Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 10 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Wetlands General Perspectives Wetlands are the most important natural feature that modifies the human history as well as culture. Wetlands are the area of earth surface that taught the human beings the art of cultivation about 10000 year back. The wetland and human beings are in tandem from time immemorial. It is true to say that human beings are molded and human cultures were modified in the vicinity of wetlands. (Wade and Lopez-Gunn, 1999) Early civilizations first arose along the Edges of rivers in the fertile soils of flood plains (Keddy, 2000). It is evident from the facts of our age-old river valley civilizations like Indus, Mesopotamia, to less known Mayan civilizations etc (Pohi, 1990). Wetland habitats have been an integral part of the life of man in India. The folklore and old Indian literature are full of references to the freshwater wetland plants. The flood plains of river Yamuna were once extensive enough where the herds of cows grazed in company of Lord Krishna. The reeds (pharagmitees karka) were and are still widely used for thatching roofs and making screens. Cane (Calamus tenuis) well known for its strength, is used variously in making furniture. Sacred Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), held in reverence for being the seat of Gods and Goddesses, was once abundant in shallow water bodies. The seeds of lotus and Euryale ferox are still a delicacy in India and thousands of kilograms are harvested every year. Besides seeds, the petioles and rhizomes are used as vegetable. (Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1992) Wetlands were considered marginal waterlogged lands, harboring disease, hazardous and are also the source of immense human suffering (Keddy, 2000), (Dugan, 1993) These type of
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Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 10
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Wetlands General Perspectives
Wetlands are the most important natural feature that modifies the human history as well as
culture. Wetlands are the area of earth surface that taught the human beings the art of
cultivation about 10000 year back. The wetland and human beings are in tandem from time
immemorial. It is true to say that human beings are molded and human cultures were
modified in the vicinity of wetlands. (Wade and Lopez-Gunn, 1999) Early civilizations first
arose along the Edges of rivers in the fertile soils of flood plains (Keddy, 2000). It is evident
from the facts of our age-old river valley civilizations like Indus, Mesopotamia, to less known
Mayan civilizations etc (Pohi, 1990).
Wetland habitats have been an integral part of the life of man in India. The folklore and old
Indian literature are full of references to the freshwater wetland plants. The flood plains of
river Yamuna were once extensive enough where the herds of cows grazed in company of
Lord Krishna. The reeds (pharagmitees karka) were and are still widely used for thatching
roofs and making screens. Cane (Calamus tenuis) well known for its strength, is used
variously in making furniture. Sacred Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), held in reverence for being
the seat of Gods and Goddesses, was once abundant in shallow water bodies. The seeds of
lotus and Euryale ferox are still a delicacy in India and thousands of kilograms are harvested
every year. Besides seeds, the petioles and rhizomes are used as vegetable. (Gopal and
Krishnamurthy, 1992)
Wetlands were considered marginal waterlogged lands, harboring disease, hazardous and are
also the source of immense human suffering (Keddy, 2000), (Dugan, 1993) These type of
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 11
human perception of wetland has always been ambivalent. Misunderstandings over their
ecology and functioning lead to their perception as a hazardous wasteland. But the local
people who lives in the vicinity of wetlands often respect and understand wetlands as a
resource and are dependent on them, while more recently, the wetland areas attract many
tourists (Wade and Lopez-Gunn, 1999).
The wetlands are a mystery for many people and consider them according to their whims and
fancies. In a spatial context they lie between dry land and open water- at the coast, around
inland lake and rivers or as mires draped across the landscape. In an ecological context,
wetlands are intermediate between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In a temporal context,
most are destined either to evolve into dry land as a result of lowered water tables,
sedimentation or plant succession, or to be submerged by rising water tables associated with
relative sea-level rise or climatic change.
Geologically, individual wetlands are ephemeral features of the earth’s surface, Subject to
change, although the startigraphic record is full with examples of past wetlands such as
carboniferous coal swamps of Laurasia, paleo channels of some old rivers, and playas in arid
regions etc Orme (1992) For the agriculturists these are the areas to be drained and
cultivated, for the historians, they are the cradle of the ancient civilizations. For the
sociologists these are the place for the survival of the huge population of third world
countries as well as the source all the epidemics in this area. For the botanists these are the
areas where we can see plants adapted to wetness and dryness. For the zoologists these are
the areas for the survival of certain migratory birds and native animals, most of them are in
the brink of extinction. For the developers these are the areas to be filled and build housing
amnesties. For the urban planner these are the areas that should be used for wastewater
treatment.
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 12
The importance of wetland not ends in the above described areas alone. Human beings are
living in a wide variety of landscapes and for many centuries the scientist of many disciples
as their focus of study. Wetlands are another major landscape, but it is only since the late
1960s that they have engaged the attention of a range of scholars in an effort to understand
their variety and complexity, yet essential unity, the problems, prospects, extend, and
distribution (Williams, 1993a).
1.2 Various Definition of Wetlands
Even though wetland is an old term, it gains importance very recently. People around the
world know the term ‘wetland’ in different names because wetlands occur in all the climatic
zones of the world. Their environmental characteristics such as soil, flora, fauna, and
hydrology differ place to place. Generally there are two types of definitions of wetland, one
dealing with the scientific aspect of the wetland and the other dealing with the legal
proceedings. The term "wetland" means different things to different people - indeed, there are
about fifty definitions of wetlands in current usage (Dugan, 1993).
The following are some very simple definitions
Aquatic wetland: area where plants that are living or growing in water.
Estuarian wetland: An area where sea water mixes with fresh water.
Riparian wetland: area that is adjacent to creeks, streams, or rivers where the vegetation is
strongly influenced by the presence of water.
Emergent plant wetland: A rooted aquatic plant that normally extends above the surface of
the water.
Floodplain wetland: A nearly flat plain along a river or stream that is subject to flooding.
Tidal wetlands: Wetlands in which the water level fluctuates with the tide (eduscapes, 2000)
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 13
Shallow water wetlands: A wetland community dominated by truly aquatic plants
growing in and covered by at least 25 cm of water.
Wetlands are fragile interface between land and water (Wetland Australia, 2000) A simple
definition is ‘land with soils that are permanently flooded’. Strahler and Strahler (2002)
defines wetlands as the land areas of poor surface drainage, such as marshes and swamps.
The US Army Corps of Engineers and the US Environmental Protection Agency define
wetlands as follows:
“Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and
duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence
of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally
include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas” (Cowardin et al., 1979)
This definition encompasses reef flats sea grass beds in coastal areas, through mudflats,
mangroves, estuaries, rivers, freshwater marshes, swamp forests and lakes, as well as saline
marshes and lakes.
Cowardin et al. (1979) developed a simple definition : “wetlands are ecotones; areas which
are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic environments and where the water logging of
the soil causes the development of a characteristic vegetation”.
The US Environment Protection Agency in 2005 gave two different definition of wetlands
one is simple and another one is complicated. “Wetlands are marshy areas where there is
much moisture in the soil”. This includes areas covered in water, swamps, marshes, and bogs.
The second one is "Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems
where the water table is usually at or near the surface or where shallow water covers the land
and where at least one of the following attributes holds: like 1) the land predominantly
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 14
supports aquatic plants at least periodically; 2) Undrained hydric soils are the predominant
substrate; and 3) at some time during the growing season, the substrate is saturated with water
or covered by shallow water" (Environmental Protection Agency, 2005).
National Wetlands Working Group of Canada (1988) defines wetlands as ‘any land saturated
with water long enough to promote wetland or aquatic processes as indicated by poorly
drained soils, hydrophytic vegetation, and various kinds of biological activity that are adapted
to a wet environment’.
Corps Regulations for Implementing the Federal Clean Water Act of the United State of
America defines wetlands as: ‘those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or
ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated
soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar
areas’(FICWD, 1989).
According to the Dictionary of Physical Geography wetland is a term referring to an area that
has developed a specially adapted vegetation because it has been long dominated by water
and whose process are largely controlled by water, static or flowing, brackish or saline
(Whittow, 2000).
Wetlands are unique ecosystems that often occur at the edge of aquatic (water, fresh water to
salty) or terrestrial (upland) systems. They may be wet year-round, wet during certain
seasons, or wet during part of the day (IWWR, 2000).
Corps Regulations for Implementing the Federal Clean Water Act defines wetlands as:
"Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and
duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 15
of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally
include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas" (IWWR, 2000)
Orme (1992) defines wetland as biophysical flatlands or slops with perennial water tables at
or near the surface.
Wetlands are considered to be the areas of the Earth’s surface were land meet the water. And
it also considered being the Kidneys of the Earth’s. Wetlands are considered to be the land
areas that are partially or permanently saturate with water during some or all of the annual
cycle (UNEP- 2000)
A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by
anaerobic process and forces the biota, Particularly rooted plants, to exhibit adaptations to
tolerate flooding (Keddy, 2000)
The Ramsar Convention definition of ‘wetland’ and classification system for wetland type
Under the Convention on Wetlands Ramsar, Iran, 1971 wetlands are described by Articles 1.1
and 2.1 as shown below:
Article 1.1:
"For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or
water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth
of which at low tide does not exceed six meters."
Article 2.1 provides that wetlands:
"may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands
or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the
wetlands".
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 16
Environment Protection Agency of the US defines wetlands as The marshy areas where
there is much moisture in the soil and are sometimes covered in water (EPA, 2000).
"Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water
table is usually at or near the surface or where shallow water covers the land and where at
least one of the following attributes holds: 1) the land predominantly supports aquatic plants
at least periodically; 2) undrained hydric soils are the predominant substrate; and 3) at some
time during the growing season, the substrate is saturated with water or covered by shallow
water." (EPA, 2000)
According to the Illinois Department of Natural Resources of United States of America
wetlands are ‘halfway world between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that exhibit some of
the characteristics of each’ (IDNR, 2000).
1.3 Role of Wetlands
1.3.1. Hydrology
Wetlands play a critical role in regulating the movement of water within watersheds as well
as in the global water cycle (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Wetlands, by definition, are
characterized by water saturation in the root zone, at, or above the soil surface, for a certain
amount of time during the year. This fluctuation of the water table (hydro period) above the
soil surface is unique to each wetland type.
Wetlands store precipitation and surface water and then slowly release the water into
associated surface water resources, ground water, and the atmosphere. Wetland types differ in
this capacity based on a number of physical and biological characteristics, including:
landscape position, soil saturation, and the fiber content, degree of decomposition of the
organic soils, vegetation density and type of vegetation. Hydrology modifies and determines
the nature of wetland substrate and, together, these jointly allow specific ecosystem
responses. (Hollis and J. R. Thompson, 1998). The water stored in a wetland also contributes
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 17
to increased soil moisture in the wetland’s riparian area. Preserving water quality and
increasing biological productivity for both aquatic life as well as human communities of the
region. Inundated wetlands are very effective in storing rainwater and are the primary source
for recharging ground water aquifers (Anonymous, 1833; KSCSTE, 2007; Nair and Sankar,
2002). Changes in frequency, duration, and timing of hydro period may impact spawning,
migration, species composition, and food chain support of the wetland and associated
downstream systems (Crance 1988). Normal hydrologic flux allows exchange of nutrients,
detritus, and passage of aquatic life between systems. Values of wetlands as a result of the
functions of hydrologic flux and storage include: water quality, water supply, flood control,
erosion control, wildlife support, recreation, culture, and commercial benefits. (Hollis and J.
R. Thompson, 1998)
1.3.2 Ground Water Recharge
Wetlands help maintain the level of the water table and exert control on the hydraulic head.
This provides force for ground water recharge and discharge to other waters as well. The
extent of ground water recharge by a wetland is dependent upon soil, vegetation, site,
perimeter to volume ratio, and water table gradient. (Novitzki et al., 1997). Ground water
recharge occurs through mineral soils found primarily around the edges of wetlands the soil
under most wetlands is relatively impermeable.
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
Figure 1-1: Wetland Hydrology
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
ydrology after (Hollis and J. R. Thompson, 1998)
18
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 19
1.3.3. Freshwater Source
Wetlands play an important part in freshwater cycle. They are the link between water and
land. They act as filters, thereby protecting sources of drinking water. The loss or degradation
of wetlands has many consequences, such as increased flooding or the decline of water
quality. Wetlands hold rainwater and sediments and purify water. The shrinking wetlands
prove to be disastrous to the freshwater supply. Wetlands were destroyed for cultivation and
to meet the demands of the increasing population.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in August 2002
highlighted the fact that nearly 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe freshwater and
there are nearly 1.7 billion people living in water scarce areas. The Ramsar Convention had
highlighted the wetland ecosystems as the starting point of all integrated water management
strategies. Sustainability can be ensured only by maintaining the health of wetlands which are
the sources of freshwater, besides being sources of livelihood to rural population. (Ramsar,
2002)
1.3.4. Life Support
As it is the transitional zone between Water earth and atmosphere it provides diverse habitat
(food, water, shelter and space) for many species. Worldwide extend of natural wetlands
continue to decline as land is converted to accommodate increasing human populations. Rice
agriculture presents a potential surrogate habitat for specie that uses wetlands. (Elphick,
2000)
Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. (Mitsch and Gosselink,
2000). Immense varieties of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
fish and other wildlife depend in some way on wetlands. Wetlands with seasonal hydrologic
pulsing are the most productive. Wetland plants play an integral role in the ecology of the
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 20
watershed. Wetland plants provide breeding and nursery sites, resting areas for migratory
species and refuge from predators. Decomposed plant matter (detritus) released into the water
is important food for many invertebrates and fish both in the wetland and in associated
aquatic systems. Physical and chemical characteristics such as climate, topography, geology,
hydrology and inputs of nutrients and sediments determine the rate of plant growth and
reproduction (primary productivity) of wetlands.(Brinson, 1993; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000;
Nandan, 2007)
The inundated or saturated conditions occurring in wetlands limit plant species composition
to those that can tolerate such conditions. Beaver, muskrat and alligators create or manipulate
their own wetland habitat that other organisms such as fish, amphibians, waterfowl, insects
and mammals can use them or inhabit. (Gosselink and Maltby, 1990; Mitsch and Gosselink,
2000).
Wetland plants controls the oxidation conditions of the wetland. Wetland plants often contain
aerenchymous tissue (spongy tissue with large pores) in their stems and roots that allows air
to move quickly between the leaf surface and the roots. Oxygen released from wetland plant
roots oxidizes the rhizosphere (root zone) and allows processes requiring oxygen, such as
organic compound breakdown, decomposition and denitrification to occur (Toner and Keddy,
1997) (Figure 1-2). A wetland with more vegetation will intercept more runoff and be more
capable of reducing runoff velocity and removing pollutants from the water than a wetland
with less as their roots hold the stream bank, shoreline, or coastline.
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 21
1.3.5. Landscape position
Landscape position affects the amount and source of water in a wetland. For example,
wetlands that are near a topographical height, such as Myristica Swamp in Kulathoopuzha
region of Kollam district of Kerala (Nair and Sankar, 2002) will not receive as much run off
as a coastal wetland in low area amidst fields. Wetlands can be precipitation dominated,
ground water dominated or surface flow dominated. Wetlands on local topographic heights
are often precipitation dominated. Precipitation dominated wetlands may also be in flat or
slightly elevated areas in the landscape, where they receive little or no surface runoff.
Generally such wetlands have a clay and peat layer that retains the precipitation and also
prevents discharge from ground water. Wetlands also form in landscape positions at which
the water table actively discharges, particularly at the base of hills and in valleys. Such
ground water dominated wetlands may also receive overland flow but they have a steady
supply of water from and to groundwater. Most wetlands in low points on the landscape or
within other water resources are dominated by overland flow. Such riverine, fringe (marsh),
and tidal wetlands actively play a role in the landscape since they come in contact with, store,
or release large quantities of water and act upon sediments and nutrients. These wetlands are
recharged by ground water as well, but surface water provides the major source of water
(Figure 1-3, 1-4) (Gosselink and Maltby, 1990; Ramsar, 2002).
Wetland
Ecosystem
Biota
Geomorphology
Hydrology Sediments
Water Column
Time Climate
Figure 1-2: Conceptual Model of Large-Scale System Controls adapted from Chaplin et al (1996)
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 22
Figure 1-3: Typical Wetland System After (USGS, 2010)
Figure 1-4: Wetland Related to Riverine System after Keddy, 1997
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 23
1.3.6. Soil Saturation and Fiber Content
Soil saturation and fiber content are important factors in determining the capacity of a
wetland in retaining water. Like a sponge, as the pore spaces in wetland soil and peat become
saturated by water, they are able to hold less additional water and are also able to release the
water more easily. Clay soils retain more water than loam or sand and hold the water particles
more tightly through capillary action since pore spaces are small and the water particles are
attracted to the negatively charged clay. Pore spaces between sand particles are large and
water drains more freely since less of the water in the pore is close enough to be attracted to
the soil particle (Premachandran et al., 2002; Premachandran and Roshni, 2007; Ramsar,
2002).
1.3.7. Climate Control
Climate control is another hydrologic function of wetlands. Many wetlands return over two-
thirds of their annual water inputs to the atmosphere through evapo - transpiration. Wetlands
may also act to moderate temperature extremes in adjacent uplands (Brinson, 1993; Hertel
and Rosch, 2010).
1.3.8. Biogeochemical Cycling and Storage
Wetlands may be a sink for, or transform; nutrients, organic compounds, metals, and
components of organic matter. Wetlands may also act as filters of sediments and organic
matter. A wetland may be a permanent sink for these substances if the compounds become
buried in the substrate or are released into the atmosphere; or a wetland may retain them only
during the growing season or under flooded conditions. Wetland processes play a role in the
global cycles of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur by transforming them and releasing them into the
atmosphere. The values of wetland functions related to biogeochemical cycling and storage
include: water quality and erosion control (Johnston et al., 1990; Wetland Australia, 2000).
Wetlands store carbon within wet soil and are capable of reducing sulfate to sulfide. Sulfate
reaches the soil through tidal flow or atmospheric deposition (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000).
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 24
Wetlands filter suspended solids from water that comes into contact with wetland vegetation.
Stems and leaves provide friction for the flow of the water thus allowing settling of
suspended solids and removal of related pollutants from the water column (Johnston et al.,
1990).
Wetlands can remove metals from surface and ground water as a result of the presence of
clays, humic materials (peats), aluminum, iron and calcium. Metals entering wetlands bind to
the negatively ionized surface of clay particles, precipitate as inorganic compounds (includes
metal oxides, hydroxides and carbonates controlled by system pH), complex with humic
materials and adsorb or occlude to precipitated hydrous oxides (Gambrell 1994).
1.3.9. Pollution Trapping and Waste Processing
Wetlands intercept the run-off from uplands before it reaches channels, trap water and filter
out pollutants, thus improving its quality. Wetlands are very efficient at removing nitrogen by
bacterial metabolism. Major chemical function of wetlands is their ability to process human
and animal waste material in an extremely efficient way
1.3.10. Decomposition
Decomposition rates vary across wetland types, particularly as a function of climate,
vegetation type, available carbon and nitrogen and pH. Decomposition requires oxygen and
thus reduces the dissolved oxygen content of the water. High rates of decomposition - such as
that occur after algae has bloomed - can reduce water quality and impair aquatic life support.
(Johnston et al., 1990).
1.3.11. Recreation, Aesthetics, Culture, and Science
Wetlands have archeological, historical, cultural, recreational and scientific values. Societies
have traditionally formed along bodies of water and artifacts found in wetlands provide
information about these societies.
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 25
1.3.12. Food
Reclaimed wetland produces new soils which are the basis for an enlarged food production.
This has been the fundamental reason for wetland transformation and diminution throughout
the centuries and will continue to be as in future as increased food production is a national
goal of every developing country in order to feed its rapidly growing population. (Williams,
1993b)
1.3.13. Coastal Protection
It is clear that coastal marshes absorb wave energy and reduce erosion on estuarine
shorelines and so buffer the land from storms. More than 50% of wave energy is dissipated
within the first 2.5 meter of the marsh. The coastal subsidence due to global sea level rise can
be survived by the coastal wetlands. (Williams, 1993b)
1.3.14. Economics
Wetlands are important from an economic standpoint. This include the benefits from habitat,
recreation, food production, waste water treatment, water regulation, flood control, water
supply, ground water recharge, etc (Costanza et al., 1989).
Wetland Functions – The physical, chemical, and biological processes that characterize
wetland ecosystems, such as flood water retention, erosion and sedimentation control,
dentrification, provision of habitat for organisms and support of aquatic life.
Wetland Values – Are usually associated with goods and services that society recognizes as
worthy, desirable, or useful to humans. Wetlands values arise from the functional ecological
processes associated with wetlands and are also determined by human perceptions, its
location, human population pressures and the extent of resources.
1.4 Types of Wetlands
There are two groups of wetland; one based on the prevailing vegetation type and the other
based on its location. On the basis of vegetation wetlands can be grouped into marshes,
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 26
swamps, bog, riparian marsh, etc. On the basis of landscape position wetlands are grouped
into coastal, inland and forested.
1.4.1 Marsh
A freshwater marsh is an inland area inundated with 1-6 feet (33 - 200 cm) of water,
containing a variety of perennials (mostly grasses), forbs (flowers) and bushes. Marshes have
an interesting mix of plant and animal life, one that effectively demonstrates the
interconnectedness of living things. Marshes also host frogs, turtles, and snakes, salamanders,
and an immense variety of insects, including aquatic, flying and grazing insects.
1.4.2. Riparian Marsh
Marshes that occur along rivers are called riparian marshes. These marshes serve two
ecological roles: to absorb excess water when river levels are high and to release water when
river levels are low. These balancing forces help prevent floods and droughts. However, for
the past 100 years mankind has straightened and deepened rivers in order to make them more
accessible for transportation and commerce. The unfortunate side effect is the loss of riparian
marshes. Today very few riparian marshes are left.
1.4.3. Swamp
A wetland community that is dominated by trees that are rooted in hydric soils, examples
include tropical mangrove swamp and bottom-land forests in flood plains.
1.4.4. Bog
A bog is a peat-accumulating wetland. Some shrubs, plants and mosses grow in bog. In a bog
source of water is mainly from precipitation. There is usually no direct inflow or outflow of
water.
1.4.5. Fen
A wetland community that is usually dominated by sedges and grass rooted in shallow peat,
often with considerable water movement through the peat. Examples include the extensive
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 27
peat lands in northern Canada and Russia, as well as smaller seepage areas throughout the
temperate zone
1.4.6. Wet Meadow
A wetland community dominated by herbaceous plants rooted in occasionally flooded soils.
Temporary flooding excludes terrestrial plants and swamp plants, but drier growing seasons
then produce plant communities typical of moist soils. Wetlands include wet prairies along
river flood plains or herbaceous meadows on the shorelines of large lakes.(Keddy, 2000)
1.5. Wetlands Types based on Landscape Position
1.5.1. Coastal Wetland
Coastal wetlands are unified as a system by low gradients, low wave energy, fine grained
sediments and pervasive salt water influence. Such conditions are found in estuaries, lagoons,
deltas and other inlets and along open coasts protected by offshore barriers, coral reefs or
wide tidal ramps.(Orme, 1992; Thrivikramji et al., 2007)
1.5.2. Inland Wetlands
Interior wetlands occur across a wide range of environments - from rivers to lakes to mires,
from arctic muskeg to equatorial swamp forest, from flats to hill slopes, and from fresh water
to hyper saline hydrologies. Interior wetlands exist independently of sea level. However their
development has been much influenced by Holocene climatic changes. (Orme, 1992)
1.5.3. Lacustrine Wetlands
Lacustrine wetland occurs in topographic depression these are open water dominated system.
These wetlands are widespread in humid tropics. The slow nature of the overland flow of
water in wetland reduces the amount of soil sediment entering streams and lakes. These
wetlands can reduce flooding by acting like giant sponges to absorb excess water and
releasing it slowly; this storage of water also allows water to evaporate or to seep into the
ground, replenishing the water table. (Gosselink James G 1992; Keddy, 2000)
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
1.5.4. Forested Wetlands
Floodplain forests, hardwood swamps, softwood swamps, seeps and vernal pools are major
types of forested wetlands. In Kerala there is a unique forested wetland system that
as Myristica swamps in Kulathupuzha region of Kollam District.
1.6. Ramsar Convention
Most of the wetlands in the world are affected by accelerated human intervention resulting in
its depletion and degradation. By understanding the need for the co
wetlands a global convention was organized in 1975 at Ramsar in Iran. This convention is
known as the Ramsar Convention.
Major agenda of the Ramsar convention was the conservation of waterfowl habitat in the
world. Later it was extende
It was adopted on February 2, 1975 so that 2
Wetlands Day’. Ramsar convention entered into force on December 21, 1975. Now Ramsar
have 160 signatories. With 1953 wetland sites a total of 190.45 million ha has included in
wetland area, of which majority of wetlands are in Europe (996).
distribution given in (Figure 1
Figure 1-5: Regional Distribution of Ramsar S
North America
8%
Oceania
5%
Neotropic
11%
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
Wetlands
Floodplain forests, hardwood swamps, softwood swamps, seeps and vernal pools are major
types of forested wetlands. In Kerala there is a unique forested wetland system that
as Myristica swamps in Kulathupuzha region of Kollam District.
onvention
Most of the wetlands in the world are affected by accelerated human intervention resulting in
its depletion and degradation. By understanding the need for the co
wetlands a global convention was organized in 1975 at Ramsar in Iran. This convention is
known as the Ramsar Convention.
Major agenda of the Ramsar convention was the conservation of waterfowl habitat in the
world. Later it was extended to the conservation of all wetlands of international importance.
It was adopted on February 2, 1975 so that 2nd February of each year is observed as ‘World
Wetlands Day’. Ramsar convention entered into force on December 21, 1975. Now Ramsar
atories. With 1953 wetland sites a total of 190.45 million ha has included in
wetland area, of which majority of wetlands are in Europe (996). (Ramsar, 2002)
distribution given in (Figure 1-5)
istribution of Ramsar Sites after (Ramsar.org 2010)
Europe
51%
North America
Neotropic
11%
Africa
13%
Asia
12%
28
Floodplain forests, hardwood swamps, softwood swamps, seeps and vernal pools are major
types of forested wetlands. In Kerala there is a unique forested wetland system that is known
Most of the wetlands in the world are affected by accelerated human intervention resulting in
its depletion and degradation. By understanding the need for the conservation of these
wetlands a global convention was organized in 1975 at Ramsar in Iran. This convention is
Major agenda of the Ramsar convention was the conservation of waterfowl habitat in the
d to the conservation of all wetlands of international importance.
February of each year is observed as ‘World
Wetlands Day’. Ramsar convention entered into force on December 21, 1975. Now Ramsar
atories. With 1953 wetland sites a total of 190.45 million ha has included in
(Ramsar, 2002) Regional
(Ramsar.org 2010)
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 29
1.6.1 Special Feature of the Ramsar Convention
Major output of the Ramsar Convention was the following
i) Provisions for establishing wetland nature reserves.
ii) Cooperation in exchange of information.
iii) Training manpower for wetland management.
iv) Wetlands as habitats including mangrove swamps, marshes, fens, tidal flats, rivers,
lakes and seashores for migratory fauna.
v) Wise-use concept and its recommendations
1.6.2 Criteria for Selection of Wetlands of International Importance
Wetlands are selected for inclusion on the List of Wetlands of International Importance based
on "international significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology, or
hydrology." All Ramsar sites meet at least one of the following criteria
1. Criteria for representative or unique wetlands
(Such as bio geographical representative or uniqueness, rareness or being unusual).
2. General criteria based on plants and animal.
3. Criteria based on waterfowl.
a) It should regularly support 20,000 waterfowl, or
b) Support individual from a particular group of waterfowl.
c) Support one percent of the individual in a population of one species or sub
species of waterfowl.
4) Criteria based on fish.
Ramsar concept of wise-use of wetlands includes their sustainable utilization for the benefit
of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the
ecosystem. The sustainable utilization of wetlands implies that human use of a wetland may
yield the greatest, continues to benefit the present generations while maintaining its potential
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 30
to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. In 1990, a wetland Conservation
Fund was established which provides commitment of financial resources and technology
transfer to developing countries (Ramsar, 2002).
1.6.3. National Commitments / Obligations Involved on The Part of Contracting Parties to Ramsar:
Each signatory of the Ramsar Convention should strictly adhere to the following obligations
i) Creation of Ramsar sites, in particular, the terrestrial or coastal wetland reserves
and parks nominated by parties,
ii) Implementation and adequacy review,
iii) Reporting by parties, by regime and NGOs,
iv) Protection of Ramsar sites through relevant domestic legislation and national
wetland policies
v) Formulating planning and implementing planning to promote wise-use,
vi) To establish wetland reserves and provide for their protection,
vii) To consult with other contracting parties about implementation of the
conservation measures recommended by Ramsar Convention, especially as regards
trans- frontier wetlands.
viii) To designate at least one wetland of international importance for Ramsar list and
to promote its/ their conservation.
Ramsar countries also promote the conservation of wetlands in their territory, whether or not
the wetlands are included on the list, through establishing wetlands nature reserves. Many
wetlands cross international boundaries, and many wetland species are migratory; like other
natural systems, wetlands are complex and perform many important functions that we depend
upon, such as flood control and water quality protection, as well as providing wildlife habitat.
Wetlands are among the most productive environments, which are blessed with biological
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 31
diversity. The Ramsar Convention celebrates the importance of these remarkable habitats
worldwide and ensures their protection for the future.
1.7. Wetlands in India
India is a Contracting Party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
signed at Ramsar in Iran in 1971. There are twenty five wetlands identified as Ramsar sites in
India. (Table) In India more than 70% of wetlands are under the category of paddy fields.
Another major wetland system on India is manmade impoundments which covers about 3 %
of total wetland area. Mangroves and estuaries cover more than 7 million
hectors(Woistencroft et al., 1989).
1.7.1 Status of Wetlands in India
The geomorphologic, climatic, hydrological and biotic diversity of the Indian subcontinent
has ensured a great diversity of its wetlands which include seasonally flooded as well as
permanent marshes and swamps in shallow lakes, large river floodplains and littoral zones of
large lakes and reservoirs. Along the entire coast there are several lagoons, estuarine
backwaters and extensive mangroves in the deltas and estuaries of numerous rivers. There are
also marine wetlands which include coastal beds of marine algae and coral reefs(Gopal and
Sah, 1995).
India has a wealth of wetland eco-systems distributed in different geographical regions from
the cold arid zone of Ladakh in the North to the wet humid climate of Imphal in the East, the
warm arid zone of Rajasthan in the west to the tropical monsoonal Central India and the wet
and humid zone of Southern Peninsula. Most of the wetlands of India are part of the major
river systems such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc
(Garg et al., 1998).
The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (1992) estimated that 4.7
million ha area are wetlands, of which 1.5 million ha is natural, 2.6 million man made and 0.6
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 32
million ha mangrove vegetation. According to the nationwide wetland inventory there are
27,403 wetland units in the country occupying 7.6 million ha of which coastal wetlands
occupies 3959 units and 4 million ha whereas inland wetlands are of 23444 units with 3.6
million ha (Ramsar, 2004).
During recent decades, the rapid increase in human population and demand for natural
resources for food, fuel and fodder have resulted in rapid deterioration and decline of all
kinds of wetlands throughout the south Asian region. Diverse human activities on adjacent
land and in water further aggravate the problem of wetland decline. It is interesting to also
point out the impacts of introduced plants and animals on natural biota and processes in both
mangroves and freshwater wetlands.
Realizing the importance of wetlands in India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF),
Government of India, has published a directory of wetlands (1990), based on the survey
carried out during 1972. However, the survey was not comprehensive and many inland
wetlands and most of the coastal wetlands, paddy fields have not been included in the
compilation. In order to fill this void, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India
has sponsored a project on Nation-wide Wetland Mapping for inventory and creation of a
data base for conservation and management of wetlands in the country using space borne
remotely sensed data from indigenously built Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 1A, 1B.
The total wetland area in the country excluding the area under paddy, rivers and canals has
been estimated to be about 7.6 million hectors out of which 3.6 Million hectors are inland and
4 million hectors are coastal wetlands. (Kaul, 2007)
1.7.2. Major National Initiative for Wetland Management in India
The major attempts in India regarding the wetland management and classification includes:
A national inventory of wetlands, entitled the All-India Wetland Survey, was initiated by the
Government of India in 1960 a large number of sites have been listed.
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 33
January 1987, simultaneous waterfowl counts at wetlands throughout India, as part of a major
international waterfowl census in southern Asia organized by the International Waterfowl
Research Bureau. The Indian counts were coordinated by the Bombay Natural History
Society.
In 1980, Indian National Science Academy and the National Institute of Ecology organized
an International Wetlands Conference in New Delhi.
Environmental Services Group of WWF India for the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
had prepared a report titled "Wetlands, Status and Management in India: An overview"
(Fernandes, 1987).
In 1989, Ministry of Environment and Forest and WWF published detailed inventory of
Indian wetlands this survey covered 93 wetlands of International Importance. The inventory
includes some information on their major biota, especially waterfowl, land use and human
impacts as well (Woistencroft et al., 1989).
In 1990 Ministry of Environment and forestry published the wetland directory which covered
2167 natural wetlands with an area of 1.5 million ha and 65253 man-made wetlands with 2.6
million ha. In 1993 WWF India and Ministry of Environment and Forests identified 54
additional wetlands of international importance. In 1996 Space Application Center identified
27403 inland and coastal wetlands with total area of 7.6 million ha using IRS data. In 2000
Ministry of Environment and Forests sanctioned a project on National wetland inventory for
preparing State wise wetland atlases, creating digital database for GIS application.
In 2002 Ramsar Conservation award presented to Chilka Development Authority or
ecological intervention in Chilka Lake. In 2005 India has been nominated to the Board of
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
Directors of Wetland International.
notification on Regulatory framework for wetlands was prepared in 2006.
1.7.3. Wetlands of international Importance in India
Out of the 1953 sites all over the world, 25 sites are in India. Kerala has largest concentration
of Ramsar area (213023 ha) followed by Orissa and Tamil Nadu.(Fig
Figure 1-6: Wetlands of international Importance in India
after (Woistencroft et al., 1990)
Table 1
Name of wetland
Kolleru Lake
Deepor Beel
Pong Dam Lake
Renuka Wetland
Chandertal Wetland
Wular Lake
To Moriri
Surinsar-Mansar Lakes
Madya
Pradesh, 3201
Assam, 4000
Punjab, 5648
Rajastan, 2687
3
Manipur, 2660
0
Tamil
Nadu, 38500
Uttar
Pradesh, 26590
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
Directors of Wetland International. National Environment policy 2006 formulated and draft
notification on Regulatory framework for wetlands was prepared in 2006.
1.7.3. Wetlands of international Importance in India
Out of the 1953 sites all over the world, 25 sites are in India. Kerala has largest concentration
of Ramsar area (213023 ha) followed by Orissa and Tamil Nadu.(Figure .1
Wetlands of international Importance in India (Area in ha)
(Woistencroft et al., 1990)
Table 1-1: State Wise Areas of Ramsar Sites in India
List of Ramsar Sites in India
State Date of Declaration
Andhra Pradesh 19/08/02
Assam 19/08/02
Himachal Pradesh 19/08/03
Himachal Pradesh 08/11/05
Himachal Pradesh 08/12/05
Jammu& Kashmir 23/03/90
Jammu& Kashmir 19/08/02
Jammu& Kashmir 08/11/05
Kerala, 213023
Orissa, 181500
West
Bengal, 12500
Himachal
Pradesh
, 15731
Jammu &
Kashmir, 32625
Uttar
Pradesh, 26590
Tripura, 240
34
y 2006 formulated and draft
notification on Regulatory framework for wetlands was prepared in 2006. (Kaul, 2007)
Out of the 1953 sites all over the world, 25 sites are in India. Kerala has largest concentration
ure .1-6, Table 1.1)
(Area in ha)
State Wise Areas of Ramsar Sites in India
Date of Declaration Area in ha
90100
4000
15662
20
49
18900
12000
350
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 35
Hokera Wetlands Jammu& Kashmir 08/12/05 1375
Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 19/08/02 373
Vembanad Kol wetland Kerala 19/08/03 151250
Ashtamudi wetland Kerala 19/08/04 61400
Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 19/08/02 3201
Loktak Lake Manipur 23/03/90 26600
Chilka Lake Orissa 1/10/81 116500
Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 19/08/05 65000
Harike Lake Punjab 23/03/90 4100
Kanjli Punjab 22/01/03 183
Ropar Punjab 22/01/04 1365
Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1/10/81 2873
Sāmbhar Lake Rajasthan 23/03/90 24000
Point Calimere wildlife
and Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 19/08/02 38500
Rudra Sagar Lake Uttar Pradesh 8/11/05 240
Upper Ganga River (Brij
ghat to Narora stretch) Uttar Pradesh 8/11/05 26590
East Kolkata wetlands West Bengal 19/08/02 12500
Total 677131
modified from (Ramsar, 2010)
The Ministry of Environment and Forests published a list of 94 wetlands under national
wetland conservation Program (Table1.2).
Table 1-2: List of Wetlands under National Wetland Conservation Program (2000)
Sl. No Name of State/UT Name of the Wetland
1 Andhra Pradesh Kolleru
2 Assam Deeper Beel
Urpad Beel
3 Bihar
Kabar
Barila
Kusheswar Asthan
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 36
4 Gujarat
Nalsarovar
Great Rann of Kachh
Thol Bird Sanctuary
Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary
Little Rann of Kachh
Pariej
Wadhwana
Nanikakrad
5 Haryana Sultanpur
Bhindawas
6 Himachal Pradesh
Renuka
Pong Dam
Chandratal
Rewalsar
Khajjiar
7 Jammu & Kashmir
Wular
Tso Morari
Tisgul Tso & Chisul Marshes
Hokersar
Mansard-Surinsar
Ranjith Sagar
Pangong Tsar
8 Jharkhand Udhwa
Tilayia Dam
9 Karnataka
Magadhi
Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
Bonal
Hidkal & Ghataprava
Heggeri
Ranganthittu
10 Kerala
Ashtamudi
Sasthamkotta
Kottuli
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 37
Kadalundi
Vembanad Kol
11 Madhya Pradesh
Barna
Yashwant Sagar
Wetland of Ken River
National Chambal Sanctuary
Ghatigaon
Ratapani
Denwa Tawa wetland
Kanha Tiger Reserve
Pench Tiger Reserve
Sakhya Sagar
Dihaila
Govind Sagar
12 Maharashtra
Ujni
Jayakawadi
Nalganga wetland
13 Manipur Loktak
14 Mizoram Tamdil
Palak
15 Orissa
Chilka
Kuanria wetland
Kanjia wetland
Daha wetland
16 Punjab
Harike
Ropar
Kanjli
17 Rajasthan Sambhar
18 Sikkim
Kechuperi Holi lake
Tamze wetland
Tembao wetland complex
Phendang wetland complex
Gurudokmar wetland
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 38
Tsomgo wetland
19 Tamil Nadu
Point Calimer
Kaliveli
Pallaikarni
20 Tripura Rudra Sagar
21 Uttar Pradesh
Nawabganj
Sandi
Lakh Bahoshi
Samaspur
Alwara wetland
Semarai lake- Nagaria lake complex
22 Uttaranchal Ban Ganga Jhilmil Tal
23 West Bengal
East Kolkata wetland
Sundarbans
Ahiron Beel
Rasik Beel
Santragachi
24 Chandigarh Sukhna
(Kaul, 2007; NWIA, 2010)
1.7.4 Type wise Estimates of Wetlands in India
In India more than 51% of wet area occupied by coastal wetland in which 58% are tidal /mud
flats. In the case of inland wetlands 19% comes under the category of reservoirs and Lakes
(Table 1-3, Figure 1-7).
Table 1-3: Type wise Estimates of Wetlands in India
Wetland Category Number Area (ha)
Inland Wetlands
Natural
Lakes 4646 679530
Ox-Bow Lakes 3197 151051
Waterlogged (Seasonal) 4921 285744
Playas 79 118519
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 39
Swamp/Marsh 1814 197784
Sub-Total 14657 1432627
Man-made
Reservoirs 2208 1481987
Tanks 5549 558344
Waterlogged 892 77302
Abandoned Quarries (water) 105 5774
Ash Pond/Cooling Pond 33 2881
Sub-Total 8787 2126288
Total Inland 23444 3558915
Coastal Wetlands
Natural
Estuaries 97 153966
Lagoons 34 156403
Creeks 241 19230
Backwater 32 17075
Tidal/ Mud Flat 663 2362056
Sand/Beach/Spit/Bar 772 421019
Coral Reefs 487 84137
Rocky Coast 85 17686
Mangroves 858 340055
Salt Marsh/ Marsh Vegetation 161 169840
Other Vegetation 117 139102
Sub-Total 3497 3880569
Salt Pans 106 65496
Aquaculture Ponds 356 76891
Sub-Total 462 142387
Total Coastal 3959 4022956
Total India 27403 7581871
(Ramsar, 2010)
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
Figure 1-7: Category Wise Distribution
1.8. Wetland status of Kerala
The Kerala state with 38864 Sq. Km is end
as manmade wetlands. These include the lagoons, estuaries, back waters, canals and
reservoirs, paddy fields etc. The climate of Kerala is very suited for the healthy existence of
the wetland system. As a r
is under wetland. (Nair et al., 2001)
There are many wetland status analysis projects undertaken by the Kerala State Land Use
Board, Center for Earth Science Studies etc. According to these studies the state has a total
area of 127930.07 hectares of wetlands of which 341199.57 hectares are inland wetlands and
93730.5 hectares are coastal wetlands (table 1.
Geomorphologically Kerala’s wetlands are broadly divided into five groups such as marine,
riverine, lacustrine palustrine and paddy fields. Most of the wetlands of Kerala are
concentrated in the coastal area. As compared to the coastal wetlands which mainly
Inland Wetland
Man Made
27%
Status of Wetlands in Kollam District
Wise Distribution of Indian Wetlands After
1.8. Wetland status of Kerala
The Kerala state with 38864 Sq. Km is endowed with several large and small natural as well
as manmade wetlands. These include the lagoons, estuaries, back waters, canals and
reservoirs, paddy fields etc. The climate of Kerala is very suited for the healthy existence of
the wetland system. As a result of this about as 20% of the total geographic area of the state
(Nair et al., 2001)
There are many wetland status analysis projects undertaken by the Kerala State Land Use
Board, Center for Earth Science Studies etc. According to these studies the state has a total
0.07 hectares of wetlands of which 341199.57 hectares are inland wetlands and