Chapter Eighteen: Energy and Reactions 18.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions 18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems 18.3 Nuclear Reactions.

Chapter Eighteen: Energy and Reactions

18.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions

18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems

18.3 Nuclear Reactions

18.2 Chemical Reaction SystemsA balanced chemical equation is like a

recipe.

If you write the equation for making chocolate cake, you will see it is similar to a real recipe for making water.

18.2 Chemical Reaction Systems

18.2 Information from Balanced Chemical Equations

If the recipe for chocolate cake gives you ratios among the ingredients needed to make eight servings, how many servings are possible if you only have half a cup of flour?

18.2 Information from Balanced Chemical Equations

To make a good-tasting chocolate cake with half as much flour, you would have to use half as much of the other ingredients, too.

By halving the recipe, you can make four servings of chocolate cake.

18.2 Information from Balanced Chemical EquationsA balanced chemical

equation shows the ratios of the number of molecules of reactants needed to make a certain number of molecules of products using coefficients.

18.2 What a balanced equation doesn’t tell you

A balanced equation does not describe the exact conditions under which a reaction will occur.

The right conditions for most of the reactions that are used in science and industry are the result of careful research and experimentation.

18.2 Limiting and Excess Reactants

When a chemical reaction occurs, the reactants are not always present in the exact ratio indicated by the balanced equation.

What usually happens is that a chemical reaction will run until the reactant that is in short supply is used up.

18.2 Limiting and Excess Reactants

The reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction is called the limiting reactant.

The limiting reactant limits the amount of product that can be formed.

Which reactant will be used up first?

18.2 Limiting and Excess Reactants

A reactant that is not completely used up is called an excess reactant because some of it will be left over when the reaction is complete.

Which reactant will be left over (mixed with) product?

18.2 Percent Yield Often the amount

of product you are able to collect and measure is less than the amount you would expect.

Experimental error often affects how much product is produced.

18.2 Percent Yield The percent yield (%) is the

actual yield divided by the predicted yield and then multiplied by one hundred.

Solving Problems

Aspirin can be made in the laboratory through a series of reactions.

If the actual yield for aspirin was 461.5 grams when the reactions were performed, and the predicted yield was 500 grams, what was the percent yield?

1. Looking for: …percent yield of reaction

2. Given Actual yield = 461.5 g Predicted yield = 500.0 g

3. Relationships: percent yield = actual yield × 100%

predicted yield

4. Solution percent yield = (461.5 g ÷ 500.0 g) × 100 =

92.3%

Solving Problems

18.2 Reaction Rates

In all phases of matter, atoms and molecules exhibit random motion.

This concept is part of the kinetic theory of matter.

The speed at which atoms or molecules move depends on the state of matter and temperature.

18.2 Reaction Rates The reaction rate for a chemical

reaction is the change in concentration of reactants or products over time.

Reaction rates can be increased by:1. adding heat to increase molecular

motion2. increasing the concentration of the

reactants3. increasing the chances that two

molecules will collide.

18.2 Catalysts A catalyst is a

molecule that can be added to a reaction to speed it up.

Catalysts work by increasing the chances that two molecules will be positioned in the right way for a reaction to occur.

18.2 Chemical equilibrium

A reaction may reach chemical equilibrium, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.

In chemical equilibrium, the reaction can proceed both left and right simultaneously.

18.2 Chemical vs. Nuclear ReactionsFor complex reasons,

the nucleus of an atom becomes unstable if it contains too many or too few neutrons relative to the number of protons.

The forces inside the atom result in it breaking apart or releasing particles.

Radioactive Decay

This process of radioactive decay results in an unstable, radioactive isotope like carbon-14 becoming the more stable isotope nitrogen-14.

Radioactive Decay There are three types

of radioactive decay:1. alpha decay,2. beta decay, and3. gamma decay.

Two types of Nuclear Reactions

There are two kinds of nuclear reactions: fusion and fission. Nuclear fusion is the process of

combining the nuclei of lighter atoms to make heavier atoms.