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While technology is obviously relevant given its ubiquity and its role in restructuring
international and social relations as well as our personal lives, it is still necessary to state the case
for technology as a subject of study. The study and teaching of technology as a subject in its
own right is important for the following, among other reasons:
Why Study Technology?
• Technology is central to action, cognition and emotion.
• The food we eat, the water we drink and the air we breathe involve technological decisions.
• The scale and scope of technology are now extended toward two extremes of life: towardmicroscopic and macroscopic levels. Technologies now extend inward to minute cellular, molecularand even atomic levels of our bodies and outward to the massive complexes of power plants, urbancenters and greenhouse gasses affecting the entire planet.
• Technology is increasingly imperfect and at the root of global public disasters such as nuclearmeltdowns and local private disasters such as industrial cancer.
• Technology is increasingly integrated with all aspects of life, from amusement to domesticity towork. Technology is increasingly integrated into our bodies, leaving many to conclude that we arecyborgs. The artificial world and integrated circuit are ambient; increasingly, technology is habitat.
• Technology is increasingly final in that its effects are increasingly difficult to reverse. Theelimination of species, ozone layer depletion and greenhouse gasses are significant for their finality.
• The monies directed toward technology amount to an increasingly large share of budgets in industry,the military and government.
• Values, rights, liberties and choices are affected by technology on immediate, personal levels.
• Technology is necessary for human existence. Personal livelihoods are dependent on technology forleisure, subsistence and work.
• Technology is a fundamental area of culture and human endeavor, and is inextricably interwovenwith history, culture, nature and society; also, it is integrative in nature.
• Technology is problematic and paradoxical for individuals and society.
• The ubiquity and immediacy of technology redefine our perceptions of the world and ourselves.The new media technologies play ever more pervasive and invasive roles in our lives.
• Increasingly, technology must be regulated and its direction subjected to limitations and determineddemocratically. There is tension between personal and social choice. Education is the only reliableroute toward technological decision making and democratic choice.
house in an orthographic and isometric drawing? Should they be capable of designing and
building a simple bird house? Should all students in grade 8 be capable of soldering electronic
components into a simple circuit? How can teachers discriminate among levels of capability?
The question of capability is extremely important if one takes technology studies seriously.
Suppose we had to determine what students should be capable of at different years with regard to
bicycling. A capability profile might look like Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Bicycling capability profile
Grade Technological Capability
Second Ride bicycle without training wheels, judge bike byvisual appearance
Fourth Ride bicycle, judge bike by visual appearance, oilchain, pump tires, customize bike with paint, judgebike by coolness
Sixth Ride bicycle, judge bike by visual appearance, oilchain, pump tires, customize bike with paint, judgebike by coolness, ride no hands, re-engage chain,replace batteries in light, adjust handle bars, adjustbrakes, judge bike by capability
Eighth Ride bicycle, judge bike by visual appearance, oilchain, pump tires, customize bike with paint, judgebike by coolness, ride no hands, re-engage chain,replace batteries in light, adjust handle bars, adjustbrakes, judge bike by capability, patch tire, balance instill position for 5 seconds
Tenth Ride bicycle, judge bike by visual appearance, oilchain, pump tires, customize bike with paint, judgebike by coolness, ride no hands, re-engage chain,replace batteries in light, adjust handle bars, adjustbrakes, judge bike by capability, patch tire, balance instill position for 5 seconds, replace brake pads, adjustgears, change pedals, replace brakes, change tire tube,adjust derailleur, judge bike by ergonomics
Twelfth Ride bicycle, judge bike by visual appearance, oilchain, pump tires, customize bike with paint, judgebike by coolness, ride no hands, re-engage chain,replace batteries in light, adjust handle bars, adjustbrakes, judge bike by capability, patch tire, balance instill position for 5 seconds, replace brake pads, adjustgears, change pedals, replace brakes, change tire tube,adjust derailleur, judge bike by ergonomics, changecrank arm, replace link in broken chain, jump curb,design bike accessory, judge bike by economics andecology
Table 7.5. Critical Literacy ProfileCritical Technological Literacy for Global Awareness
Critical AwarenessCapacity to remain skeptical of fantasticpromises and stories fabricated, for example,by business, the entertainment industry,governments, the media, military oreconomics.
Ecological Sensitivity Ability to speak and act on behalf of sentientcreatures and the earth.
HistoricalConsciousness
Capacity to remember and witness historicalinequities and injustices.
Labor Empathy Ability to act against labor injustices and forlabor justice in the world.
Political Reactivity Quickness or acuteness of discernment andsoundness of judgment needed in actionscritical and political.
RelationalResponsiveness
Capacity to function empathically, openlyand perceptively, in simple and complexrelations.
ConspiratorialIntuition
Capacity to recognize the differences betweenreal and imagined conspiracies as they areformed and documented.
TechnologicalIngenuity
Capability to use appropriate technologies toexpress creative counters to "jam" massconsumerism, resource exploitation andendless marketing.
TechnologicalSensibility
Capacities of individuals and collectives toact critically toward decisions intechnological practice, whether they be inleisure, work, or politics
If technological sensibility is a critical intention to engage ethically andperceptively, or politically with technological practice, then political actionis the critical agency which animates and mobilizes sensibility.
Culture jamming is a practice whereby critical resistance to commercial media is
mobilized by turning mainstream, popular productions into a mockery. The goal of culture
jamming, says the Media Foundation, who publishes Adbusters, "is to galvanize resistance
against those who would destroy the environment, pollute our minds and diminish our lives. We
want to turn consumers back into citizens, take the 'consumer out of consumer culture, and shift
the human experiment on Planet Earth back onto a sustainable path." This is accomplished
through the production of advertisements that appropriate the work of corporations such as
Calvin Klein or industries such as tobacco. Cultural images are selected for their consumer
potency and then remade to jam or disturb that consumerism. The idea is that skills and
technologies are used to counter trends in areas such as the treatment of animals, over-
change the policies (make more requirements), perceptions (better public relations) and
personnel (targeted recruitment, affirmative action)— Change the optics of technology studies.
Character Values
"Education to be effective for life, must be, like the conduct of life itself, both alert and patient,beginning where people are, and creating character rather than comfort, goodness rather thangoods. It must be won rather than given, and based on faith in labor as a moral force." (SamuelC. Armstrong, 1919, cited in Education for Life, The Story of Hampton Institute).
"I dream of the day when my children will be judged not by the color of their skin but by thecontent of their character." (Martin Luther King, 1963)
The development of character values has historically been an integral dimension of technology
studies, as written into the charter of the Hampton Institute, an African American university
established in the 1800s. Yet, the importance of character values has been overlooked.
Advocates of character values argue that everything else is secondary in an age of global
poverty, rash violence and wanton disrespect. On the Canadian television networks between
1993 and 2001, for example, incidents of physical violence increased by 378%. TV shows in
2001 averaged 40 acts of violence per hour. Incidents of psychological violence remained
relatively stable from 1993 to 1999, but increased 325% from 1999 to 2001. In video games, the
current trend is for players to act out criminal fantasies for earning points for attacking and
killing innocent bystanders. Players in Grand Theft Auto 3 (the best-selling game ever for
PlayStation 2) earn points by carjacking, and stealing drugs from street people and peddlers. In
Carmageddon, players are rewarded for mowing down pedestrians to sounds of cracking bones.
MNet's 2001 study Young Canadians In A Wired World found that 32% of kids 9 to 17 are
playing video games "every day or almost every day" and 60% cited action/combat as their
favorite (Media Awareness Network, 2003). The web site newgrounds.com, a favorite among
teen boys, features Flash movies showing celebrities being degraded and killed. While the rate
of young people charged with violent crimes in Canada and the US is falling about 1% per year,
the rate of youths charged with violent crimes is still about 75% higher than the early 1990s.
Technology studies, advocates note, can be a vehicle for developing and reinforcing
character values, so desperately needed for at-risk students. Character values proponents argue
that technology educators ought to make the disposition and temperament of students more
explicit in everyday instruction. A framework developed in Washington, DC is an example of a
character value-centered curriculum.
Character Values
• Self-Esteemo Students should develop a strong sense of their own self-worth.
• Self-Disciplineo Students should understand that responsible, creative work is the key to self-
reliance.• Family, Kinship and Belonging
o Students should value and respect the family structure at home and at school.• Moral and Intellectual Maturity
o Students should develop a respect for human dignity, care about the welfare ofothers, integrate individual and social responsibility, demonstrate personalintegrity, carefully weigh moral choices and seek personal resolutions ofconflicts.
o Students should also be familiar with their history and understand their roles incontributing to the continuum of human history.
• Responsibility to Self and Otherso Students should respect the gift of healthy bodies and minds, appreciate the
interdependence of all things, and behave compassionately towards others. Theyshould learn by example and experience that unselfish service is a keycomponent of self-gratification.
These character values are critical in the overall development of students. Self-esteem is
a key component of self-realization and the development of a healthy outlook on life. Success-
based technology activities build self-esteem. All too often, students are faced with challenges
that are frustrating and not met. Self-discipline is a necessary ingredient for confronting and
resolving daily problems. Technology studies has many features which encourage this self-
discipline and perseverance. For example, the basic tenet of following directions for safety or
the proper function of software or machines is an effective self-discipline developer in all
technology courses. Self-discipline is manifested in craft or skill acquisition. Self-discipline
leads to a sense of empowerment and responsibility for one's own destiny. This empowerment
can be transferred to other areas of a student's life.
Through the design of emotionally sound instruction, technology teachers can develop a
sense of community within the classroom. Technology studies labs and workshops often draw on
cooperative learning to create a camaraderie which may be lacking in other classroom situations.
Often and for many students in the schools, the technology labs and workshops are the only
the schools is on the wane, the integration of technology into other subjects is well established.
But, integration refers to much more than the integration of subjects.
IntegrationIntegrate what? Apply what?
• Content, concepts and subjects (disciplines)• Skills and processes• Society and self• People
How integrate?• Subject correlation• Technology or occupation as vehicle to larger
end (not end in themselves)• Unifying theme or project (environmental,
social or technological problems)
Forms that integration has taken:• Elementary school integration• Math, Science and Technology (MST)• Science, Technology and Society (STS)• Environment and Technology• Engineering and Materials Science• Art , Design and Technology• Home Economics and Technology• Research and Experimentation• Applied Academics (Principles of Technology)
Why integrate?• Deal with complexity of the world• Overcome rigid subject boundaries• Respect seamless web of knowledge• Promote greater efficiency• Holism or contextualism• Relevance• Amplification, augmentation• Disclosure, revelation
To what (and whose) end?• Technology as handmaiden to science• Science as handmaiden to technology (what
is science and technology?)• technology as handmaiden to occupation• Humanizing the sciences and technologies• Rationalizing the humanities• Demystifying black boxes (how things work)
What are the tradeoffs?• Autonomy for relevance & status• Independence for dependence• Correlation for integration
Elementary school educators will attest that isolation of subjects is a luxury, or less
politely, a pathology of secondary schools. Manual training was introduced into the elementary
schools in the late 1800s and diffused across the school much quicker than in the upper levels of
schooling. In the elementary schools, teachers immediately integrated simple tools, materials
and processes into the curriculum. The technologies, or industries as they were called, lent
themselves to easy expression by the students. But they also amplified the other subjects by
making learning active and relevant. Design and technology in the elementary schools continue
to percolate a potent brew of integration of subjects and people (Kirkwood and Foster, 1999).
At middle, junior and secondary levels, the three most common clusters of integration
have been math, science and technology (MST), science, technology and society (STS) and
technology and environmental science. MST has been quite popular due to the affinities that
math and science teachers have with technology teachers (Sanders and Laporte, 1995).
Technology teachers, like math and science teachers, tend to be rational and prefer to focus their
Fundamental SkillsThe skills needed as a base for furtherDevelopment. You will be betterprepared to progress in the world ofwork when you can:
Communicate• read and understand information
presented in a variety of forms (e.g.,• words, graphs, charts, diagrams)• write and speak so others pay
attention and understand• listen and ask questions to
understand and appreciate otherpoints of view
• share information using a range ofinformation and technologies
• (e.g., voice, e-mail, computers)• use relevant scientific, technological
and mathematical knowledge andskills to explain or clarify ideas
Manage Information• locate, gather and organize
information using appropriatetechnology and information systems
• access, analyze and applyknowledge and skills from variousdisciplines (e.g., the arts, languages,science, technology, mathematics,social sciences, and the humanities)
Use Numbers• measure and calculate basic things• observe and record data using
appropriate methods and technology• make estimates, verify calculations
Solve Problems• assess situations and identify
problems• seek different points of view and
evaluate them based on facts• recognize the human, interpersonal,
technical, scientific andmathematical dimensions of aproblem
• identify the root cause of a problem• be creative and innovative in
exploring possible solutions• readily use science, technology and
mathematics as ways to think, gainand share knowledge, solveproblems and make decisions
• evaluate solutions to makerecommendations or decisions
• implement solutions• check to see if a solution works, and
act on opportunities forimprovement
Teamwork SkillsThe skills and attributes needed tocontribute productively. You will bebetter prepared to add value to theoutcomes of a task, project or teamwhen you can:
Work with Others• understand and work within the
dynamics of a group• ensure that a team’s purpose and
objectives are clear• be flexible: respect, be open to and
supportive of the thoughts, opinionsand contributions of others in a group
• recognize and respect people’sdiversity, individual differences andperspectives
• accept and provide feedback in aconstructive and considerate manner
• contribute to a team by sharinginformation and expertise
• lead or support when appropriate,• motivating a group for high
performance• understand the role of conflict in a
group to reach solutions• manage and resolve conflict when
appropriate
Participate in Projects &Tasks
• plan, design or carry out a project ortask from start to finish with well-defined objectives and outcomes
• develop a plan, seek feedback, test,revise and implement
• work to agreed quality standards andspecifications
• select and use appropriate tools andtechnology for a task or project
• adapt to changing requirements andinformation
• continuously monitor the success of aproject or task and identify ways toimprove
Personal SkillsThe personal skills, attitudes andbehaviors that drive one’s potentialfor growth. You will be able to offeryourself greater possibilities forachievement when you can:
Demonstrate PositiveAttitudes & Behaviors
• feel good about yourself and beconfident
• deal with people, problems andsituations with honesty, integrity andpersonal ethics
• recognize your own and other' efforts• take care of your personal health• show interest, initiative and effort
Be Responsible• set goals and priorities balancing
work and personal life• plan and manage time, money and
other resources to achieve goals• assess, weigh and manage risk• be accountable for your actions and
the actions of your group• be socially responsible and contribute
to your community
Be Adaptable• work independently or as a part of a
team• carry out multiple tasks or projects be
innovative and resourceful: identifyand suggest alternative ways toachieve goals and get the job done
• be open and respond constructively tochange
• learn from your mistakes and acceptfeedback
• cope with uncertainty
Learn Continuously• desire to continuously learn and grow• assess personal strengths and areas for
development• set your own learning goals• identify and access learning sources
and opportunities• plan for and achieve your goals
Work Safely• be aware of personal and group health
and safety practices and procedures,and act in accordance with these
The US Secretary of Labor's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) are similar to
the skills listed in the Canadian skill set. SCANS identified a generic skill set for succeeding in a
changing economic climate. SCANS argued that students should develop five competencies that
built on a foundation of basic skills (e.g., literacy, numeracy), thinking skills (e.g., problem
solving, reasoning) and personal qualities (e.g., integrity, responsibility) (Table 7.8).
Table 7.8. SCANS' Five Competencies
SCANS Five Competencies (1991)
Resources: Identifies, organizes, plans, and allocates resources1. Time— selects goal-relevant activities, ranks them, allocates time, and prepares and follows
schedules2. Money— uses or prepares budgets, makes forecasts, keeps records, and makes adjustments to meet
objectives3. Material and facilities— acquires, stores, allocates, and uses materials or space efficiently4. Human resources— assesses skills and distributes work accordingly, evaluates performance and
provides feedbackInterpersonal: Works with others1. Participates as member of a team— contributes to group effort2. Teaches others new skills3. Services clients/customers— works to satisfy customers expectations4. Exercises leadership— communicates ideas to justify position, persuades and convinces others,
responsibly challenges existing procedures and policies5. Negotiates— works toward agreements involving exchange of resources, resolves divergent
interests6. Works with diversity— works well with men and women from diverse backgroundsInformation: Acquires and evaluates information1. Acquires and evaluates information2. Organizes and maintains information3. Interprets and communicates information4. Uses computers to process informationSystems: Understands complex interrelationships1. Understands systems— knows how social, organizational, and technological systems work and
operates effectively with them2. Monitors and corrects performance— distinguishes trends, predicts impacts on system operations,
diagnoses deviations in systems performance and corrects malfunctions3. Improves or designs systems— suggests modifications to existing systems and develops new or
alternative systems to improve performanceTechnology: Works with a variety of technologies1. Selects technology— chooses procedures, tools, or equipment including computers and related
technologies2. Applies technology to task— understands intent and proper procedures for setup and operation of
equipment
3. Maintains and troubleshoots equipment— prevents, identifies, or solves problems with equipment,including computers and other technologies
tech prep justification assuming that high tech programs will translate to high skilled jobs in a
changing economy. Economic forecasts are contradictory at best, but the issue is not solely
economic. It is questionable whether tech prep proponents are committed to "at-risk"
populations or have adequately addressed gender and race in high-tech professions. Economic
crises might be best met if the revitalization of technology programs centers on diverse student
needs, at-risk populations, and problems of economic and gender inequities.
Appropriate Technology and Ecodesign
Appropriate technology (AT) has had a checkered past within technology studies. During the
1970s, when AT was on the ascent in North American governments, it was quite common to find
technology educators involved in do-it-yourself projects of affordable housing, alternative
energy and vehicles and third world economics. In the 1980s and early 1990s, this interest in AT
faded only to be revived again during the late 1990s. AT is most commonly associated with E.
F. Schumacher, who was agitating for humane, economic practices as alternatives to state and
corporate capitalism during the 1960s and 1970s. But he was not merely providing models for
what he called an "Economics as if People Mattered." He was interested in an economics as if
animals, plants, and the ecology of Earth mattered. He emphasized the importance— to people
and to nature— of technological practices that were cheap enough for common use, were simple
enough in technique for common use, and relied on local knowledge, labor, and materials for the
production of things for local maintenance and use. Indebted to the work of Gandhi,
Schumacher referred to this as "Intermediate Technology" which was qualitatively different from
the poverty-reinforcing tools in much of the southern hemisphere and the large-scale, power-
hungry tools of the northern hemisphere. Eventually Intermediate Technology was popularized
as "Alternative Technology" and "Appropriate Technology" (AT) in India, North America and
various parts of the world. At has defining characteristics that differentiates it from other ways
of approaching technology.
AT is:
• Simple• Small Scale• Low-Cost• Non-Violent
• controlled by those it employs• contributes to providing secure livelihood• financially self-supporting• serves the local community and is accepted by it• uses local sources, materials and services• uses sustainable fuel and raw materials• causes no environmental damage
world today. The ten justifications provided are secondary and ought to be used to reinforce the
content of technology. In other words, after a century of inconsistency and independence from
school to school, the survival of technology studies in the schools depends on consistency and
the content justification. The sun is setting on the "do-your-own-thing" era of technology
studies. The profession has matured. In the next chapter the content and standards of technology
studies will be addressed.
Rank the top three justifications for yourself to put this chapter in perspective. Your top
three justifications will be moderated by your values and background. Try to be sympathetic to
the remaining seven. Do not dismiss any outright, as they will all serve you from time to time.
1. Capability profile: Choose a technological capability area (e.g., communicationstechnology, robotics, marketing, package design, environmental hazards) and produce aprofile for grades 1-12. Profile every other grade (i.e., 2, 4, 6, etc.). Profile capabilities fortechnical skills and ethical judgments for the grade levels you choose.
2. Justification brochure: Design a brochure to advertise and justify the technology studiesprogram in your school or a hypothetical school. Collect and organize information thatrepresents the course offerings, general policies, and philosophies of the technology program.Offer a concise, coherent justification rather than trying to appeal to all interests. Focus firstand foremost on the content justification, placing others as complementary to this. Assumean audience of administrators, parents, students and peer teachers. Design a general twopage, two-three column brochure that can take a digital and printed form. The final productought to be a professional document or web site. You will have to draw on desk-toppublishing, graphic design, and digital media design.
3. Technological Literacy Dispatch: Design, format and publish (html or pdf) a (critical)Technological Literacy Dispatch to report on a current or historical concept, event, issue ortrend. Put yourself in the role of a reporter who must “get the facts right” and convey themin a short, concise format. Integrate images (charts, tables, illustrations, photos, etc.) withtext in the way that you would expect in a high-end newspaper or magazine. The dispatchmust be limited to 1-2 pages. Desktop publishing and graphic layout techniques should beused to configure the images with text. Provide a title and adequate information to get yourpoint across to a general reader (i.e., non-specialist). See the Appendix for an example of atechnological literacy dispatch.