropriate

cognizances of Vishnu. The cloister wall which is of lesser

height than the first tier has haramala consisting of kutas and

salas. The interior of this wall has depictions of the historical

events which led to Nandivarma - II coming to the throne. It

intercity by echoes the various procedures followed during the

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coronation of the king and also the contemporary social

activities79.

The depiction of it historical event in the temple

through initiated by Rajasimha in the Shore temple at

Mamallapuram, takes its perfection here. The figures found on

the vimana, ardhamandapa, walls and other places makes the

temple a museum for studying conscious of beauty and with

exquisite and seductive charm of the sculptures makes the art

become sensuous and sophisticated, receives the admiration

of every visitor.

Lord Vaikunta Perumal dwells under Mukunda vimana in a

sitting posture facing west. His consort is worshipped by the

devotees with the sacred name ‘Sri Vaikuntavalli’. There are

three tiers in this temple. In the lower, middle and upper tier,

the Lord is seen in sitting, reposing and standing postures

respectively. While circumambulating the main sannidhi, we

come across treasure house of artistic sculptures. The life

history of many Pallava Kings is portrayed here80.

If we reach the middle tier climbing up the steps, we see

the Lord reposing on Adishesha, facing west with his Lotus

feet, pointing towards the South. Inscriptions here reveal the

Pallava King Nandivarman constructed this temple and also

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catalogue the names of other Pallava Kings who undertook

constructive works in this temple81.

The second historic Pallava temple in Kanchipuram is the

Vaikuntha perumal considered as the “body of God” was built

in 770 A.D. by Nandivarman - II Pallavamalla (731 – 796). As

Nandivarman given the title of Paramesvara at the time of his

coronation, the temple is also known as “Paramesvara

Vinnagaram” (the abode of Vishnu) as sung by Tirumangai

Alwar, the celebrated Vaishnava saint. The architecture of the

temple is unique with three sanctums on the three floors one

over the other and a concealed staircase leading to the upper

floors. The three sanctums enshrine Vishnu in three postures

seated, reclining and standing. The walls are adorned with fifty

Sculptures, besides the panels depicting the history of the

Pallavas, leading to the coronation of Nandivarman82.

Prof. Dennis Hudson of Smith College U.S who has done

extensive research on South Indian temple architecture, found

correlation here with the mandala scheme enunciated in the

Bhagavata, explaining the doctrine of chaturvyauha (four

formations), he identifies the central in die sanctum of the

ground floor as Vasudeva facing west, i.e., the Earth,

Sankarsna facing north, the realm of human life, Pradyumna

facing east towards heaven and Aniruddha facing south the

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realm of ancestors. The sculptural scheme matches the

pancharatra concept, representing the six glorious excellences

and the 12 murthis (dwadasa – namas)83

On the ground floor, two covered pradaksinapathas

surround the sanctum while lower most sanctum and its

ardhamandapa surrounded by an open narrow ambulatory. The

sanctum of the third floor represents the concept of space

time, depicting Vasudeva in the human avatar of Lord Krishna

its three tier tower is around 20m high adorned with miniature

buildings. The cellar, which house a statue of Vishnu, is

preceded by a mandapa with two bays of four columns. The

building as a whole is surrounded by a gallery, whose columns

rise from the heads of rearing lions, this colonnade leaves too

narrow a space for the spectator to be able to stand back from

the building and look at the tower. It was intended to guide

the processions of the faithful in their circumambulation. The

walls of the gallery are covered in relief that illustrate the

legendary battles between the Pallavas and their neighbours,

the Chalukyas84.

It is on the walls of this platform the unique historical

sculptures have been carved. Beneath thirteen of them, all on

the south wall, there are explanatory labels in Tamil and eighth

century inscription of Pallavas. These panels depict the story of

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Pallavamalla’s accession to the throne after a disturbed

interregnum, which has different interpretations.

Numerous inscriptions are found in this temple relating to

the wars between Pallavas and Chalukyas. Besides these

inscriptions, the battle scenes of the Pallavas with Ganegas

and Chalukyas are depicted in bas relief around the main

prakaram. The cloisters inside the outer wall consist of lion

pillars and are representative of the first phase in the

architectural evolution of the grand thousand pillar halls of

later temples85.

The Brahmotsavam of this temple is celebrated in the

asterism Punarvasu in the month of Chitrai. Vaikunta Ekadasi

Festival and Kaisika Dwadasi Festival are celebrated in this

temple popularly.

Pilgrims who visit this temple worship the Lord for

cherishing the desires and carry with them the satisfaction of

having seen treasure of sculptural beauty and the memory of

the devotion of the mighty Pallava Kings to Lord Sri

Vaikuntanadha.

This temple stands as a monumental testimony to the

splendid architectural skills of those times. Those architects

executed a complicated plan with perfection in tune with the

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then prevailing norms. It is maintained by HR & CE Dept. and

taken over by the Archaeological Dept. of Indian Government.

3-9 Mukteswara and Matangeswara temple

The Mukteswara also called Dharmamahadevi Iswaram,

after the name of Nandivarman - II queen, as revealed by the

inscription found in the temple and the Matangeswara also

constructed during the reign of Nandivarman though found in

two different places in Kanchi are alike in many respects. Both

are square, three tier Vesara type vimana with circular griva

and sikhara. These are the earliest extant temples to possess

a circular griva and sikhara though the models of these forms

are represented in the Bhima ratha, at Mamallapuram. Both

the temples are standing with their front mandapa on a raised

adhistana, which is again placed on upapita and the pattika

over the adhistans, the whole temple is built of sandstone.

First and second tiers, of both the temples have haramala

consisting of karnakutas and salas. The third tier is devoid of

haramala, but carries four nandis at the scorners86.

Sculpture on the walls of both temples is mostly sun

relief. SriK.R. Srinivasan is of the opinion that these may have

been carved several years after the original construction.

In the Muktheeswar temple the deeds of the Divine are

wonderful, and captivating. Sometimes God subjects His

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devotees to severe test with the intention of bringing their

noble traits to light, to make the world recognize their

greatness and the superiority of their devotion. The places

where such divine acts of the Lord are exhibited considered

sacred and temples are constructed there for the Lord in

commemoration of that divine happening. Such divine sports

are performed both by Lord Vishnu and Lord Siva. Such sports

by Lord Vishnu are described as Leelas and those of Lord Siva

as Thiruvilaiyadalgal87.

If Alwars have sung in praise of such Vaishnavite temples

they are called Divyadesams. If the four Saiva Saints known

as Naalvar have sung in praise of the Sivakshethras they are

called padalpetra sthalangal the sacred places which were

hailed by one or all of the four saints – Appar,

Thirugnanasambandar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar. The

noble devotees graced by Lord Siva are known as Nayanmars.

One such sacred place is Sri Muktheeswarar temple in

Kanchipuram and one such great devotee is Sri

Thirukuripputhonda Nayanar88.

Once there lived a washer man in Kanchipuram who was

a devout saivite with remarkable traits and virtue. There was

no trace of egoism whatsoever in him. He used to render

selfless service to all devotees of Lord Siva by guessing their

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bent of mind correctly with intuition and fulfilling their

immediate needs. Hence he became popularly known as

“Thirukuripputhondar”. His usual service was to wash the

clothes of the devotees of Lord Siva who came on pilgrimage

to Kanchipuram. He used to do this service voluntarily without

expecting any return benefit89.

Once in winter season, Thirukuripputhondar met an aged

devotee of Siva whose lustrous body was completely

besmeared by sacred ash. But he was wearing dirty tattered

clothes. Thirukuripputhondar was deeply moved by this sight.

He prostrated before the old man and requested him to grant

him the privilege of washing his robes for him. The aged

devotee of Siva had no spare dress to rely on and so hesitantly

agreed to entrust the job to Thirukuripputhondar provided he

would undertake to handover the washed clothes back to him

before sunset so he would not be made to expose himself to

the biting cold of the winter night. Agreeing to this,

Thirukuripputhondar collected the tattered dirty clothes of the

aged devotee and went to the tank to wash them. He took

great care to prevent them well and kept them spread for

drying in the bright sunshine89A

A few moments later, the sky was overcast and there was

a heavy downpour of rain. The unexpected non seasonal rain

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dampened the wet clothes and disheartened

Thirukuripputhondar. He simply stood gazing at the sky. As it

was drawing towards sunset, Thirukuripputhondar body

trembled in the cold while his mind trembled in fear at the

thought of committing the sin of breaking promise to the aged

devotee.

The very thought of the old man shivering in bitter cold,

approaching the thondar for the washed clothes and his

inability to handover the same made Thirukuripputhondar

tremble in dismay. Like all noble souls who prefer to shed

their lives rather than dishonor the plighted word,

Thirukuripputhondar decided to commit suicide by striking his

head against the granite stone used for washing the clothes.

At that moment, Lord Siva appeared before him to make a

timely intervention and reveal that the aged devotee was none

other than Himself. Lord Siva praised the noble qualities of

Thirukuripputhondar and asked him to continue, his noble

service assuring him of mukthi or liberation at the end. Lord

Siva consecrated in the temple on the spot where this

Thiruvilaiyadal occurred came to be called ‘Muktheeswarar’

and Thirukuripputhondar came to be known as Thirukurippu

Tondanayanar90.

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Pilgrims to Kanchi visit the temple of Sri Muktheeswarar

and carry with then the thoughts of the noble service of

Thirukuripputhondanayanar and the abundance of Grace of

Lord Muktheeswarar registering the saying in their mind that

service to Humanity is the real Service to God.

3-10 Ekamparanatha temple

The Sri Ekamparanatha temple is of hoary antiquity.

Beginning as a small fane, it has grown over the centuries into

a large one of over 12.14 hectares, with innumerable shrines,

mandapa, gopuras and tanks. A Siva Linga with 1008 small

lingas, idols of Vishnu and Nataraja are highlights of this

temple. This is one of the most ancient temples in India and

has been in existence even prior to 600 A.D. This vast temple

with high rising gopurams dominates the skyline of

Kanchipuram. Siva is the presiding deity here, worshipped as

Prthivi Lingam, symbolizing earth, one of the five primordial

elements. Kanchipuram is thus known as Prthviksetra. No

separate shrine for Parvati exists here. Pallavas, Cholas and

Vijayanagar kings especially Krishnadevaraya contributed

much to the construction and development of this temple. The

details of contribution of various dynasties are as follows91.

Karikala Cholan constructed a mandapam for

Ekambaranathar the single mango tree in 190 A.D. The palace

117

of Bappa was situated in front at a distance of a kilometer, on

the banks of Vegavati. Narasimhavarman - II renovated the

existing temple covering 30 acres with five prakarams. Varador

donated some villages to the temple Sarvatheertha kulam was

constructed near the temple bath. Sarvatheertha kulam is now

at the outskirts of the town. Krishnadevaraya built the main

gopuram in 10 tiers with 540 thittkal to a height of 188 feet,

the tallest tower among the

South India temples92.

The name of the Lord Ekampara is derived from an

ancient mango tree of unusual properties with four branches

representing the four Vedas. Each leaf is of different shape,

and each branch bears fruits that taste differently. This tree

also grants boons especially to ladies for bearing children.

Although these mangoes were sold (each as high as rupees

forty) well at one time, today it is facing decay without bearing

any

fruits. Adjacent to the trunk of this hallowed tree lies a mini

temple

to kumaraswamy known as Mavadi Kandam, the Skanda of the

sacred mango93.

The nomenclature of Ekampara is derived from “Kamba”

or pillar, a synonym for the pillar of fire or “Sthanu” a well

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known name of Lord Siva. Further, Goddess Parvati once

worshipped a Linga of earth in the bed of streamlet the kampa,

flowing near the Kanchimayanam, now a shrine in the temple.

To test her devotion, the Lord causes freshen in the river.

In her anxiety to save the Linga from being washed away, she

hugged it to her bosom. Delighted by the act Lord Siva

married her. All the four principal Nayanmars have sung about

Lord Ekamresvara with Thevaram songs. Idols for 63

Nayanmars along with the Utsavamurthis (processional idols)

are also installed here94.

The temple has five prakaras and a huge mandapa with

thousand pillars (only 616 survive today) near this were found

some columns with honorifics of Mahendra - I Pallava carved

on them they are now in the Chennai Museum. Elsewhere in

the temple there is a shrine for Sage Agasthya referred by King

Mahendra in his well known Sanskrit farce Matta Vilasa

Prahasana. The temple’s later history is equally glorious.

Epigraphs record donations by the Cholas, (among whom

Kulottunga - III was prominent the Telugu Cholas, and the

Vijayanagaraking. Krishnadevaraya built the massive outer

gopura of nine storeys (58.5m high) in 1509 A.D. An image of

him and another of his consort appear in the gopuras95.

119

The temple was used as a fortress during the campaign

which culminated in Robert Clive’s famous defense of Arcot.

There are signs of hits by cannon balls on the main gopura. A

part of the wall near this tower was rebuilt in 1799 A.D. by

Hodson the then Collector of Chengalpattu district. There are

some join reliefs also on this wall95A.

The glory of Lord Ekampareswara has been extolled by

Saints Tirugnansambandar, Appar, Sundarar and

Manickavasagar known as the great four or Nalwar in their

divine songs, Muthuswami Dikshatar of the trinity of Karanatik

music and Pattinathar have also song in praise of his glory.

Details of this temple could be found in Periapuranam,

Kanchipuranam, Manimekalai and Matthavilasa Prahasanm.

The temple is very famous for its sculpture96.

The temple has the tallest tower in Kanchi with a height

of 58 meters or 192 feet. This 9 tier Rajagopuram was

constructed by Sri Krishnadevaraya, the Emperor of

Vijayanagar in 1509. Pilgrims coming to Kanchi from Chennai

via Poovirundavalli and Sri Perumpudur could see this gopuram

even from a long distance97.

In the first inner prakara, we come across the sannidhi of

Goddess Mahapralayabandhini. Adjacent to this, we have the

processional deity as Somaskandar. Adjoining this, we see the

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trunk of the mango tree which is the sacred Sthalavriksha. The

four Vedas are supposed to be its branches. It is here that

Katyayani worshipped Siva. This 60 feet tall tree is more than

3500 years old. It yields fruits of four different tastes from its

four different branches. When Markandeya survived a deluge,

this tree, itself a manifestation of the Lord’s from, supported

him. At the trunk of the tree, Lord Siva with “Chinmudra”

dwells as Somaskandar. Under this peetam we have darshan

of Kamakshi in penance, Lingodbavar and the Goddess

embracing the Lord Mavadiseva98. In the garbhagrha, Lord

Siva is seen as Prithivilingam, adorned by a silver Kavacham or

covering. As the idol is made of sand, it is only the pedestal of

the lingam that is anointed

During the periods of Chola, Pallava and Vijayanagara

Empires, Lord Hudson, Collector of Chengalpattu District, under

British rule in 1799 and Natukkottai Nagarathars in 1900

carried out many construction works in the temple. Recently, in

1979 and 2007 the Mahakumbabishekam was performed. With

the blessings of His Holiness Jagadguru Sri Sankaracharya, Sri

Jeyandra Saraswathi Swamigal, the 69th Pontiff of Sri Kanchi

Kamakoti Peetam a number of kainkaryamas are carried out by

the devotees now and the along with the improvements carried

121

out by the H.R. & C.E. Department of the Government of Tamil

Nadu and by the

general public99.

3-11 Piravataneswara temple

The Piravataneswara temple is built out of coarse

sandstone. It is a small two storeyed square based vimana of

the typical Dravidian architectural order. The walls have

cantoning and intermediate pilasters, based a rearing vyalas,

characteristic of Rajasimha pillars. The first tala (tier) carries a

hara of four karnakutas and four bhadrasalas. The second tala

(tier) is devoid of the haras, the bhutas or nandis at the corner.

The adhisthana is raised over an upapitha with pilaster

decorations and top granite slab and consists of the upana.

Jagatai, tripattakumuda kantha and Pattika, which again is of

granite slabs. The kantha, projected forward at intervals below

the wall pilasters, a feature rather rare in Rajasimha's time, is

truly the imitation of the basal wooder support for the broad

based and pillar bases100.

The shrine walls have niches (Devakosthas) with toranas

above. The devakostha to the South contains the

Dakahinamurhti form, on north and east are the forms of Siva

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with Brahma and Vishnu as attendants. The ardhamandapa

also has Devakosthas. The northern niche contains the image

of Durga, whereas the southern niche has the image of

Gajalakshmi. Ganesa also appears on the superstructure of this

temple and was a new creation of Rajasimha in the Pallava

iconography or sculpture. The sanctum rear wall has a bas-

relief of Somaskanda. Stylistically this temple can be dated as

earlier to all the temples of Rajasimha at Kanchipuram101.

3-12 Airavateswara temple

Airavateswara temple, also built out of sandstone, has

lost its superstructure. The adhistana of thesquare sikara body

resting on upapitha with a granite pattika on the top. Like

other temples of Rajasimha, the wall of this temple is also

embellished with rearing vyala based pilasters. The cordinal

niches have the images of Brahma on the north, Vishnu on the

east and Dakshnamurthi on the south. An image of Durga

appears on the north ardhamandapa wall and a form of Siva is

found on the southern wall. Interior of the ardhamandapa is

also decorated with panels like Kalari and a Natamurti of Siva.

A Somaskanda panel is carved on the back wall of the

garbhagraha102.

123

I have enclosed table showing the important rock – cut

caves, monolithic rathas and structural temples of the Pallava

periods in the succeeding pages.

3-13 TABLE OF SHOWING THE IMPORTANT ROCK – CUT

CAVES MONOLITHIC RATHAS AND STRUCTURAL

TEMPLES.

1. ROCK – CUT CAVES

Sl.No

Phase

Name of the cave Location Style

1 ILakshitthan Mandagapathu Mahendravarm

an2 ,, Panchapandaavar Pallavaram ,,3 ,, Uruthiravaleeshnar Mamandur –II ,,4 ,, Mamandur – cave Mamandur –I ,,

5 ,,Kalmandapa koil Kuranganilmutta

m ,,

6 ,,Vasantheswaram koil

Vallam – I ,,

7 ,, Mahendravishnugra Mahedravadi ,,

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gam 8 ,, Sathrumallan koil Thalavanoor ,,9 ,, Avanipasanan koil Seeyamangalam ,,

10 ,, Lalithanguran koil Trichirappalli ,,11 ,, Punchapandavar koil Vilappakkam ,,12 ,, Unifished Mandapa Aragandanallur ,,13 ,, Jaina koil Siththannavasal ,,14 ,, Sivan koil Thirukokarnam ,,

15 ,,Monolithic mandapa Thirukalukuntra

m Mamalla

16 II Kodikal mandapa Mamallapuram ,,17 ,, Darmaraja mandapa Mamallapuram ,,

18 ,,Narasimhan koil Singapermal koil Mahendravarm

an

19 II Aranganathar koil Singavaram

Mahendravarm

an

20 ,, Sigari palleeswaram Melaicheri Parames varavarman

21 ,,Unfinished small

caves

Mamandur -IV,,

22 ,, Unfinished Big cave Mamandur -III ,,

23 ,,Adirana santha mandapam

Saluvankuppam ,,

24 ,,Vishnumandapa Keelmaa

vilangai ,,

25 ,, Sivamandapa Vallam –II ,,26 ,, Vishnumandapa Vallam –III ,,27 ,, Konerimandapa Mamallapuram ,,28 ,, Varahamandapa ,, ,,

29 ,, Mahisasuramardini mandapa

,, ,,

30 ,,Thirumurthimandap

a ,, ,,

31 ,, Unfinished Tigercave ,, ,,32 ,, Unfinished cave –I ,, ,,33 ,, Unfinished cave – II ,, ,,34 ,, Adivaragan cave ,, ,,

125

35 ,, Ramanuja mandapa ,, ,,36 ,, Yazhi cave ,, ,,

37 ,,Small Yazhi

mandapa ,, ,,

38 ,, Mahishasuran cave ,, ,,

II MONOLITHIC RATHAS

Sl.No.

Name of theRathas

Location Style

1 Draupatha rathasMamallapur

amMamalla

2 Arjuna ratha ’’ ’’3 Bima ratha ’’ ’’4 Dharmaraja ratha ’’ ’’5 Ganesa ratha ’’ ’’6 Valayankuttai ratha ’’ ’’7 Pitari ratha I - II ’’ ’’

126

III. STRUCTURAL TEMPLE

S.No Name of the Temple Location Style

1 Dhalagireeswarar Temple Panaimalai Rajasimhan

2 Siva Temple Mamallapuram ’’

3 Mukuntanayanar Temple ’’ ’’

4 Shore Temple ’’ ’’

5 Kailasanatha Temple Kanchipuram ’’

6 Vaikunthperumal Temple ’’ ’’

7 Perumal Temple KuramNandivarma

n

8 Vadamalleeswaran Temple Orakadam ’’

9 Verrattaneswaran Temple Thiruthani ’’

10 Parasurameswar Temple Gudimallam ’’

11 Mukteswara Temple Kanchipuram ’’

12 Madankesnaran Temple ’’ ’’

13 Triparantakeswaran Temple ’’ ’’

14 Iravadeswaran Temple ’’ ’’