Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion. Module 9.1: Learning Objectives Overview of Motivation Define motivation Explain the factors that influence one’s motivation.

Chapter 9

Motivation and Emotion

Module 9.1: Learning Objectives Overview of Motivation

• Define motivation

• Explain the factors that influence one’s motivation and emotions

• Describe the condition known as alexithymia

• Explain the need reduction model and how the incentive value of a goal can affect motivation

• Describe and give an example of each of the three types of motives

• Define homeostasis

• Describe how circadian rhythms affect energy levels, motivation, and performance

• Explain how and why shift work and jet lag may adversely affect a person and how to minimize the effects of shifting one’s rhythms

What Is Motivation?

• Motivation:– Dynamics of behavior– The ways in which actions are initiated, sustained,

directed, and terminated

• Model of Motivation:– Activities begin with a need (internal deficiency),

which causes a drive (an energized motivational state)

– Drives activate responses (an action) to attain a goal (the “target” of motivated behavior)

• Incentive Value: – Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need

Types of Motives

• Primary Motive: – Innate (inborn) motives based on biological

needs that must be met to survive

• Stimulus Motive: – Needs for stimulation and information;

appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival

• Secondary Motive: – Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

What Is Homeostasis?

• Homeostasis: – Body equilibrium; balance

• Set Point– Ideal temperature of your body that is mediated by

automatic changes in your body

• Circadian Rhythms:– Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal

levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day

• Preadaptation:– Gradually matching your sleep-waking cycle to a

new time schedule

Module 9.2: Learning Objectives Hunger, Thirst, Pain, and Sex

• Discuss why hunger cannot be fully explained by the contractions of an empty stomach, and describe the relationship of each of the following to hunger: blood sugar; liver; hypothalamus: 1) feeding system (lateral hypothalamus), 2) satiety system (ventromedial hypothalamus), 3) blood sugar regulator (paraventricular nucleus); and GLP-1

• Describe how a taste aversion develops

• Explain how each of the following is related to overeating and obesity: a person’s set point; the release of leptin; external eating cues; variety and taste, emotions, cultural factors, and dietary content

• Explain the paradox of “yo-yo” dieting

• Describe what is meant by behavioral dieting and how these techniques can enable you to control your weight

Module 9.2: Learning Objectives Hunger, Thirst, Pain, and Sex (Continued)

• Describe the essential features of the eating disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

• Explain what seems to cause them in men and women and what treatments are available

• Name the brain structure that appears to control thirst

• Differentiate between extracellular and intracellular thirst

• Explain how the drive to avoid pain and the sex drive differ from other primary drives

• Describe how the sex drive in humans differs from that of lower animals and how alcohol and various other drugs affect one’s sex drive

• Define the term aphrodisiac

What Controls Hunger?

• Hypothalamus: – Brain structure that regulates many aspects of

motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior

• Feeding System: – The lateral hypothalamus, when stimulated,

initiates eating • Satiety System:

– The ventromedial hypothalamus terminates eating• Paraventricular Nucleus:

– Area of the hypothalamus that controls levels of blood sugar

– It is sensitive to neuropeptide Y

More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)

• Neuropeptide Y (NPY): – Substance in the brain that initiates eating

• Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 (GLP-1): – Substance in brain that terminates eating

• Set Point: – Proportion of body fat that is maintained by

changes in hunger and eating– Point where weight stays the same when

you make no effort to gain or lose weight

The Final Word on Eating Behavior

• Changing the Fat Set Point– Administration of Leptin:

• Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating

• External Eating Cues: – External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or

elicit eating– These cues may cause you to eat even if you are

stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

• Signs and signals linked with food

Taste

• Taste Aversion: – Active dislike for a particular food – VERY difficult to overcome

• Example: Cancer patients suffer taste aversions after nausea of drug treatments pass

Eating

• Emotional Eating:– People with weight problems tend to overeat

when they are stressed, angry, or sad

• Cultural Factors:– Factors that affect the incentive value of food

• Dieting:– Diet is defined by the types and amounts of food

you eat

• Yo-Yo Dieting:– Repeatedly losing and gaining weight

Behavioral Dieting

• Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation

• Some keys:– Commit to weight loss– Exercise– Learn your eating habits– Weaken personal eating cues– Count calories, but don’t starve yourself

Keys to Behavioral Dieting (Continued)

• Develop techniques to control the act of eating

• Avoid snacks

• Chart daily progress

• Set a “threshold” for weight control

Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa

• Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins– Control issues seem to be involved– Very difficult to effectively treat– Overwhelmingly affects adolescent

females

PLAY VIDEO

Anorexia Nervosa

Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa

• Excessive eating (binging) usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives– Difficult to treat– Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia

nervosa– Overwhelmingly affects females

Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

• Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true!

• Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control

• Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight

Thirst

• Extracellular Thirst: – When water is lost from fluids surrounding

the cells of your body– Best satisfied by drinking slightly salty

liquid

• Intracellular Thirst: – When fluid is drawn out of cells because of

increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell

– Best satisfied by drinking water

Pain Avoidance

• An Episodic Drive:– Pain avoidance that occurs in distinct

episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

Sex Drive

• Sex Drive:– The strength of one’s motivation to engage in

sexual behavior– Decreased by the use of alcohol

• Estrus: – Changes in animals that create a desire for sex– Females in heat

• Estrogen: – A female sex hormone

• Androgens: – Male sex hormones

Module 9.3: Learning Objectives Arousal, Achievement, and Growth Needs

• Discuss the importance of the stimulus drives

• Describe the arousal theory, the characteristics of high and low sensation-seekers, the inverted-U function, and the Yerkes-Dodson law

• Explain how one can cope with test anxiety

• Describe social motives and explain how they are acquired

• Define the need for achievement (nAch) and differentiate it from the need for power; relate this need for achievement to risk taking

• Explain the influences of drive and determination in the success of high achievers

• List seven steps to enhance self-confidence

Module 9 3: Learning Objectives Arousal, Achievement, and Growth Needs

(Continued)• List (in order) the needs found in Maslow’s hierarchy of motives

• Distinguish between basic needs and growth needs

• Explain why Maslow’s lower (physiological) needs are considered prepotent

• Define and give examples of meta-needs

• Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and explain how each type of motivation may affect a person’s interest in work, leisure activities, and creativity

Stimulus Drives

• Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input

• Assumes that people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, level of arousal

• Arousal Theory:– We try to maintain arousal at an optimal level

• Arousal: – Activation of the body and nervous system

• Sensation Seeking: – Trait of people who prefer high levels of

stimulation (e g , the contestants on “Fear Factor”)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• The relationship between arousal and performance forms an inverted U function

• If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high

• If it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance

How to Cope with Test Anxiety

• Preparation

• Relaxation

• Rehearsal

• Restructuring thoughts

Learned Motives

• Social Motives: – Acquired by growing up in a particular

society or culture

• Need for Achievement (nAch): – Desire to meet or exceed some internal

standard of excellence

• Need for Power: – Desire to have impact or control over

others

Enhancing Self-Confidence

• Set challenging, but attainable goals

• Visualize the steps to your goal

• Advance in small steps

• Goal should be to make progress in learning

• Get expert instruction

• Find a skilled model to emulate

• Get support and encouragement

• Try harder if you fail

Self-Actualization

• Hierarchy of Human Needs: – Maslow’s ordering of needs based on

presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree

Maslow’s Human Needs

• Basic Needs: – First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy

• Lower needs tend to be more potent (“prepotent”) than higher needs

• Growth Needs: – Higher-level needs associated with self-

actualization

• Meta-Needs: – Needs associated with impulses for self-

actualization

Types of Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation: – Motivation coming from within, not from

external rewards– Based on personal enjoyment of a task or

activity– People likely to be creative when they are

intrinsically motivated

• Extrinsic Motivation: – Based on obvious external rewards,

obligations, or similar factors

Module 9.4: Learning Objectives Emotion and Physiological Arousal

• Define emotion and mood

• Explain how emotions aid survival

• Describe the three elements of emotions

• List Plutchiks’ eight primary emotions and how they combine to make more complex emotions

• Explain how a person can experience two opposite emotions simultaneously

• Describe the role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS in emotional arousal

• Explain how the parasympathetic rebound may be involved in cases of sudden death

• Discuss the use and limitations of the lie detector (polygraph)

• Describe the proposed airport security techniques for detecting lies

Emotions

• State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings

• Adaptive Behaviors: – Actions that aid our attempts to survive and

adjust to changing conditions

• Physiological Changes (in emotions): – Include heart rate, blood pressure,

perspiration, and other involuntary responses

More Terms to Know

• Adrenaline: – Hormone produced by adrenal glands that

arouses the body

• Emotional Expressions: – Outward signs of what a person is feeling

• Emotional Feelings: – A person’s private emotional experience

Primary Emotions and Mood

• Eight primary emotions (Plutchik, 2001)– Fear– Surprise– Sadness– Disgust– Anger– Anticipation– Joy– Trust

• Mood: low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

Brain and Emotion

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): – Neural system that connects brain with internal

organs and glands

• Sympathetic Branch: – Part of ANS that activates body for

emergency action

• Parasympathetic Branch: – Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves

energy» Parasympathetic rebound: overreaction

to intense emotion

Lie Detectors

• Polygraph: – Device that records changes in heart rate,

blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR)

– Lie detector– Records general emotional arousal

• GSR: – Measures sweating

Types of Polygraph Questions

• Irrelevant Questions: – Neutral, emotional questions in a

polygraph test

• Relevant Questions: – Questions to which only someone guilty

should react

• Control Questions: – Questions that almost always provoke

anxiety in a polygraph (e.g., “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

Module 9.5: Learning Objectives Emotional Expression and Theories of Emotion

• Discuss Darwin’s view of human emotion and which facial expressions appear to be universal and most recognizable

• Describe cultural and gender differences in emotional expression

• Discuss kinesics, including the emotional messages conveyed by facial expressions and body language

• Describe and give examples of the following theories of emotion: James-Lange theory; Cannon-Bard theory; Schachter’s cognitive theory; the effects of attribution on emotion; the facial feedback hypothesis, including the dangers of suppressing emotions; emotional appraisal; and the contemporary model of emotion

Basic Facial Expressions

• Fear

• Anger

• Disgust

• Sadness

• Surprise

• Happiness

• Contempt

• Interest

Three Types of Facial Expressions

• Pleasantness-Unpleasantness: – Degree to which a person is experiencing

pleasure or displeasure

• Attention-Rejection: – Degree of attention given to a person or

object

• Activation: – Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

• Facial Blends: – Mix of two or more basic expressions

PLAY VIDEO

Facial Analysis

Differences in Emotion

• Cultural Differences:– Emotion is shaped by cultural ideas, values, and

practices

• Gender Differences:– American girls encouraged to express sadness,

fear, shame, and guilt– American boys encouraged to express anger and

hostility– Men may be less aware of their own emotions

PLAY VIDEO

Culture and Emotion

Body Language (Kinesics)

• Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory: – Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come

from awareness of such arousal

• Cannon-Bard Theory: – The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings

and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously

• Schachter’s Cognitive Theory– Emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled

or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues

Attribution

• Attribution: – Mental process of assigning causes to

events; attributing arousal to a certain source

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: – Sensations from facial expressions and

becoming aware of them is what leads to the emotion someone feels

A Modern View of Emotion

• Emotional Appraisal: – Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus

or situation

Module 9.6: Learning Objectives Psychology in Action

• Describe the concept of emotional intelligence and its five skills

• Discuss the benefits of positive emotions

Emotional Intelligence

• Emotional Intelligence: – Emotional competence, including empathy,

self-control, self-awareness, and other skills

– Emotional skills can be learned

• Critical Emotional Intelligence Skills – Self-awareness– Empathy– Managing emotions

More Critical Emotional Skills

• Understanding emotions

• Using emotions

• Emotional flexibility

Positive Psychology

• Benefits of positive emotions (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005):– Create an urge to play, be creative, explore, savor

life, seek new experiences and integrate– Encourage personal growth and social

connections