Chapter Five

Chapter Five

The Rise of Romep. 162-191

Why Do We Study Rome?

• The Roman constitution is a model for many democracies

• Roman architecture was unmatched until recently

• Romans were able to administer people well, while letting them keep their own culture

• Roman society was founded on principles of justice and fair treatment for themselves and foreigners alike

Geography: The Italian Peninsula

• Peninsula lies in the geographic centre of the Mare Nostrum, “Our Sea”

• Separated from the rest of Europe by the Alps• 1000 km long and 200 km wide• Divided down the middle by the Apennine Mountains• Few rivers that were navigable – most important were

the Po River and the Tiber• Few good harbours• Built Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber to supply the city of

Rome – “Portus”

Geography Part II

• Generally fertile along the narrow coastal plains and in the river valleys

• Increased reliance on Egyptian grain as the urban population increased

• Climate is mild in winter and summer• Temperatures milder along the coasts• The relatively mild climate, general agricultural

prosperity, seclusion from the rest of Europe, and central position in the Mediterranean were all important factors in the rise of Rome

The Etruscans: Forerunners of the Romans

The Etruscans

• Controlled territory from the Po River to Cumae on the northern edge of the Bay of Naples

• Power of the Etruscans limited by the Apennine Mountains

• Much of what we know about the Etruscans come from their burial customs

The Etruscans Part II

• Buried under great mounts or earth or hollowed out tombs

• Tombs were made to resemble houses

• Had relief sculptures and frescoes

The Etruscans Part III

• The Etruscans may have been native to Italy or may have been immigrants from Asia Minor.

• They were skilled artisans and accomplished traders.

The Etruscan Monarchy: Kings of Rome, 753 – 509 BCE

• The period of monarchical rule lasted from Rome's mythical founding on 21 April 753 BC to 509 BC. According to the historian Livy, there were seven kings of Rome.

The Etruscan Monarchy Part II

• Romulus (753 - 715 BC) was supposedly the son of Mars, the god of war, and a priestess, Rhea Silvia.

• Their uncle Amulius had ordered the death of Romulus and his twin brother Remus.

• The twins were thrown into the Tiber River and they eventually landed near Palatine, one of the Seven Hills of Rome, and the home of the Emperors.

• A she-wolf suckled the boys until a shepherd found them.

• The boys had a disagreement over the founding of Rome and Romulus killed Remus.

The Etruscan Monarchy Part III

• Numa Pompilius (715 - 673 BC) was supposedly a Savine and responsible for several religious innovations.

• Tullius Hostilius (673 - 641 BC) was known for his expansion of Rome's influence and his attack on Alba Langa, Rome's mother city in Latium.

• Ancus Marcius (641 - 616 BC) was known for his statesmanship and for resettling the Latins in Rome and granting them security.

The Etruscan Monarchy Part IV

• Over time, the Etruscans extended their power to include Rome and replaced Roman kings with Etruscan ones.

• L. Tarquinius Priscus (616 - 579 BC) built the great temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximum on the Capitoline.

• In later times, Roman life was centred on the capitolium.

• Priscus also built the sewer system, which drained the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills in Rome.

The Etruscan Monarchy Part V

• Servius Tullius (579 - 534 BC) completed the city building started by Priscus.

• L. Tarquinius Superbus (534 - 509 BC) was the last Etruscan king. – He was overbearing and tyrannical. – His son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped Lucretia, which

lead to a rebellion by the Romans.

Etruscan Influence on Roman Life

• Several elements characteristic of Roman life include numerals, human blood sports, superstition

• The high magistrates of the Roman Republic took over the purple garb and ivory thrones of the Etruscan kings

• The symbols of authority over life and death -- the fasces -- were also taken over as well

The Roman Republic

• The Roman Republic (Res Publica, public matter) lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC and can be seen as a battle between the Patricians -- the land owning aristocracy -- and the Plebeians -- the poor and landless.

• The Roman Republic was known as the Senatus Populusque Romanus (the Senate and the People of Rome).

Roman Republican Government

Assemblies

• The magistrates were drawn from several assemblies. The Senate originally was a council made up of wealthy land owning males who advised the king. All patrician males with enough money could be members of the Senate.

Assemblies Part II

• The Comitia Centuriata was an assembly of all land-owning male citizens, which were divided into five electoral classes segregated according to wealth.

• The wealthiest class voted first. • The job of this assembly was to pass laws

presented to it by the annually elected senior magistrates.

Assemblies Part III

• The Comitia Curiata comprised the thirty divisions of the citizenry (curiae) from the three clans, Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities.

• The job of this assembly was to confirm the magistrate's right to exercise the authority already given by the Comitia Centuriata.

Assemblies Part IV

• The Comitia Tributa was composed of all citizens and could pass laws on behalf of all the people.

• The Concilium Plebis was a tribal assembly much like the Comitia Tributa but aristocrats could not be members.

• It passed plebiscita that had the force of law.

Magistrates

• Two members of the Senate were elected to the position of consul and they were the chief magistrates of Rome. – Consuls were elected annually, and the senior

consul had the power of veto over the junior one. • A dictator was an extraordinary position

appointed by the consuls for a specified period, usually 6 months. – A dictator could rule without consulting any of the

assemblies.

Magistrates Part II

• The praetors were the magistrates under the consuls. – As the empire got bigger, more praetors were

needed to help administer the empire.• Two censors held office for five-year terms.

Censors had to have held the position of consul first. – Censors had to draw up the lists of Roman citizens.

Magistrates Part III

• The aediles were originally assistants to the consuls, but eventually became responsible for the maintenance of roads, public executions, water, and official standards of measure.

• The quaestors were annually elected officials in charge of administrating financial matters.

The People and Their Representatives

• The Council of Plebeians was set up to give power to non-patricians and membership was restricted to non-Senatorial males.

• Two tribunes were elected annually and they could even veto the decisions of consuls.

• Gradually the number of tribunes was increased to ten

Growth and Maturity of the Republic

• For 400 years, the Roman Republic underwent massive expansion and faced many dangers

• The Gauls of Europe besieged Rome, but Rome recovered and fought back

• Rome struggled for power over the sea as its desire for increased trade grew. This led to a war with the Carthaginians who were the greatest maritime power in the western Mediterranean

External Forces: The Punic Wars, 264-146 BCE

• There were three clashes with the Carthaginians:

• First Punic War264 - 261 BC

• Second Punic War218 - 202 BC

• Third Punic War149 - 146 BC

The Punic Wars Part II

• The word "Punic" is derived from the Latin word meaning Phoenician, referring the Carthaginian origins

• The Second Punic War was the most dangerous time for Rome.

• Hannibal was the Carthaginian military leader of the time, and he ruled Spain as his own private kingdom.

The Punic Wars Part III

• Hannibal led a land-based attack on the Romans by crossing the Alps. – Hannibal lost between 9 and 14 000 soldiers and

36 war elephants (26 000 soldiers and 1 elephant survived).

– Hannibal led 4 great battles that led to huge Roman losses.

– For example on 2 August 216 BC, at Cannae in southern Italy, over 50 000 from a Roman army of 86 000 were annihilated in one day

The Punic Wars Part IV

• Hannibal managed to conquer most of the Italian peninsula, however he never captured Rome.

• It took the Romans 14 years to drive Hannibal out of Italy and back to Carthage, in Northern Africa.

The Punic Wars Part V

• Why did the city of Rome escape?

• The Carthaginians saw no advantage in setting siege to a city that had been recently fortified

• Hannibal was fearful of a city that after so many disastrous engagements could continue to raise army after army

Scipio Africanus

• Publicius Cornelius Scipio was appointed by Romans to command in Spain and systematically rid Spain of the Carthaginians.

• Scipio established a permanent and undeniable Roman presence in Spain

Scipio Africanus Part II

• In 205 BC Scipio took an army to Spain and kicked out Hannibal.

• He then crossed to Africa and ultimately captured Tunis in 203 BC.

• After this, the Carthaginians sued for peace. • Hannibal returned to Italy while the peace terms were

being considered and started up war once again. • Scipio joined with the Masinissa, king of Numidia, and

defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. • For this victory, Scipio was given the honorary name

"Africanus".

Scipio Africanus Part II

• In 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor and became the leading man in the Senate.

• A lover of Greek things, he argued during his second consulship (194 BC) that mainland Greece should not be totally abandoned, but to no avail.

Scipio Africanus Part III

• Scipio was eventually humiliated by a series of trials. • The trials were politically motivated and directed

against his family• Scipio was also persecuted for his love of Greek

culture. • Scipio retired from the city in 194 - 83 BC and died

soon after• Scipio is important because it showed the potential

that Rome had to dominate the rest of the Mediterranean.

The Punic Wars Part VI

• After their defeat by the Romans, the Carthaginians were required to pay huge war reparations, forfeit their commercial empire, and dismantle their once-powerful navy.

• This did not keep them from rising up again 50 years later.

• Numidia, a neighbour of Carthage, appealed to Rome for help, and Rome responded by thoroughly defeating the city.

• The entire city was plundered, burned, and ploughed under with salt -- a Roman curse of eternal sterility

Eastern Expansion and its Consequences

• In the same year that Carthage was destroyed, the Romans also took over Corinth, the last independent Greek city-state.

• There had been conflict in the Greek world since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. – After Alexander's death, his empire was divided

into three parts, and the inheritors of these empires squabbled amongst themselves.

Eastern Expansion and its Consequences Part II

• Added to these squabbles were the pirates who raided between the Italian and Balkan peninsulas, which resulted in Roman trading not being secure.

• Rome also became entangled in a series of complicated dealings with the rulers of the post-Alexander kingdoms.

Eastern Expansion and its Consequences Part III

• This all came to a head in 147 BC when a Senatorial deputation arrived in Corinth and was treated badly. – In 146 BC, the city was attacked, razed, and its

treasures plundered.

Expansion and Colonization in Italy

• Rome was also expanding its influence over the rest of the Italian peninsula.

• The Latins, a neighbour to the south, had been given Ius Latinum (Latin Rights), which meant they were not quite foreign and not quite Roman, but they were protected.

• Eventually, the non-Roman magistrates of a town were given full-citizenship rights, while the rest of the town's inhabitants received Latin Rights and were obliged to pay taxes. – These towns were known as municipia.

Expansion and Colonization in Italy Part II

• Colonies were created in strategic places were there were no inhabitants. – The coloniae were given full Roman citizenship. – Most of the colonists were retired soldiers or poor

Romans who had moved to the colonies for a piece of land and the benefits of a rural existence.

• The Via Appia, or Appian Way, was the first paved road leading to Rome. Colonies were placed all along the Via Appia.

Conflict at Home: Dissatisfaction in the Republic

• An entrepreneur class had grown out of the more wealthy non-Senatorial masses.

• The knights who originated this class realized that wealth and influence did not necessarily have to come from owning land, but also could come from owning businesses, something the Senators deemed "sordid".

Conflict at Home Part II

• Tiberius Gracchus was elected in 133 BC as tribune of the people and he felt that he knew how to solve the problems of the urban poor.– Gracchus redistributed land to the urban poor,

land that had been illegally taken by the richer Romans.

– He also set up a Land Commission to distribute 10 ha plots.

– When Gracchus announced that he would seek re-election as tribune, it resulted in a riot instigated by the Senate.

Conflict at Home Part III

• Over 300 people, including Gracchus, were killed, however the Land Commission continued with its job.

• In 123 BC, Tiberius's brother, Gaius was elected tribune. He had three groups to deal with:– The Senate who did not support the Land Commission– The urban poor who wanted land but did not want more

Italians to receive Roman citizenship or Latin Rights– The Italians who were envious of the urban poor who had

received land

Conflict at Home Part IV

• Gaius tried to satisfy all parties: – He gave a free, monthly supply of grain to the

urban poor– He proposed new colonies at Capua, Taranto, and

Carthage to meet the needs of the urban poor and not irritate the Senate

– He transferred control of the jury courts and awarded the lucrative business of overseas taxation to the entrepreneur class

– He gave some rights to the Italians

Conflict at Home Part V

• This resulted in all Roman citizens being offended because they feared the dilution of their privileges among the Italians.

• They opposed the colonization of Carthage on religious grounds because Carthage had been cursed with eternal sterility.

Conflict at Home Part VI

• All of these actions made Gaius very unpopular, and he was declared a Public Enemy in 121 BC, which resulted in him committing suicide.

• The Gracchus brothers' failures were intensified in the years to come as the gap between rich and poor got bigger.

• This resulted in the demise of the Roman Republic.

Citizenship in Italy

• The Italians wanted a share of the privileges which they observed in the marketplaces, the for a and comitia of the colonies and municipia.

Citizenship in Italy Part II

• Privileges of citizenship included– Protected in Roman civil law from the arbitrary

exercise of power by a Roman magistrate– A child born to a Roman citizen was also a Roman

citizen if the father had the legal right to marry the mother

– Enjoyed a favourable tax status and were exempted from tribute in Italy

– A slave freed by a full Roman citizen was himself automatically a Roman citizen, although always dependent on his benefactor

Citizenship in Italy Part III

• A bitter "Social War" broke out in 90 BC and ended with the cruel suppression of the Italians in 89 BC.

• The Romans then granted the citizenship to all Italians south of the Po River.

• North of the Po, ordinary inhabitants were given Latin Rights and certain cities were made full coloniae.

Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla

Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla Part II

• Two generals played a large role in the suppression of the Italians: Gaius Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla.

• Marius was a "soldier's soldier" who had fought many foreign wars, however he lacked the diplomatic skills to turn his military accomplishments into personal gain.

• When Sulla was given the command of the battle against Mithridates, Marius responded by seizing power in Rome itself.

Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla Part III

• Sulla then turned on Marius and drove him out of the city.

• Sulla then left for the war against Mithridates. • Marius then returned to Rome during Sulla's

absence and led a reign of terror in which he tried to kill all of his enemies.

• This reign of terror ended when Marius died in 86 BC.

Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla Part IV

• When Sulla returned to Rome, he had himself appointed dictator for an indefinite period of time and then killed off all of his real and unreal enemies.

• These were known as the proscriptions. • Sulla posted the names of the people he wanted

killed, and then anyone in Rome could kill him. • When the person was killed, Sulla could acquire his

wealth. • Sulla eventually stepped down as dictator and died in

78 BC.

Republican Law and Legislation

• Laws were written down (codified) and were analyzed in detail by professional jurists

• History of Roman law begins with the Twelve Tables in 450 BCE and reached its maturity with the legislation of Emperor Justinian in 528-534 CE, Corpus Juris Civilis

• Two major legal divisions:– Civil law– Criminal law– Distinction between free people and slaves

The Twelve Tables

• Pressure by ordinary people led to the appointment of a board of ten men with consular power in 451 BCE established for the writing down of statutes– Was meant to break down the monopolization of

the law by the patricians and priestly elite– Ten tables were compiled and then added two

more – had a list of basic legal procedures and appropriate punishments

– Most of the contents were not formally abolished until the sixth century CE

The Decline of the Roman Republic

Organization of a Roman Legion

Military Reform and the Rise of Roman Generals

• Gaius Marius formed the Roman citizen army. – Previous to this, soldiers had been both farmers

and soldiers. – They planted their crops in the spring, fought in

the summer, and then returned in the fall to harvest their crops

Military Reforms Part II

• During Marius' time, grain had become very scarce and anyone who farmed grain was needed in the fall to harvest the crop. – At the same time, there were many people who

didn't own land who did not have to return in the fall.

Military Reforms Part III

• Marius decided to create a professional, standing army with a fixed term of service -- 16 years in the ranks and 4 years as a veteranus. • When the soldier retired, he would be given

a plot of land or money. • The soldier could then get married as well.

Military Reforms Part IV

• Soldiers were given food and clothing allowances, along with their pay.

• These soldiers were known as "Marius' mules" because they had to carry a certain standard minimum of equipment when on the march.

• Soldiers belonged to particular units, complete with aquila (eagle, legionary standards) and this resulted in great pride.

Military Reforms Part V

• The legion had about 600 men, and was divided into ten cohorts of 480 men.

• The most experience cohort had 960 men. • Each cohort was divided into centuries of 80

men who reported to a centurion. • There were ten contubernia -- eight men

sharing one tent -- to a century.

Military Reforms Part VI

• A new recruit would start out in the most junior century of the most junior cohort of the legion.

• The soldier could then work up to the rank of Primus Pilus, the centurion commanding the first century of the first cohort.

Military Reforms Part VIII

• This new arrangement allowed the legion, with its smaller divisions, to be easily deployed.

• The drawback was the soldiers looked to their generals, and not the Roman government, for their security and pensions.

From Pompey to Caesar

• The man who had the most powerful army could overthrow the constitutional government. – This resulted in Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey), M.

Licinius Crassus, and G. Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) coming to power.

– All of these men were military men who cared nothing for the constitution.

– They split the government of Rome between themselves and in 60 BC formed the First Triumvirate -- the Rule of Three Men.

From Pompey to Caesar Part II

• Caesar controlled the armies of Northern Italy. He tried to gain military glory by taking over southern Germany, France, Switzerland, and parts of Austria.

• Crassus crushed the salve rebellion led by Spartacus, and then went off to campaign against the Parthians in modern day Iran.

• Pompey had already gained glory by clearing out the pirates in the Mediterranean and stayed home to be flattered by the Senate.

From Pompey to Caesar Part III

• The First Triumvirate soon broke down. Crassus was defeated and killed by the Parthians in 53 BC.

• Pompey became a defender of Senatorial privilege and agreed with a Senatorial demand in 50 BC that Caesar should disband his army.

• Caesar realized this would leave him defenseless that would result in his death.

• Caesar then committed an illegal act and crossed the Rubicon, the border between his area of control and Italy.

From Pompey to Caesar Part IV

• Pompey lost his defense of Rome and retreated to Alexandria in Egypt, where he was eventually defeated and decapitated.

• His sons survived, only to suffer defeat at Munda in Spain.

From Pompey to Caesar

• In 46 BC, Caesar was appointed dictator for 10 years, and in 45 BC, this was appointment was made for life.

• He also became Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest) and became responsible for virtually all decision making.

• Caesar was king, but not in name. • On 15 March 44 BC (the Ides of March), Julius Caesar

was killed by Brutus, Cassius, and other conspirators who opposed his virtual control of the Roman government.

Gaius Julius Caesar

• Caesar was a brilliant general, writer, and politician.

• Caesar had avoided the proscriptions by Sulla by travelling to the east on diplomatic tasks.

• When he returned to Rome, he wanted to make a name for himself as a military man.

Gaius Julius Caesar Part II

• After forming the First Triumvirate, he wanted a military command that would provide him an opportunity to equal Pompey's exploits, so he asked for the control of northern Italy, Cisalpine Gaul, and southern Gaul outside Italy.

• In this area, he was able to make a good name for himself as a military commander.

Gaius Julius Caesar Part III

• The Senate was worried about Caesar's military power.

• After being appointed dictator for life, his megalomania was perceived as a threat to the republican government.

• As a result, Caesar was murdered.

Gaius Julius Caesar Part IV

• Caesar was also a reformer, although his military exploits have overshadowed his reforms.

– He abolished trade guilds that had become political, secret societies

– He settled his veteran soldiers in colonies– He granted citizenship to the west– He reduced the tax burden, especially in Asia

Minor

Gaius Julius Caesar Part V

– He made the Senate publish daily records, thus becoming the first daily newspaper

– He introduced on 1 January 45 BC the Julian Calendar to bring the civil year into line with the solar year

– This calendar was used by the west until the reforms of Pope Gregory XII in February 1582, although many eastern orthodox religions, including Russian and Greek still adhere to this calendar

Daily Life in the Republic

Beliefs

• The Romans were very superstitious people who adopted the whole pantheon of the Olympic gods of Greece and then added to it.

• The Romans also believed in werewolves and all forms of magic.

• The Etruscan culture influenced their laying of curses, casting spells, and telling the future.

• They also believed in astrology and the Zodiac

Beliefs Part II

• The Pontifex Maximus supervised the official religion. – One of his jobs was to be in charge of the

calendar. • People placated and honoured the gods

through prayer and sacrifice of animals. • The souventuarilia involved the simultaneous

sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and ox.

Family Life and Morality

• The Roman Republic was based on the family unit with the male Paterfamilias the head and was endowed with potestas, legally recognized and absolute power. – The Paterfamilias had complete control over his wife,

children, and slaves. – He was even allowed to abuse or kill any member of his

household. – The Paterfamilias was expected to show gravitas

(conservatism), dignitas (dignified status), and severitas (the ability not to shrink from harsh justice).

Family Life and Morality Part II

• The Roman Republic was made up of families that were all linked to each other in gentes (clans), and anything that interfered with the integrity of the family was harshly punished.– Inheritance was through the male line.– Thus in order for your property to be inherited, you had to

have male children. – This often resulted in adoption of males into the family. – Men were allowed to divorce their wives if they did not

have male children

Family Life and Morality Part III

• Male children especially were well cared for.– A newly born infant had to be recognized by the

father. – The baby was laid at the father's feet and if he

picked the baby up, it was recognized as legitimate.

– If the baby were not recognized, it would be exposed in a public place where another person could take the child for his own

Education

• Girls and boys of wealthy families were brought together until puberty.

• Both sexes were taught to read and write. • Girls were also taught to sing, dance, spin,

and weave.

Education Part II

• Boys were given a liberal education of speaking and logical argument.

• There were even formal school and universities.

• After a boy was finished his formal education, he was formally led to the Forum Romanum dressed in the toga of manhood.

• Roman boys were expected to pursue a career in the law courts or army.

Rites of Passage: Portraits for Posterity: Death, Art, and Ancestors• Romans made wax death masks that were

paraded along with the funeral procession• The family would then keep the mask and

would be used at other family funerals• Soon started to make the death masks into

marble

The Role of Women

• Girls were educated in the home or sent to elementary school until they were married.

• Once married, they were expected to have children until a male heir was produced.

• Roman women had much freedom: – they could go out to shop– attend to business– accompany their husband to dinner.

The Role of Women Part II

• Girls were usually married by the age of 15.

• There were two types of marriage– The most ancient transferred the authority the

father held to the husband and the woman remained a minor

– This marriage in manum, was conducted according to ancient rituals

– The woman was ritually sold to the groom by the father

The Role of Women Part III

– Usus (cohabitation) was common by the end of the Republic

– A couple stated their intention to live together in a married state

– As long as they lived together, they remained married and when they wanted to divorce, one partner told the other partner to move his/her belongings out

– Women were still considered the subject of their father

The Role of Women Part III

• Women could own property and engage in business activities.

• Women exercised a great deal of influence over all matters, even politics.

• This authority, however, declined with the exposure to the east

The Role of Women Part IV

• The main purpose of being married was to have children and a girl of fifteen could expect a fairly rapid introduction of her responsibilities. – Sometimes girls as young as twelve had children. – Women would continue to have children until a

male child was born.• Augustus, the first Roman emperor, gave

special privileges to those families in which the mothers had three children.

Vestal Virgins

• Vestal virgins were six girls and women of high rank who were selected to tend the sacred fire of the goddess Vesta in the heart of Rome.

• Each girl took a vow of virginity for 30 years.– The first ten years were training– The next ten years were performing duties– The last ten years were training new vestals

Vestal Virgins Part II

• After 30 years, the girls were released from their vows, and could marry, though most didn't.

• If a Vestal was found to have broken her vow of virginity, she was buried alive in a mound outside the city walls and given just enough food to survive a few days.

Latin Language and Literature

Language

• Romans spoke Latin– As Romans became dominant, other languages

soon died out– Only the Greek language remained

• •

Language Part II

• The favorite things for Romans to write on were Egyptian papyrus and parchment.– Papyrus could either form long rolls of twenty pages,

which were sun-dried then glued together, or be sold as individual pages.

– Only one side of the papyrus could be used.– Ink was made of several substances, including soot, resin,

or excretion from squid or cuttlefish. – A clean, wet sponge was used as an eraser. – Pens could be copper alloy (bronze) instruments with nibs

or sharpened reeds or goose quills.

Literature

• Ennius wrote in verse and attempted to provide a year-by-year account of Rome's developing power, known as the Annals

• T. Maccius Plautus and P. Terentius Afer were two well-known writers of comedies. – There are 21 surviving plays by Plautus and 6 by Terrence. – These plays influenced such playwrights as Moliere and

Shakespeare. – Comedies were considered immoral, and as a result, there

was no permanent stone theatre in the city of Rome until one was built by Pompey in 55 BC.

Literature Part II

• T. Lucretius Carus wrote On the Nature of Things, an epic poem describing his theories on existence and ethical behaviour.

• M. Tullius Cicero was a philosopher, orator, and writer. He was a defender of the Republic and prosecuted many notable Romans, including G. Verres, governor of Sicily. – Cicero was killed by Marcus Antonius on 7 December

43 BC.• Julius Caesar was a brilliant writer who was much

admired for his clarity of expression.• C. Valerius Catullus was a poet who lampooned Caesar

Pushing Boundaries: Developments in Science and Technology

Concrete: Bigger, Better Buildings• Concrete is strong, versatile, waterproof, and fire-

resistant• Basically use the same techniques today as the

Romans did around third century BCE• Marble was not as easy to find as in Greece• Made economical use of a mixture of lime, mortar,

gravel, and rubble• Adding volcanic ash to lime and sand created

superior concrete that could even set under water

Roman Republican Art and Architecture

• The Roman appetite for all forms of Greek art increased with the conquest of Greece itself, particularly the capture of Corinth in 146 BCE

• Generals brought art home through plunder, but the wealthy had to buy it

• Large influx of Greek artists to Rome• Workshops also set up in Athens and

elsewhere to produce artwork

Art and Architecture Part II

• In architecture, there was a fusion of Greek and Roman cultures

• Greek style of peripteral temple (columns all around) fused with the Italian tradition of a front-facing temple on a high podium

• Romans gave us concrete

The End of the Roman Republic

• Strong class division and indirectly, Marius' army reforms, led to factional strife and the rise of military chiefs such as Marius and Caesar. – Also, there was no social safety net, so if you were

poor, you would starve.

The End of the Roman Republic Part II

• The Empire was only slightly better for most Romans. – It began with Augustus "restoring" the Republic,

but in reality, he seized all the power for himself and became emperor.

– This imperial rule would last in the West until 476 CE

History Continues to Unfold

• It has become clear that Livy’s account of early Rome is less than reliable

• No written records earlier than the third century BCE

• Archaeology is the most important key to understanding the remote past