Chapter 9-Human Memory. Memory MemoryConstructed.

Chapter 9-Human MemoryChapter 9-Human Memory

MemoryMemory

ConstructedConstructed

Flashbulb memoryFlashbulb memory Old teaching:Old teaching: New understandingNew understanding

Car Accident video

3 Questions to begin this 3 Questions to begin this chapter:chapter:

How does information get into How does information get into memory?memory?

How is information How is information maintained in memory?maintained in memory?

How is information pulled How is information pulled back out of memory?back out of memory?

EncodingEncoding

StorageStorage

RetrievalRetrieval

3 processes of memory3 processes of memory

EncodingEncoding

Requires attention

StorageStorage

Maintains encoded information in memory over time.What factors help or hinder memory storage?

Recovering information from memory stores.Why are some strategies better than others?

RetrievalRetrieval

Info about space, time and Info about space, time and frequencyfrequency Did you see me earlier today?Did you see me earlier today? What did you eat this morning?What did you eat this morning? Other examples?Other examples?

AUTOMATIC PROCESSINGEncodingEncoding

Only one of these images of a penny is correct. Which one is it?

EFFORTFUL PROCESSINGEFFORTFUL PROCESSING

AttentionAttentionfocuses awareness on a narrow focuses awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or eventsrange of stimuli or events

EncodingEncoding

Divided AttentionDivided AttentionEncodingEncoding

RehearsalRehearsal

EncodingEncodingEFFORTFUL

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV

the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

(Amount remembered depends on amount of time spent learning)

Ebbinghaus CurveEbbinghaus Curve

5 Minute University5 Minute University

EFFORTFULEFFORTFUL

Next-in-line-effectNext-in-line-effect Over learningOver learning

More rehearsal More learningMore rehearsal More learning 588-2300 _________?588-2300 _________?

SpacingSpacing 5 X in one month vs. once a month 5 X in one month vs. once a month

for 5 months?for 5 months? Implications for studying?Implications for studying?

EncodingEncoding

EffortfulEffortful

12

Percentage of words recalle

d

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Primacy=tendency to recall better the first items in a list

Recency=tendency to recall better last items in list

Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect

EncodingEncoding

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

MeaningMeaning—Visual—Visual

DroodlesDroodles

EncodingEncoding

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

Use visual imageryUse visual imagery

It’s easier to do with some words than with It’s easier to do with some words than with othersothers

Juggler Truth

‘Dual coding theory’-memory enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

MeaningMeaning—Acoustic—Acoustic

““Sounds like….”Sounds like….” ““Rhymes with…”Rhymes with…”

EncodingEncoding

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

MeaningMeaning—Semantic—Semantic

O T T F F S S E N TO T T F F S S E N T

ThunstofamThunstofam

EncodingEncoding

Try to recall this description Try to recall this description of an activityof an activity

http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experiedaniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.htmlnce_vs_memory.html

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

““How is information personally How is information personally relevant?”relevant?”

This seems to create additional This seems to create additional elaboration and better elaboration and better

organization of informationorganization of information

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

Linking a Linking a stimulus to stimulus to other other information at information at the time of the time of encodingencoding

Self-generated examples are the best

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

Mnemonic devices enhance Mnemonic devices enhance encodingencoding

EncodingEncoding

Method of LociMethod of Loci ““Yo Sacramento”Yo Sacramento” Acronym (Roy G. Biv)Acronym (Roy G. Biv)

HOMES--HOMES--HHuron, uron, OOntario, ntario, MMichigan,ichigan, E Erie, rie, SSuperioruperior

Link system (dog, envelope, Link system (dog, envelope, thirteen, yarn, window)thirteen, yarn, window)

StorageStorage

ORGANIZATION-ChunkingORGANIZATION-Chunking organizing items into familiar, organizing items into familiar,

manageable unitsmanageable units like horizontal organization—like horizontal organization—

17761492181219411776149218121941 RA INHE LPSF ARM ERSG RO WCRO PSRA INHE LPSF ARM ERSG RO WCRO PS

Phone numbersPhone numbers often occurs automaticallyoften occurs automatically

Giraffe, Parsnip, Zebra, Radish, Diver, Giraffe, Parsnip, Zebra, Radish, Diver, Broker, Spinach, Baker, Woodchuck, Broker, Spinach, Baker, Woodchuck, Dancer, Weasel, Pumpkin, Amos, Typist, Dancer, Weasel, Pumpkin, Amos, Typist, Byron, Plumber, Moses, Cabbage, Byron, Plumber, Moses, Cabbage, Sherman, Waiter, Bernard, Carrot, Leopard, Sherman, Waiter, Bernard, Carrot, Leopard, Printer, Otto, Noah, Chipmunk, Adam, Printer, Otto, Noah, Chipmunk, Adam, Chemist, Turnip, Simon, Howard, Milkman, Chemist, Turnip, Simon, Howard, Milkman, Gerard, Panther, Oswald, Druggist, Gerard, Panther, Oswald, Druggist, Reindeer, Owen, Parsley, Otter, Grocer, Reindeer, Owen, Parsley, Otter, Grocer, Badger, Camel , Baboon, Florist, Rhubarb, Badger, Camel , Baboon, Florist, Rhubarb, Melon, Mustard , Wallace, Dentist, Muskrat, Melon, Mustard , Wallace, Dentist, Muskrat, Mushroom, Lettuce, Donkey, Blacksmith, Mushroom, Lettuce, Donkey, Blacksmith, Eggplant, Garlic, Wildcat, Jason.Eggplant, Garlic, Wildcat, Jason.

WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE

OrganizationOrganization—Hierarchies—Hierarchies

Inspiration softwareInspiration software

EncodingEncoding

STORAGE-Maintaining STORAGE-Maintaining information in memoryinformation in memory

Information processing theoriesInformation processing theories are are metaphorsmetaphors for functionally for functionally distinct types of memorydistinct types of memory

Sensory memory Short term memory

Long term memory

Sensory input Attention

rehearsal

Storage

retrieval

STORAGESTORAGE

Preserves information in it’s original Preserves information in it’s original sensory sensory form for a brief time. form for a brief time.

PSYCHSIM 5-Sperling experiment

Sensory input

Sensory memory

STORAGESTORAGE

Preserves information in it’s original Preserves information in it’s original sensory sensory form for a brief time. form for a brief time.

Sensory input

Sensory memory

1-Iconic

2-echoic

STORAGESTORAGE

Short-term memory-A limited Short-term memory-A limited capacity store that can capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 information for about 20 secondsseconds

Short term memory

Attention

STORAGESTORAGE

Short-termShort-term

““Magic Number” = Simon?Magic Number” = Simon?

Short term memory

Attention

STORAGESTORAGE

working memory working memory Central executive: controls our Central executive: controls our

attention and coordinates working attention and coordinates working memory for a specific taskmemory for a specific task

Phonological loop: stores and utilizes Phonological loop: stores and utilizes semantic (word) information semantic (word) information

Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores and Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores and utilizes speech based information utilizes speech based information

STORAGESTORAGE

You can maintain information in You can maintain information in STM indefinitely by STM indefinitely by rehearsalrehearsal

Attention

rehearsal

Short term memory

Until you get distracted…..

Storage:Storage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

How does storage work?How does storage work? Synaptic changesSynaptic changes

Long-term PotentiationLong-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after increase in synapse’s firing potential after

brief, rapid stimulationbrief, rapid stimulation

Strong emotions make for stronger Strong emotions make for stronger memoriesmemories some stress hormones boost learning some stress hormones boost learning

and retentionand retention

Storage:Storage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

Storage:Storage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

AmnesiaAmnesia--the loss of memory Clive Wearing--the loss of memory Clive Wearing Explicit Memory Clive wearing 2Explicit Memory Clive wearing 2

memory of facts and experiences that one memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declarecan consciously know and declare

also called declarative memoryalso called declarative memory hippocampushippocampus--neural center in limbic system --neural center in limbic system

that helps process explicit memories for that helps process explicit memories for storagestorage

Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory retention independent of conscious retention independent of conscious

recollectionrecollection also called procedural memoryalso called procedural memory

Storage: Long-Term Storage: Long-Term Memory SubsystemsMemory Subsystems

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand cognitive

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

Retrieval: Getting Retrieval: Getting Information OutInformation Out

RecallRecall measure of memory in which the person must measure of memory in which the person must

retrieve information learned earlier retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank testas on a fill-in-the blank test

RecognitionRecognition Measure of memory in which the person has only Measure of memory in which the person has only

to identify items previously learned to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice testas on a multiple-choice test

RelearningRelearning memory measure that assesses the amount of memory measure that assesses the amount of

time saved when learning material a second timetime saved when learning material a second time

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues Deja Vu (French)--already seenDeja Vu (French)--already seen

cues from the current situation may subconsciously cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experiencetrigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

"I've experienced this before.""I've experienced this before." Mood-congruent MemoryMood-congruent Memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood one’s current mood

memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cuesmemory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues State-dependent MemoryState-dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same statein same state

RetrievalRetrieval Cues Cues

0

10

20

30

40

Water/land

Land/water

Water/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalled

Tip-of-the-tongue Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonphenomenon

Forgotten information feels like it’s ‘right there’, but you can’t quite get it

RetrievalRetrieval

Ultimate puzzle:Ultimate puzzle:

Why do people forget??Why do people forget??The woman who couldn’t forgetThe woman who couldn’t forget

ForgettingForgetting

Forgetting as encoding Forgetting as encoding failurefailure

Information never enters the Information never enters the long-term memory long-term memory

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-term

memory

Long-term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting

RetrievalRetrieval Forgetting can result from failure Forgetting can result from failure

to retrieve information from long-to retrieve information from long-term memoryterm memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Forgetting as Forgetting as InterferenceInterference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other informationof other information Proactive (forward acting) InterferenceProactive (forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new informationrecall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Retroactive (backwards acting) InterferenceInterference disruptive effect of new learning on disruptive effect of new learning on

recall of old informationrecall of old information

Forgetting as Forgetting as InterferenceInterference

ForgettingForgetting

Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall isbetter

After sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

ForgettingForgetting

Forgetting Forgetting can occur at can occur at any memory any memory stagestage

As we process As we process information, information, we filter, we filter, alter, or lose alter, or lose much of itmuch of it

Memory ConstructionMemory Construction

We filter information and fill in missing We filter information and fill in missing piecespieces

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect incorporating misleading information incorporating misleading information

into one's memory of an eventinto one's memory of an event Source AmnesiaSource Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)(misattribution)

Eyewitness testimonyEyewitness testimony

Memory ConstructionMemory Construction

Eyewitnesses Eyewitnesses reconstruct reconstruct memories when memories when questionedquestioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

Memory ConstructionMemory Construction

Memories of AbuseMemories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?Repressed or Constructed?

Child sexual abuse does occurChild sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodesSome adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory SyndromeFalse Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experiencebelieved memory of traumatic experience

sometimes induced by well-meaning therapistssometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory ConstructionMemory Construction

Most people can agree on the following:Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happensInjustice happens Incest happensIncest happens Forgetting happensForgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplaceRecovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs

are especially unreliableare especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are Memories of things happening before age 3 are

unreliableunreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsettingMemories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your MemoryImprove Your Memory

Study repeatedly to boost recallStudy repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively Spend more time rehearsing or actively

thinking about the materialthinking about the material Make material personally meaningfulMake material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices Use mnemonic devices

associate with peg words--something associate with peg words--something already storedalready stored

make up storymake up story chunk--acronymschunk--acronyms

Improve Your MemoryImprove Your Memory

Activate retrieval cues--mentally Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and moodrecreate situation and mood

Recall events while they are Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter fresh-- before you encounter misinformationmisinformation

Minimize interference Minimize interference Test your own knowledgeTest your own knowledge

rehearserehearse determine what you do not yet determine what you do not yet

knowknow