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Chapter 7 GDP: Measuring Total Production and Income
(Summaries)
7.1
In a nutshell macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole. In a business cycle there are two
alternating periods one is of expansion and other of recession. In both of these cases there will be a
change in the production and employment. Recession indicates to us the bad side while conversely
expansion is the good side. The inflation rate is the average level of prices in a year where as economic
growth talks about the increase in the production of goods and services (output) over a period of time.
GDP measures the total goods and services produced in an economy in a year and the formula is as
follows = C+I+G+X-M = GDP
C = Consumer Spending = This indicates the spending by households
Investment on the other hand is focused upon capital goods and that is by private firms. This
investment is for the purpose of procuring capital goods. Government purchases comprise of purchases and transfer payments. Purchases are what the
govt. purchases hence the name while transfer payments is money given by the govt. to its
citizens
X-M measures the trade balance i.e. net exports. This seeks to measure the difference between
exports and imports
7.2
In brief GDP measures the production in an economy but it fails to measure two aspects related with
production. That is of the underground economy and on the other hand the household production iswhen households produce goods/services on their own and solely for their own consumption. While
GDP fails to measure the wellness in an economy and this is the reason why it has been criticized. It fails
to measure human beings leisure despite the fact of producing more output consequently the leisure
hours have fallen down. On the other hand it fails to quantify social problems and the
pollution/production related negative externalities therefore the costs to compensate these problems
are not included in the GDP. Lastly GDP does not measure how equally spread out is the output.
7.3
Nominal GDP produces the total value of final goods and services using the prices of the current yearswhile Real GDP on the other hand uses prices of the base year multiplied into the quantity of the current
year. The limitation of real GDP is that it ignores the current year prices and therefore does only use the
base year and not current year in terms of prices. While in real since the prices are fixed we assume the
purchasing power is constant which is untrue since prices are changing and are not constant. GDP
deflator measures the price level in an economy putting the nominal/real x 100 = GDP deflator and the
base year is 100 since real = nominal GDP. Whereas before the base year the real GDP > nominal GDP
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but after base year the real GDP < nominal GDP since the real GDP is used from the base year (just
started)
7.4
GNP is the sum of GDP (of domestic production taking place within the country borders) while s
well on the other hand it also takes into account the home production but this time taking placeoutside the home country
NNP = GNP Depreciation This is known as the consumption of fixed capital
National Income = NNP Value of Sales Taxes This tells us on average how much income is
available in total for the people of the country. i.e. total income earned by a countrys residents
In short the income received by the households (personal income)
Personal income includes compensation from a number of sources - salaries, wagesand bonuses received from employment or self-employment; dividends anddistributions received from investments; rental receipts from real estateinvestments; profit-sharing from a business and so on. In most jurisdictions,personal income above a certain exemption threshold is subject to taxation.Personal income is generally computed on a pre-tax basis.
Disposable income = personal income taxation Division of income = is through what means a person earns such as wages, interest received,
profit, rent received etc.
Chapter 9 economic growth, financial system and business cycles
9.1
In a nutshell long term economic growth is simpy measured by increase in the real GDP per capital and
this is an indicator of the std. of living. For this to work well the productivity must improve that is the
quantity of goods and services produced by 1 person in just 1 hour. In short Ratio of output to input.Whereas labor productivity is dependent on the human capital i.e. the skills and knowledge of the
person and as well the level of technology does matter. It does matter for technology that the
capital/hour must be high enough only then it will improve productivity as a whole. Capital per hour
is the ratio of capital services to hours worked.
Productivity in short is linked to the human capital, capital per hour, technologicaladvancements and therefore this is in sync with economic growth since producitivty isthe prerequisite to improve growth therefore real GDP per capita rises therefore
enhancing the std. of living.
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9.2.
The financial system comprises of the financial market (direct earning for firms) and financialintermediaries (indirect earnings for firms). This is extremely important for economic growth since
firms earn money from households in 2 ways as mentioned above. Financial system of markets and
intermediaries are the ways in which firms acquire money from households.
Firms will earn money from households directly through financial markets (markets where financial
securities are bought and sold) such as stocks, bond markets and indirectly through intermediaries
(borrow funds from savers and lend them to other borrowers )such as banks, pension funds, insurance
companies. These funds reach firms through savings and savings are private (households)households
retain income (after tax and purchasing goods) and public (govt.)- it is also the tax revenue the govt.
retains after paying for govt. purchases and making transfer payments to households!
In conclusion value of total saving = total investment spending. Savings are comprised of public and
private. Private for households who retain income after paying for goods and services and paying for
taxes and public on the other hand is the tax revenue retained after govt. makes purchases and does
its transfer payments. Investment = total income consumption govt. purchases andsavings for
private is income(GDP) + transfer payments (received) purchases of goods and services taxes and
for public savings it simply taxes revenue govt. purchases transfer payments and therefore savings
(pub + pvt) = investments (GDP consumption govt. purchases). GDP measures total production asnd
income in an economy!
Govt. spending = tax revenue is known as a balanced budget while on the other hand if spending Is
greater than tax revenue it is a budget deficit. Consequently this leads to Dissaving is known asnegative saving in where tax revenues earned by govt. are less than the govt. purchases + transfer
payments made to customers (spending) . (this is a budget deficit which is aforementioned as
dissaving). Therefore less savings mean less investment since there will be less money availiable. It is
a gap between taxes and spending. Also households will borrow more than they save the total level
of savings will decline. Budget surplus is when the tax revenue is greater than the govt. spending. This
increases the public saving and total saving and a likelihood of higher level of investment spending.
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In Prcis: The market for loanable funds (9.2)
The supply of loanable funds is the total amount of fundssupplied by lenders. On the contrary thedemand is the total amount of fundsdemanded by borrowers. It is the interaction between theborrowers and lenders of money which in turn determines the interest rate and the quantity ofloanable funds accordingly. The interest rate is the cost of demanding or borrowing loanable funds.Alternatively, the interest rate is the rate of return from supplying or lending loanable funds and the quantity ofloanable funds means funds that are available for borrowing.
The demand curve slopes downwards because the lower the interest rate the greater the quantity of loanable fundsdemanded therefore leading to investment taking place. Whereas on the supply side the greater the interest ratelenders are willing to supply more to the borrowers. In supply it means total amount of good/serviceavailable for purchase
The market for loan able funds is determined through the borrowers and lenders since this determines marketinterest rate and quantity of loan able funds demanded and supplied. It is basically quantity demand and supplywhich determines the market interest rate and equilibrium quantity of the loan able funds exchanged. Interactionbetween borrower and lender (demand and supply)
Rate of return on capital and the demand for loanable funds. The demand for loanable funds takes
account of the rate of return on capital (investment).The rate of return on capital is the additional
revenue that a firm can earn from its employment of new capital. Firms will demand loanable funds as long
as the rateof return on capital is greater than or equal to the interest rate paid on funds borrowed. If
capital becomes more productivethat is, if the rate of return on capital increasesthe demand curve for
loanable funds will shift out and to the right, causing the equilibrium interest rate to rise, ceteris paribus.
The demand for loanable funds takes account of the rate of return on capital. The rate of return on capital is
the additional revenue that a firm can earn from its employment of new capital. Firms will demand
loanable funds as long as the rate of return on capital is greater than or equal to the interest rate paid on
funds borrowed. Ifcapital becomes more productivethat is, if the rate of return on capital increases
the demand curve for loanable funds will shift out and to the right, causing the equilibrium interest rate to
rise. This means The return on investment with the interest rate they pay to borrow money is
taken into consideration
Thriftiness and the supply of loanable funds. The supply of loanable funds reflects the economy ofhouseholds and other lenders. If households become economicalthat is, ifhouseholds decide tosavemorethe supply of loanable funds increases. The increase in the supply of loanable funds shifts the
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supply curve for loanable funds and to the right, causing the equilibrium interest rate to fall. In supply itmeans total amount of good/service available for purchase
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9.3
The business cycle will have phases all related to production, employment and income. Expansion stage
is when all the 3 are at its peak and recession is the opposite of that. Recessions are difficult to predict
since they have many causes not just one. In recession the production is cut off and therefore
unemployment rises. Spending on capital goods by firms and household goods by consumers will be low
in this time. Inflation is low and interest rates are high then!
Chapter 8
unemployment and inflation8.1
The labor force is the total number of people who both are employed and unemployed (but are actively
searching for a job). Unemployment rate is the percentage of labor force unemployed. Discouraged
workers are available for work but arent searching for a job. Not counted as unemployed. Labor force
participation rate is the % of the working-age population in the labor force.
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8.2
Frictional unemployment is short term unemployment that arises from the process of matching workers
with jobs. Seasonal unemployment is a part of frictional unemployment. It is caused by calendar related
events and weather and variations in tourism. Structural unemployment arises due to unemployment
resulting from industrial reorganization, typically due to technological change, rather than fluctuations
in supply or demand. Natural rate of unemployment comprises of = structural + frictional
unemployment
8.3
Govt. policies can reduce frictional + structural unemployment by helping the search for jobs and
retraining workers. However some policies do increase unemployment such as unemployment insurance
payments by extending the time that unemployed workers search for jobs. Unemployed workers spend
greater time searching for jobs because they receive payments. It helps maintain their income and
spending which therefore lessens personal hardship of being unemployed and also helps reduce severity
of recessions. Wage above market levels can raise unemployment. Minimum wage is above marketwage determined by demand and supply of labor. This will lead to excess supply of labor. Wages are
above market levels. Labor unions in here also min wages > market wages as a result less workers are
hired. Efficiency wages are a higher than market wage a firm pays to raise worker productivity. This is
done in order to raise profits. Level of wages = level of worker productivity is the link. Efficiency wages
are higher-than-market wage that a firm pays to motivate workers to be more productive. The same
case here is efficiency wage is above the market wage. It results in qty. labor supplied greater than
demand like minimum wage laws and unions. It however does help lower firms costs of production due
to increase in productivity is greater than the cost of the wage.
8.4
Price level measures average price of goods and services. Inflation rate is equal to percentage change in
price level from one year to the next. CPI is an average of prices of goods and services purchased by the
typical urban family of 4. PPI (producer price index) is prices received by producers of goods and services
at all stages of production. CPI = Expenditure (current year) / expenditure (base year) x 100.
8.5
Price indexes measure change in price level over time.This real variable will be measured in
dollars/cuurency of the base year for price index. Economic variables calculated in current year prices
= nominal variables while real variables = we are interested in tracking changes in economic variableover time rather seeing value in todays currency.
Formula = Value in current year dollars etc. = value in base year dollars/currency * (CPI current year/CPI
base year)
8.6
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Nominal interest rate is the stated interest rate on a loan while the real interest rate is nominal interest
rate inflation rate. Real interest rate measures true cost of borrowing and lending. It measures the
effect on inflation on purchasing power. Nominal interest rate is always greater than real interest rate
unless there is deflation. Real interest rate= nominal rate inflation (declines). Real takes into account
the inflation and it measures purchasing power accordingly. Nominal rate constant = higher inflation
rate = lower real interest rate.
8.7
Inflation makes money lose its value and firms incur menu costs such as changing prices on products and
printing new catalogs. If inflation is unexpected and the actual inflation rate is higher than expected, the
income distribution will be unequal. If incomes rise faster than rate of inflation = purchasing power
increases and vice versa. People on fixed incomes will be hurt by inflation. Extent to which inflation
redistributes income depends on if it is anticipated or unanticipated if they see it coming or not.
Chapter 10 Long-Run economic growth: sources and policies
10.1
The real GDP per capital is a measure of a countrys standard of living. Economic growth rises when the
real GDP per capital rises. Consequently the standard of living rises. This is what happened during and
after the Industrial revolution. In the long run small differences in economic growth rates result in big
differences in the living standards. There are different groups of countries based on the economic
growth and standard of living; high income countries, developing countries and newly industrializing
countries.
10.2
Capital services refer to the flow of productive services provided by an asset that isemployed in production. Capital services reflect a (physical) quantity, not to be confusedwith the value, or price concept of capital. Capital services are the appropriate measureof capital input in production analysis.
Capital services are the productive inputs, per period, that flow to production from acapital asset. The value of capital services is the quantity of services provided by theasset multiplied by the price of those services
Reflect the amount of 'service' each asset provides during a period.
Capital per hour worked = capital services (price x quantity)/hours worked
Basically labor productivity is improved through quantity of capital per hour worked and the
level of technology.
Therefore labor productivity in general, helps improve the growth of an economy i.e. real GDP
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You can improve the technology (technological change) = It is the change in the quantity of
output a firm can produce using a given quantity of inputs.
Technology can be changed through better machinery and equipment, better means of
organizing and managing production and last of all increase in human capital (accumulated
knowledge and skills that workers acquire from education and training/life experiences)
In brief = higher standard of living more capital per hour more human capital better
capital (quality) better organization in production
Per worker production functionrelationship between capital per hour worked and output
per hour worked+ technology = constant
A rule of thumb that estimates the change in labor productivity based onchanges in capital per hour of labor. Specifically, the one-third rule statesthat on average an increase of 1% in capital per hour of labor will
result in approximately a 0.33% increase in labor productivity.Thisrule assumes no changes in technology or human capital
Increases in labor productivity represent increases in real GDP perperson, and thus labor productivity can usually be used as a guide to thelevel of standard of living. Growing labor productivity relies on threemain factors: investment and savings in physical capital, technologyand human capital
Productivity curve = The relationship between real GDP per hour oflabour and the quantity of capital per hour of labour with a given state oftechnology
What are the 3 growth factors of labour productivity? =
1. Saving and investment in physical capital2. Expansion of human capital3. Discovery of new technologies
What are the two reasons for labour productivity growth? =
An increase in capital per hour of labour brings movement along the productivitycurve
An increase in human capital or technological advancesthis leads to shift up inthe per-worker production function, resulting in more output per hour worked atevery level of capital per hour worked.
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Diminishing Returns =Each additional unit of capital per hour oflabour produces a successively smaller additional amount of real GDP perhour of labour.
One-third rule = The obsevation that on the average with no changein human capital and technology, a one percent increase in capital per hourof labour bring a one-third percent increase in labour productivity
How does real GDP increase or decrease? = Real GDP perperson grows only if real GDP grows faster than the population grows. If
the growth rate of the population exceeds the growth of real GDP, real GDP
per person falls
New growth= The theory that our unlimited wants will lead us to evergreater productivity and perpetual economic growth model of long run
economic growth that emphasizes that technological change is influenced by how
individuals and firms respond to economic incentives.
What are the 3 facts that the New Growth Theory emphasizes about marketeconomies? =
1. Human capital grows because of choices2. Discoveries results from choices3. Discoveries bring profit and competition destroys profit
Governments can promote technological change = by granting patents
Definition of new growth theory = an economic growth theory that positshumans' desires and unlimited wants foster ever-increasing productivity
and economic growth. The new growth theory argues that real GDP per
person will perpetually increase because of people's pursuit of profits. As
competition lowers the profit in one area, people have to constantly seek
better ways to do things or invent new products in order to garner a higher
profit.
Capital per hour worked = capital services/hours worked
Capital services assets= equipment, structure, land and machines-it isthe quantity of goods and services received from each asset therefore
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capital services > input costs
10.4WHY ISNT THE WHOLE WORLD RICH?
Reasons of poor growth in some countries = wars/revolutions, poor educationand health, poor law enforcement and last of all low saving/investment
Globalization = open countries to foreign trade and investment FDI =PURCHASE/BUILDING BY A CORPORTATION/FIRMOF A FACILITY
AS THE NAME SUGGESTS: IN A FOREIGN LAND
FOREIGN PORTFOLIO INVESTMENT =PURCHASE BY ANINDIVIDUAL/FIRM OF STOCKS/BONDS -- ISSUED IN ANOTHER COUNTRY