CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND ......undergraduate thesis shows the preposition at, in, on, for and from indicate place, time, target, source and purpose. The difference

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK

2.1 Literature Review

In the previous years, there are some students analyzed preposition, which

in different approach, was used as the literature review in this study. The theories

used in those studies were concerned with the analysis of preposition. As they were

discussing about those analysis, as sequence these studies give contribution to this

study.

First, the structure, meaning, and function of prepositions were analyzed in

the undergraduate thesis entitled “The Analysis of Structure and Meaning of

Prepositional Phrase with Reference to Ernest Hermingway's The Old Man and The

Sea”. The prepositional phrase was analyzed by Pibriani (2005) and is based on the

theory proposed by Quirk (1985) and Wren and Martin (1990). The aims of this

study are to identify and analyze the prepositional phrase found in the story. The

tree diagram is used to describe the prepositional phrases in the data source. The

data had been collected by means of library research method and analyzed

descriptively. The strength of this undergraduate thesis is the data analyzed the

structure, meaning and function of the collecting data with the tree diagram.

Furthermore, it has the same topic as this study and uses the same theory. However,

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this study only focused on the preposition “with”. Furthermore, this undergraduate

thesis only focuses on the novel, however, this current study focuses on the corpus

containing the novels, magazines, newspaper, spoken, and academic journal.

Second, the undergraduate thesis entitled “The Analysis of Prepositional Phrase

Which Focuses on Preposition on, in and at with Special Reference to Novel Sunny

Candler's Return by Sandra Brown” is written by Widarma (2007). The aims of his

undergraduate thesis are to analyze the meaning of prepositional phrase preceded by

preposition on, in and at and to analyze the usage of the preposition. The data in this

study was taken from the English sentences found in the first chapter of Novel “Sunny

Chandler’s Return”. There are two main theories used to analyze the meaning and the

usage of preposition in this thesis. They are the theories that proposed by Quirk (1985)

and George Yule (1998). The result of this undergraduate thesis shows that the meaning

of prepositional preceded by the prepositions on, in and at indicates the place, time,

purpose and location in metaphor. The difference from this current study is that his

undergraduate thesis focused on the preposition in metaphor and this study focused on

the meaning and semantic relation. The strength of this undergraduate thesis is that this

undergraduate thesis describes the data collection in more detailed. Therefore, the

readers easily understand the topic and the analysis of the data. However, the source of

this undergraduate thesis only taken from the novel.

Third, the undergraduate thesis entitled “The Analysis of Preposition in The

Children Short Story ‘Ms. Wizz Millionaire’ by Terrence Blacker” is written by

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Krisnayanti (2008). The aims of this undergraduate thesis are to analyze the syntactic

function of preposition. Furthermore, other functions are to analyze the meaning of

preposition are found in the short story based on the theory proposed by Quirk (1985).

The research method used in this undergraduate thesis is library research. Furthermore,

the data were classified based on the type of prepositions. The result of her

undergraduate thesis shows the preposition at, in, on, for and from indicate place, time,

target, source and purpose. The difference is her undergraduate thesis focuses on the

syntactic function of preposition and this study focuses on meaning and semantic

relation of the preposition “with”. The weakness of her undergraduate thesis is the

scope of discussion. The scope of discussion was too small and lack of the data

accurateness. Furthermore, the strength of this undergraduate thesis is the

undergraduate thesis describes all the data clearly. This undergraduate thesis can cover

all the discussion with a few examples.

The international journal of English linguistics vol. 3 no. 2 with the article

entitled Compound Prepositions Used by Iraq EFL University Students was written by

Ahmed Muhammed Ali Abu Humeid. It discussed about the compound preposition

error used by the Iraq EFL university student. The aims of this article are to identifying

and analyzing the errors which Iraqi EFL university students are liable to make in using

compound prepositions and is giving a clearer rationale for the possible causes

including such errors. The result shows that the majority of Iraqi EFL university

students fail to recognize and produce such propositions. Moreover, they do not realize

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the function of such prepositions because they do not discern their meanings and most

books of grammar do not enlist their meanings or uses. The researchers refer the

meaning proposed by Hornby (2006). This article and this study focus on the same

topic, such as the preposition. However, this article analyzes the application of

preposition and this study analyzes the preposition “with”. The strength of this article

is that the data source is taken from the real life and the data is described in more

detailed. However, some parts of the article are difficult to understand.

International Journal of English language and Translation studies vol. 2 with

the article entitled Speaking in their Language: An Overview of Major Difficulties

Faced by the Libyan EFL Learners in Speaking Skill was written by Pathan, Aldersi

and Alsout from University of Sebha. The aims of this article are to identify and analyze

the English errors of the students. This article analyzed the data based on the theory of

lexical errors (Zughoul, 1985) and syntactic errors (Kambal, 1980). The result shows

that the students speaking skill is influenced by their mother tongue leading them to

commit errors in almost every aspect of their English, including pronunciation,

sentence construction, proper collocation, use of adjectives, preposition, idioms, etc.

The difference is this article does not only focus on preposition but also on other

elements and this current study only focuses on the preposition “with”. The strength of

this article is that the data is clearly described and make the readers easily understand

the discussion. Furthermore, this article gives the contribution on how the preposition

errors occur in the society.

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2.2 Concepts

2.2.1 Concept of Preposition

Quirk (1985; 657) stated that a preposition expresses a relation between two

entities, one being that is represented by the prepositional complement. Those of place

and time are the most prominent and easiest to identify. Other relationships such as

instrument and cause may also be recognized, although it is difficult to describe

prepositional meanings systematically in terms of such labels. Some prepositional must

be analyzed by seeing a prepositional related to a clause.

Preposition in English mark a relationship between a following noun phrase

and a preceding noun phrase, verb or adjective (Yule, 1998: 160). In his opinion, the

basic one-syllable forms seem to be indicating an extremely wide range of different

kinds of relationships, suggesting a multitude of different meanings for each

preposition.

2.2.2 Concept of Prepositional phrase

Quirk (1985: 657) argued that prepositional phrases consist of a preposition

followed by a prepositional complement, which characteristically a noun phrase, clause

or gerund.

Huddleston (1984: 566) also adds where the prepositional phrase is a

complement, rather than adjunct or modifier, the choice of preposition is often

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determined or severely limited by the verb, adjective or noun head which the

prepositional phrase is the complement.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The study discusses about the analysis of the preposition. The semantic relation

and the meaning of the preposition were described in the analysis. Furthermore, this

study need some certain theories to analyze them, especially the theories related to the

preposition, the theories as follow:

2.3.1 Preposition Classification

According to Quirk (1985; 665), there are two kinds of prepositions; they are

simple and complex preposition. Simple prepositions are preposition consisting one

word (of, to, with, at, in, on, etc). Complex prepositions are preposition consisting more

than one word (due to, because of, next to, up to, as far as, etc.).

Based on the theory stated by House and Harman (1950: 175), the preposition

can be divided into three groups. They are simple preposition, compound preposition

and phrasal preposition.

2.3.1.1 Simple preposition

The oldest and the most frequently used prepositions in English are those which

are the simplest in form, many of them being monosyllable: at, but, by, for, in, of, off,

on, to, till, and with. All of these were once adverbs which could be prefixed to verbs

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and therefore were called prepositions. At, by, down, for, in, of, on, over, through,

under, up, and with are prepositions when they govern nouns or pronouns, however,

they are adverbs when they merely modify verbs and do not show relationship between

words.

Example:

a. I live by mill.

b. I came here for you.

(House and Herman, 1950: 176)

2.3.1.2 Compound preposition

Prepositions have been formed from time to time by beginning words into

compounds to show relations which the simple (or primary) prepositions could not

express. The compounds prepositions represent the middle age in the development of

prepositions and many of them being of Old and Middle English origin. They have

been formed and are still being formed by various combinations.

Example:

a. He came in to see us.

He came into the station.

b. Mother came up on the fast rain.

We came upon them suddenly.

(House and Herman, 1950: 177)

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2.3.1.3 Phrasal Preposition

A phrasal preposition consisting two or more words written separately, on the

other hand, is used as a single unit to show relation between a noun or a noun-

equivalent and another element. They are: according to, along with, as for, as to,

because of, out of, regardless of, etc.

Example:

a. According to Dina, this novel has good story.

b. He waved and sang along with Stevie on all his song.

2.3.2 The Theory of Preposition

According to Quirk (1985: 657), the prepositional phrases have some of the

syntactic functions, as follows:

1) Postmodifier in a noun phrase

2) Adverbial

a) Adjunct

b) Subjunct

c) Disjunct

d) Conjunct

On the other hand, Quirk (1985: 673) explains about the meaning of

preposition, especially the meaning of place and time.

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1) The Meaning of Preposition: Place

a. Dimension

When we use a preposition to indicate place, we do so in relation to the

dimensional properties, whether subjectively or objectively conceived, of

the location concerned. Consider the following examples:

My car is at the cottage

There is a new roof on the cottage

There are two beds in the cottage

(Quirk, 1985: 674)

The use of at makes cottage a dimensionless location, a mere point in

relation to which the car’s position can be indicated. With on, the cottage

becomes a two-dimensional area, covered by a roof, though on is also

capable use with a one-dimensional object, as in ‘Put your signature on this

line’. With in, the cottage becomes the three-dimensional object which in

reality it is, though in is capable of being used with object which are

essentially two-dimensional, as in ‘The cow in the field’, where field is

conceived as an enclosed space.

b. Positive Position and Direction

Between the notions of simple position (or static location) and direction in

a clause and effect relationship obtains:

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DIRECTION POSITION

Ann went to Oxford as the result: Ann was at

Oxford

Ann climbed onto the roof as the result: Ann was on the

Roof

Ann dived into the water as the result: Ann was in the

water

(Quirk, 1985: 675)

c. Source or Negative Position: away from, off, out of

There is a cause and effect relation with negative destination and position

parallel to that of positive destination and position.

Example:

Tom got out of the water as the result: Tom is out of the

water

(Quirk, 1985: 675)

d. Relative Position

Apart from simple position, preposition may express the relative position

of two objects or group of object.

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Example:

We placed the skis on top of the car.

(Quirk, 1985: 679)

The example above generally indicates a contiguous relation.

e. Space

Other prepositions are denoting space are by, beside, with, near, between,

among, around, round, about, etc.

Example:

He was standing beside the door. (at the side of)

(Quirk, 1985: 679)

f. Relative Destination: over, under, behind, etc.

As well as relative position, the prepositions have meaning of relative

position that can also express relative destination.

Example:

He threw a blanket over her.

(Quirk, 1985: 681)

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g. Passage: over, behind, under, etc.

With verbs of motion, preposition may express the idea of passage

(movement toward and then away from a place), as well as destination.

Example:

He jumped over a ditch

Someone ran behind the goalposts

(Quirk, 1985: 681)

h. Passage: across, through, past

The sense of ‘passage’ is the primary locative meaning attached to across

(dimension type 1 or 2), through (dimension type 2 or 3) and past (the

passage equivalent to by which may also, however, be substituted for past

in a ‘passage’ sense).

Example:

The ball rolled across the lawn.

(Quirk, 1985: 682)

i. Movement with Reference to a Directional Path: up, down, along, etc.

The prepositions above with verb of motion make up a group of preposition

expressing movement with reference to an axis or directional path.

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Example:

We walked up the hill and down the other side.

(Quirk, 1985: 682)

j. Orientation: beyond, over, past, up, across, etc.

Most prepositions expressing relative destination, passage, and movement

with reference to a directional path can be used in a static sense of

orientation.

Example:

The live across the moors.

The village is through the wood.

(Quirk, 1985: 683)

k. Resultative Meaning: from, out of, over, past, etc

Prepositions showing the meaning of motion can usually have a static

resultative meaning when combined with be, indicating the state of having

reached the destination.

Example:

The horses are over the fence. (‘have now jumped over’)

(Quirk, 1985: 684)

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l. Pervasive Meaning: over, throughout, with, etc.

Over (dimension type 1 or 2) and through (dimension type 2 or 3),

especially when preceded by all, have pervasive meaning. Sometimes with

indicate the pervasive meaning in the sentence.

Example:

The child was running (all) over the flower border.

The garden was buzzing with bees.

(Quirk, 1985: 684)

m. Metaphorical or Abstract Use of Place Prepositions

Many prepositions of place have abstract meanings clearly related, through

metaphorical connection, to their locative uses. Sometimes prepositions

used to keep the grouping (in terms of similarity or contrast of meaning),

when they used in literal reference to place. One may perceive a stage-by-

stage extension of metaphorical usage in such a series as:

in shallow water (purely literal)

in deep water (also metaphorical = ‘in trouble’)

in difficulties (the preposition is used metaphorically)

in a tough spot (‘in a difficult situation’; both the preposition and the

noun are metaphorical since literally spot would require at).

(Quirk, 1985: 685)

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2) The Meaning of Preposition: Time

Quirk (1985: 687) also explains about the preposition which has meaning of

time. A prepositional phrase of time usually occurs as adjunct (for example,

‘He came on Friday’), or predication adjunct (for example, ‘That was on

Friday’), however, it can occasionally be itself the complement of a temporal

preposition.

a. Time When: at, on, in

At, on and in as prepositions of time when are to some extent parallel to

the same items as positive prepositions of position, although in the time

sphere there are only two ‘dimension-type’, ‘point of time’, and ‘period of

time’.

Example:

at ten o’clock

on New Year’s Day

in August

(Quirk, 1985: 688)

b. Measurement into the Future: in

To denote measurement from the present time, the postposed adverb ago is

used in order to a span back to a point of time in the past, and in for similar

span ahead into the future.

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Example:

We meet three months ago.

We will meet in three months time.

We will meet in three months from now.

(Quirk, 1985: 688)

c. Duration: for, during, over, (all) through, throughout

Preposition phrases of duration answer the how long? Duration is usually

expressed by for.

Example:

How long did you camp in Scotland?

We camped there for the summer. (‘all through, from the beginning to

the end of the summer’)

(Quirk, 1985: 689)

d. Duration: from…to, until, up to

From…to (till) is another pair of preposition whose locative meaning is

transferred to duration.

Example:

We camped there from June till September.

(Quirk, 1985: 690)

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3) The Cause/ Purpose Spectrum

a. Cause, reason, motive: because of, on account of, for, from, etc

At one end of the cause/ purpose spectrum, we have prepositions expressing

either the material cause or the psychological cause (motive) for a

happening. Phrase of cause, reason, and motive answer the question why…?

Example:

We had to drive slowly because of the heavy rain.

On account of his wide experience, he was made chairman.

(Quirk, 1985: 695)

b. Purpose, intended destination: for, to, so as to, in order to

Phrases of purpose or destination answer the questions why…? What…for?

Where...for? or Who…for?

Example:

He will do anything for money.

Everyone ran for shelter.

(Quirk, 1985: 696)

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c. Recipient, goal, target: for, to, at

When for is followed by noun phrases denoting persons or animals, the

meaning is rather one of intended recipient. In contrast to the notion of

intended recipient expressed by for, the preposition to express actual

recipient. At, in combinations such as aim at (where the prepositional phrase

is complementary to the verb), express intended goal or target.

Example:

He cooked a dinner for her

He laid a trap for his enemies

She ran to me.

(Quirk, 1985: 697)

d. Source, origin: from

From is used with reference to ‘place of origin’

Example:

He comes from Scotland / Glasgow. (He is a Scot/ a Glaswegian).

(Quirk, 1985: 698)

4) The Means/ Agentive Spectrum

a. Manner: in…manner, in…way, like, with

Manner can be expressed by in…manner and with. With transitive and

intransitive verb, like can also have the meaning of ‘in a manner

resembling’; with copular verbs, its meaning is purely that of

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‘resemblance’. Furthermore, the preposition will give the meaning about

how something or someone takes the attitude.

Example:

The job was done in a workmanlike manner.

We were received with the utmost courtesy

The army swept through the city like a pestilence.

(Quirk, 1985: 698)

The meaning of ‘resemblance’ is common with in sentences whose main

verb may be noncopular.

Example:

Bill writes poetry like his brother. (‘in a manner resembling that of his

brother’s poetry’)

Like his brother, Bill writes poetry. (‘resemblance’)

Bill writes poetry, like his brother. (‘resemblance’)

The last pair of examples showing the difference in meaning is not

entirely a matter of ordering. Furthermore, unlike is used with the meaning

of negative resemblance ‘not like’.

Example:

Unlike his brother (who write poetry), Bill writes science fiction.

Bill writes science fiction, unlike his brother (who writes poetry).

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There is frequently commutability between manner phrases and manner

adverbs: with courtesy – courteously. Manner phrases and manner adverbs

can both sometimes be evoked by the question How…? especially if the

sense of ‘means’ is excluded by the context of verb meaning.

Example:

A: How did you speak? B: She spoke competently

with great skill

B: How did you travel? B: By air.

Comfortably.

b. Means and Instrument: by, with, without

Phrases of means and instrument answer the question how…? The

preposition “by” can express the meaning ‘by mean of’. The preposition

“with”, on the other hand, expresses instrumental meaning.

Furthermore, the prepositional phrase will explain how the relation between

the sentence meaning and the following elements.

Example:

I usually go to work by bus.

He caught the ball with his left hand.

For most senses of the preposition “with”, including instrument, without

expresses the equivalent of negative meaning.

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Example:

I drew it without (using) a ruler. (‘I did not draw it with a ruler.’)

(Quirk, 1985: 699)

c. Instrument and Agentive: with, by

Sometimes the preposition has same relation with another preposition and

supports each others.

Example:

Someone had broken the window with a stone.

The window had been broken with a stone by someone.

(Quirk, 1985: 700)

Preposition with in the first sentence express the meaning of instrument. In

the passive sentence, the agentive is expressed with a by-phrase.

Furthermore, preposition by in the second sentence expresses the meaning

of agentive; however, the agent by-phrase is actually omitted. On the other

hand, they can be a difference in meaning, as appear more clearly in the

following two sentences below:

My car has been damaged by the branch of a tree.

My car has been damaged with the branch of a tree.

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The preposition “by” would exclude a human agency: a storm may have

caused the branch to cause the damage. By contrast, with in the example

would exclude the natural cause and would suggest human agents had used

the branch broken from a tree to inflict the damage. Thus, it makes the

distinction between agentive, i.e. the animate being instigating or causing

the happening denoted by the verb, and the instrument, i.e. the entity

(generally inanimate) which an agentive use to perform or instigate a

process. Both the agentive and instrument may be said to denote the

semantic role of agency.

d. Stimulus: at

The relation between an emotion and its stimulus (normally an abstract

stimulus) can be expressed by at or by the instrumental by.

Example:

I was alarmed at his behaviors

Both of these can be treated as passive equivalent of:

His behavior alarmed me

The preposition “with” rather than “at” is used when the stimulus is a

person or object rather than an event:

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I was furious with John.

I was delighted with the present.

(Quirk, 1985: 701)

e. Accompaniment: with

Especially when followed by an animate complement, with has meaning in

company with or together with (commutative function). Furthermore, the

preposition will indicate the relation between the subject and the

prepositional complement.

Example:

I am so glad you are coming with us.

Jack, (together) with several of his noisy friends, was drinking in his

apartment.

(Quirk, 1985: 702)

In the second example, the with-phrase serves a function very close to

coordination with and. However, unlike and, with has a singular verb, as

in:

Jack and several of his noisy friends were drinking…

With is also used to express accompanying circumstances, and to introduce

and support the meaning of the subject or the situation, as in:

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With all the noise, she was finding it hard to concentrate.

It all started with John (‘s) being late for dinner.

In both these uses, with implies cause: ‘Because of all the noise…’ in the

sentence “With all the noise, she was…” and ‘it all started as a result of

John (‘s) being late…’ in the sentence “It all started with John…”

On the other hand, without is the negative of with indicating the meaning

of ‘unaccompanied by’.

Example:

You never see him without his dog.

Without you, I am not going.

(Quirk, 1985: 702)

f. Support and Opposition: for, with, against

For coveys the idea of support (in favor of) and with that of solidarity or

movement is sympathy.

Example:

Are you for or against the plan? (Do you support or opposite the plan)

Remember that every one of us is with you. (‘on your side’)

There is no negative without contrasting with with. The contrary idea of

opposition is conveyed by against.

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Example:

It is prudent to go with rather than against the tide of public opinion.

The movement against nuclear acts (‘anti nuclear’)

However, the preposition “with” conveys the idea of opposition between

people in fight with, quarrel with, argue with, etc.

Example:

He is always arguing with her sister.

(Quirk, 1985: 703)

2.3.3 The Theory of Semantic Relations

According to Quirk (1985: 479), the theory of Semantic Relation is divided

into seven categories, as follows:

1) Space

We can readily distinguish five semantic relations expressed by prepositional

phrase in relation to physical space, including the ordinary senses of ‘place’, a

term we shall also use when this is convenient. First there is position, normally,

associated with verbs referring to stasis:

a. He lay on his bed.

However, they can occur also with verbs referring to motion:

b. They are strolling in the park.

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Second, there is direction, which may refer to directional path without

locational specification, as in:

c. They drove westwards.

Or it can refer to direction along with a locational specification as in:

d. She walked down the hill.

e. Their house faces towards the sea.

Third, involving a positional aspect of direction, we can distinguish goal, as

in:

f. She walked (down the hill) to the bus stop.

The interrelationship between position, direction, and goal are shown by the

fact that, in particular contexts and with particular verbs. Furthermore, they can

elicit by questions with where:

g. Where was she walking? In the park. (Position)

h. Where was she walking? Down the hill. (Direction)

i. Where was she walking? To the bus. (Goal)

There are alternative question forms that are more role-specified, such as:

j. Which way was she walking? (Direction)

k. Where was she walking to? (Goal)

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Fourth, another semantic relation is source, as in:

l. She walked (down the hill) from the school.

Questions concerning source would usually be expressed through a more

general verb of motion than walk, especially one that is oriented to the speaker,

and the ‘source’ preposition would have to be expressed.

Finally, there is spatial measure, expressed as distance, as in:

m. She had driven (for) fifty kilometres.

2) Time

As with space, several subroles can be distinguished, some of them are closely

analogous to those of space. First, there is time seen as a fixed position on a

temporal scale (time as stasis). Example:

a. She drove to Chicago on Sunday.

b. He was there last week.

The relation is elicited by when and is often referred to as ‘time when’.

c. When did she drive to Chicago? On Sunday.

Second, there is duration. Furthermore, the meaning indicates the duration of

the time:

d. I shall be staying here till last week.

Third, there is frequency, which is elicited by How often…?, as in:

e. How often do you go to the theatre?

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I like to go frequently, however, in fact I’ve been only three times this

year.

Finally, there is the expression of relationship between one time and another,

again a complex notion, and in this case with no role-specific question form.

For example:

f. I was already writing my novel in 1980 and I’m afraid it is still in

progress.

g. He had visited his mother already when I saw him yesterday.

3) Process

The semantic relations indicating the process is divided into four subclasses,

such as manner, means, instrument, and agentive.

Example:

a. The student was politely [A1] assessed by the teacher [A2],

impressionistically [A3] by means of interview [A4].

b. The patient was carefully [A1] treated by the nurse [A2],

medically [A3] with a well-tried drug [A4].

In each sentence, A1 indicates manner, A2 indicates agent, A3indicates means

and A4indicates instrument. Furthermore, the three subclasses, such as manner,

means and instrument, seem similar. The distinction may seem especially close

35

only between means and instrument, it should be noted that manner is not

necessarily always distinguished clearly from them. In principle, the distinction

is clear enough, such as manner is relatively subjective; means and instrument

is objective.

4) Respect

This is much broader and more abstract semantic category than time and place.

Furthermore, it was concerned with the use of a preposition to identify a

relevant point of reference in respect of which the clause concerned derives its

truth value.

For example:

a. So far as travelling facilities are concerned, we have obviously made a

popular decision; but with respect to the date, many people are expressing

dissatisfaction.

b. They are advising me legally. (where the adverbial does not mean

‘lawfully’ or ‘not illegally’, but ‘on point of law’ or ‘ in respect to law’)

On the last example, the respect role is often expressed by means of an adverbial

form which could be used equally to express a different semantic relation.

Moreover, the respect role may interact with another clause element such as it

is expressed in the verb.

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5) Contingency

There are some subclasses in this semantic relation, such as:

a. Cause

Example: She died of cancer.

She helped the stranger out of a sense of duty.

b. Reason

Example: He bought the book because of his interest in metaphysics.

c. Purpose

Example: He bought the book so as to study metaphysics.

d. Result

Example: He read the book carefully, so he acquired some knowledge of

metaphysics.

e. Condition

Example: If he reads the book carefully, he will acquire some knowledge

of metaphysics.

f. Concession

Example: Though he didn’t read the book, he acquired some knowledge

of metaphysics.

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6) Modality

This semantic relation can be divided into three subclasses, such as emphasis,

approximation, and restriction.

For example:

a. She has been enthusiastic about her work. (main sentence)

b. She has certainly been enthusiastic about her work. (emphasis)

c. She has not been enthusiastic at all about her work. (emphasis)

d. She has probably been enthusiastic about her work. (approximation)

e. She has not really been enthusiastic about her work. (approximation)

f. She has been enthusiastic only about her work. (restriction)

g. She alone has been enthusiastic. (restriction)

The truth value or force of the main sentence can be enhanced. On the one hand,

there can be emphasis on the positive or negative poles of the statement, like

the second and third example. On the other hand, the middle ground between

these poles can be indicated by approximation, like the fourth and fifth

example. The last subclass of modality is restriction, especially with a view to

directing focus upon a particular part of the sentence, as in the sixth and seventh

example. Furthermore, the negative particle not serves the function of denying

truth value.

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7) Degree

There are some subclasses in this semantic relation, such as amplification,

diminution, and measure.

For example:

a. I badly want a drink. (amplification)

b. She is increasingly adding to her work load. (amplification)

c. He does not like playing squash (very) much. (diminution)

d. She helped him a little with his book. (diminution)

e. He likes playing squash more than his sister does. (measure)

f. She had worked sufficiently that day. (measure)

This semantic relation is concerned with the assessment of gradable constituents in

relation to an imaginary scale. One of the subclasses is amplification, concerned with

asserting a generalized high degree and another is its opposite, diminution. On the other

hand, there is the expression of measure, without implication that the degree is notably

high or low, as in fifth and sixth example.