Chapter 7

Copyright © 2008 Allyn & BaconCopyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon

Chapter 7: Cognition, Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Language, and IntelligenceIntelligence

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Chapter 7 OverviewChapter 7 Overview

CognitionCognition LanguageLanguage IntelligenceIntelligence Explaining differences in intelligenceExplaining differences in intelligence What arguments have been What arguments have been

advanced to explain racial advanced to explain racial differences in IQ scores?differences in IQ scores?

Beyond intelligenceBeyond intelligence


CognitionCognition

The mental processes involved in The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information, including sensation, using information, including sensation, perception, imagery, concept perception, imagery, concept formation, reasoning, decision making, formation, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and languageproblem solving, and language


How do imagery and concepts How do imagery and concepts help us think?help us think?

Imagery Imagery isis the representation in the the representation in the mind of a sensory experiencemind of a sensory experience

Images can be extremely helpful to Images can be extremely helpful to memorymemory

Images are also helpful in learning and Images are also helpful in learning and maintaining motor skillsmaintaining motor skills

The same brain areas are activated The same brain areas are activated when performing a task and mentally when performing a task and mentally rehearsing the task using imageryrehearsing the task using imagery


How do imagery and concepts How do imagery and concepts help us think?help us think?

ConceptsConcepts are mental categories used to are mental categories used to represent a class or group of objects, people, represent a class or group of objects, people, events, etc.events, etc.

Concepts help us organize our thinking, order Concepts help us organize our thinking, order our world, and to think and communicate our world, and to think and communicate with speed and efficiencywith speed and efficiency

Two basic types of conceptsTwo basic types of concepts– Formal conceptFormal concept

A concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a A concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification systemformal definition, or a classification system

– Natural conceptNatural concept A concept acquired not from a definition but through A concept acquired not from a definition but through

everyday perceptions and experienceseveryday perceptions and experiences


What is the role of heuristics in What is the role of heuristics in decision making?decision making?

Decision making Decision making is the process of is the process of considering alternatives and choosing among considering alternatives and choosing among themthem– Bounded RationalityBounded Rationality

Boundaries or limitations around the decision making Boundaries or limitations around the decision making process prevent it from being entirely logicalprocess prevent it from being entirely logical

So, we often base decisions on strategies and So, we often base decisions on strategies and educated guesseseducated guesses

– Elimination by aspectsElimination by aspects Decision making strategy in which alternatives are Decision making strategy in which alternatives are

evaluated against criteria that are ranked according evaluated against criteria that are ranked according to importanceto importance



HeuristicHeuristic is a rule of thumb derived from experience is a rule of thumb derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, and used in decision making and problem solving, despite no guarantee of accuracydespite no guarantee of accuracy– Availability heuristicAvailability heuristic

Rule stating that an event’s probability corresponds to the Rule stating that an event’s probability corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mindease with which the event comes to mind

– Example: Makes us overestimate the probability of some rare Example: Makes us overestimate the probability of some rare events, such as winning the lotteryevents, such as winning the lottery

– Representativeness heuristicRepresentativeness heuristic Decision strategy based on how closely a new situation Decision strategy based on how closely a new situation

resembles a familiar oneresembles a familiar one– Example: Helps us choose a fast-food restaurantExample: Helps us choose a fast-food restaurant

– Recognition heuristicRecognition heuristic Strategy in which the decision making process stops as soon Strategy in which the decision making process stops as soon

as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognizedrecognized

– Example: Influences voting behavior, such as recognizing a Example: Influences voting behavior, such as recognizing a candidate’s name as that of a womancandidate’s name as that of a woman



Framing Framing is the way information is presented is the way information is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential losspotential loss– Which program would you choose to combat a disease Which program would you choose to combat a disease

that is expected to kill 600 people?that is expected to kill 600 people? If program A is adopted, 200 people will be savedIf program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved If program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that all 600 If program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that all 600

will be saved and a 2/3 probability that no people will be will be saved and a 2/3 probability that no people will be saved?saved?

– Now which program would you choose?Now which program would you choose? If program C is adopted, 400 people will dieIf program C is adopted, 400 people will die If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that nobody If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that nobody

will die and a 2/3 probability that all 600 people will diewill die and a 2/3 probability that all 600 people will die– Most people choose A and DMost people choose A and D

But A and C are the same, and B and D are the sameBut A and C are the same, and B and D are the same How the information is framed influences decision makingHow the information is framed influences decision making


What are some basic What are some basic approaches to problem solving, approaches to problem solving, and how do they differ?and how do they differ? Problem solving Problem solving is the thoughts and is the thoughts and

actions required to achieve a desired actions required to achieve a desired goal goal – Analogy heuristic Analogy heuristic is comparing a is comparing a

problem to others encountered in the pastproblem to others encountered in the past Working backwardWorking backward

– Strategy of starting with the desired goal and Strategy of starting with the desired goal and working backwards to the current conditionworking backwards to the current condition

Means-end analysisMeans-end analysis– Strategy in which the current position is Strategy in which the current position is

compared with the desired goal and a series of compared with the desired goal and a series of steps are formulated and taken to close the gap steps are formulated and taken to close the gap between thembetween them


What are some basic What are some basic approaches to problem solving, approaches to problem solving, and how do they differ?and how do they differ? AlgorithmAlgorithm

– A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem of a certain typea problem of a certain type

e.g., a mathematical formulae.g., a mathematical formula Functional fixednessFunctional fixedness

– Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems because of tendency to view objects only in problems because of tendency to view objects only in terms of their customary functionsterms of their customary functions

Mental setMental set– Tendency to apply a familiar strategy to a problem Tendency to apply a familiar strategy to a problem

without considering the special requirements of that without considering the special requirements of that problemproblem

Confirmation biasConfirmation bias– Selective attention to information that confirms Selective attention to information that confirms

preexisting beliefspreexisting beliefs


What are some important What are some important applications of artificial applications of artificial intelligence technologies?intelligence technologies?

Artificial intelligenceArtificial intelligence is the is the programming of computer systems to programming of computer systems to simulate human thinking in solving simulate human thinking in solving problems and in making judgments and problems and in making judgments and decisionsdecisions– Artificial neural networksArtificial neural networks

Computer systems intended to mimic the human Computer systems intended to mimic the human brainbrain

– Expert systemsExpert systems Computer programs designed to carry out specific Computer programs designed to carry out specific

functions within a limited domainfunctions within a limited domain


LanguageLanguage

A means of communicating A means of communicating thoughts and feelings, using a thoughts and feelings, using a system of socially shared but system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols) arranged or written symbols) arranged according to rules of grammaraccording to rules of grammar


What are the necessary What are the necessary components of any language?components of any language?

PhonemesPhonemes– The smallest units of sound in a spoken The smallest units of sound in a spoken

languagelanguage MorphemesMorphemes

– The smallest units of meaning in a spoken The smallest units of meaning in a spoken languagelanguage

SyntaxSyntax– The rules for arranging and combining The rules for arranging and combining

words to form phrases and sentenceswords to form phrases and sentences


What are the necessary What are the necessary components of any language?components of any language?

SemanticsSemantics– The meaning derived from morphemes, The meaning derived from morphemes,

words, and sentenceswords, and sentences PragmaticsPragmatics

– The patterns of intonation and social roles The patterns of intonation and social roles associated with languageassociated with language


What is the evidence What is the evidence concerning the capacity of concerning the capacity of animals for understanding and animals for understanding and producing language?producing language? Chimpanzees have been taught to Chimpanzees have been taught to

communicate using sign language or symbolscommunicate using sign language or symbols– WashoeWashoe mastered about 160 sign-language signs mastered about 160 sign-language signs– SaraSara learned an artificial language that used learned an artificial language that used

plastic chips as symbolsplastic chips as symbols Skeptics’ argumentsSkeptics’ arguments

– Chimps are simply imitating their trainers to Chimps are simply imitating their trainers to receive reinforcers according to principles of receive reinforcers according to principles of operant conditioningoperant conditioning

– Also, studies of chimp language use are subject to Also, studies of chimp language use are subject to experimenter biasexperimenter bias


What is the evidence What is the evidence concerning the capacity of concerning the capacity of animals for understanding and animals for understanding and producing language?producing language? KanziKanzi, a pygmy chimpanzee, a pygmy chimpanzee

– learned to communicate with 200 symbols learned to communicate with 200 symbols in an artificial language and made over in an artificial language and made over 13,000 utterances13,000 utterances

– Can understand spoken EnglishCan understand spoken English– Studies of Kanzi control for experimenter Studies of Kanzi control for experimenter

biasbias AlexAlex, an African gray parrot, an African gray parrot

– can answer questions about colors, objects, can answer questions about colors, objects, and shapes, and can countand shapes, and can count

These animals’ language use is not just These animals’ language use is not just imitation or behavior shaped by imitation or behavior shaped by conditioningconditioning


In what ways does language In what ways does language influence thinking?influence thinking?

Linguistic relativity hypothesisLinguistic relativity hypothesis– The language a person speaks determines The language a person speaks determines

the nature of that person’s thoughtsthe nature of that person’s thoughts Benjamin Whorf’s classic example:Benjamin Whorf’s classic example:

– Language used by Eskimo people has multiple Language used by Eskimo people has multiple words for snowwords for snow

– This enables Eskimos to think differently about This enables Eskimos to think differently about snow than do other peoplesnow than do other people

But, Eleanor RoschBut, Eleanor Rosch– Found no difference in color discrimination Found no difference in color discrimination

between people whose language has many between people whose language has many names for colors and those who have few words names for colors and those who have few words for colorsfor colors


What are the advantages and What are the advantages and disadvantages of learning a disadvantages of learning a second language at various second language at various ages?ages? Advantage of learning two languages Advantage of learning two languages

early in lifeearly in life– Better Better metalinguistic skillsmetalinguistic skills

DisadvantageDisadvantage– Decreased efficiency in memory tasks Decreased efficiency in memory tasks

involving wordsinvolving words– But, most bilinguals develop But, most bilinguals develop

compensatory strategies for word memory compensatory strategies for word memory tasks tasks

They may respond more slowly, but are just as They may respond more slowly, but are just as accurate as monolingualsaccurate as monolinguals


What are the advantages and What are the advantages and disadvantages of learning a disadvantages of learning a second language at various second language at various ages?ages? People who start learning a second People who start learning a second

language at an earlier age generally language at an earlier age generally reach a higher level of proficiencyreach a higher level of proficiency– And are more likely to speak it with an And are more likely to speak it with an

appropriate accentappropriate accent But, it’s never too late to learn a But, it’s never too late to learn a

second languagesecond language– Study of immigrants to USAStudy of immigrants to USA

Ability to learn English is associated with Ability to learn English is associated with educational backgroundeducational background

College-educated adults can attain a high level College-educated adults can attain a high level of proficiencyof proficiency


English Proficiency in Chinese- English Proficiency in Chinese- and Spanish-Speaking and Spanish-Speaking Immigrants to the United Immigrants to the United StatesStates


IntelligenceIntelligence

– An individual’s ability to An individual’s ability to understand complex ideas, to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from environment, to learn from experience, to engage in experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles through to overcome obstacles through mental effortmental effort


How do the views of Spearman, How do the views of Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, and Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg differ with regard to Sternberg differ with regard to the definition of intelligence?the definition of intelligence?

Charles Spearman believed that Charles Spearman believed that intelligence is composed of a general intelligence is composed of a general ability, ability, gg, that underlies all intellectual , that underlies all intellectual functionsfunctions

He observed that people who are He observed that people who are bright in one area tend to be bright in bright in one area tend to be bright in other areas as wellother areas as well


How do the views of Spearman, How do the views of Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, and Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg differ with regard to Sternberg differ with regard to the definition of intelligence?the definition of intelligence? Louis Thurstone rejected Spearman’s notion of Louis Thurstone rejected Spearman’s notion of

gg He proposed seven He proposed seven primary mental abilitiesprimary mental abilities

– Verbal comprehensionVerbal comprehension– Numerical abilityNumerical ability– Spatial relationsSpatial relations– Perceptual speedPerceptual speed– Word fluencyWord fluency– MemoryMemory– ReasoningReasoning

He argued that a profile of strengths and He argued that a profile of strengths and weaknesses on the seven primary abilities is weaknesses on the seven primary abilities is more accurate than a single IQ scoremore accurate than a single IQ score


How do the views of Spearman, How do the views of Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, and Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg differ with regard to Sternberg differ with regard to the definition of intelligence?the definition of intelligence? Howard Gardner proposed that there are Howard Gardner proposed that there are

eight independent forms of intelligenceeight independent forms of intelligence He developed this theory from studies of He developed this theory from studies of

different types of brain damage that different types of brain damage that affect some forms of intelligence but affect some forms of intelligence but leave others intactleave others intact

He also studied He also studied savant syndromesavant syndrome– A combination of mental retardation and A combination of mental retardation and

unusual talent or abilityunusual talent or ability


Gardner’s Eight Frames of MindGardner’s Eight Frames of Mind


How do the views of Spearman, How do the views of Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, and Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg differ with regard to Sternberg differ with regard to the definition of intelligence?the definition of intelligence?

Robert Sternberg proposed that there Robert Sternberg proposed that there are three types of intelligenceare three types of intelligence– Componential intelligenceComponential intelligence

Analytical intelligence; measured by most Analytical intelligence; measured by most intelligence testsintelligence tests

– Experiential intelligenceExperiential intelligence Creative thinking and problem solvingCreative thinking and problem solving

– Contextual intelligenceContextual intelligence Practical intelligence, common sensePractical intelligence, common sense


Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of IntelligenceIntelligence


In what ways do achievement, In what ways do achievement, aptitude, and intelligence tests aptitude, and intelligence tests differ?differ?

Achievement testsAchievement tests– Measure what a person has learned up to Measure what a person has learned up to

a certain point in his or her lifea certain point in his or her life Aptitude testsAptitude tests

– Predict future performance in a particular Predict future performance in a particular setting or on a specific tasksetting or on a specific task

Intelligence testsIntelligence tests– Measure general intellectual abilityMeasure general intellectual ability


Why are reliability, validity, Why are reliability, validity, standardization, and cultural standardization, and cultural bias important in intelligence bias important in intelligence testing?testing? ReliabilityReliability

– Ability of a test to yield consistent resultsAbility of a test to yield consistent results ValidityValidity

– Ability of a test to measure what it is intended Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measureto measure

StandardizationStandardization– Establishing norms for comparing the scores Establishing norms for comparing the scores

of people who will take the test in the futureof people who will take the test in the future– Administering tests using a prescribed Administering tests using a prescribed

procedureprocedure


What did Binet, Terman, and What did Binet, Terman, and Weschler contribute to the Weschler contribute to the study of intelligence?study of intelligence? Alfred Binet and Theodore SimonAlfred Binet and Theodore Simon

– Developed the first intelligence testDeveloped the first intelligence test– Goal was to assess the intellectual Goal was to assess the intellectual

potential of individual schoolchildrenpotential of individual schoolchildren Binet-Simon Intelligence ScaleBinet-Simon Intelligence Scale

– Used a score called Used a score called mental agemental age Based on number of items a child got right Based on number of items a child got right

compared with average number right by compared with average number right by children of various ageschildren of various ages

If mental age was two years ahead of If mental age was two years ahead of chronological age, child was termed “bright”chronological age, child was termed “bright”

If mental age was two years behind If mental age was two years behind chronological age, child was termed “retarded”chronological age, child was termed “retarded”


What did Binet, Terman, and What did Binet, Terman, and Weschler contribute to the Weschler contribute to the study of intelligence?study of intelligence?

William SternWilliam Stern – Devised the Devised the intelligence quotient (IQ)intelligence quotient (IQ)

Louis TermanLouis Terman– Revised the Binet-Simon testRevised the Binet-Simon test– Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleStanford-Binet Intelligence Scale– Established norms, or age-based averages, Established norms, or age-based averages,

based on the scores of a large number of based on the scores of a large number of childrenchildren


What did Binet, Terman, and What did Binet, Terman, and Weschler contribute to the Weschler contribute to the study of intelligence?study of intelligence?

David WechslerDavid Wechsler– Developed the first individual intelligence Developed the first individual intelligence

test for individuals over age 16test for individuals over age 16 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

– Also developed a widely-used test for Also developed a widely-used test for childrenchildren

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)(WISC)

– Consists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal subtestsConsists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal subtests


How do individuals who are How do individuals who are gifted and those with mental gifted and those with mental retardation differ from others?retardation differ from others?

The frequencies of intelligence scores The frequencies of intelligence scores conform to a conform to a normal curvenormal curve– Approximately 50% of IQ scores fall Approximately 50% of IQ scores fall

between 90 and 110between 90 and 110– Approximately 68% fall between 85 and Approximately 68% fall between 85 and

115115– Approximately 95% fall between 70 and Approximately 95% fall between 70 and

130130– Approximately 2% fall above 130 and 2% Approximately 2% fall above 130 and 2%

below 70below 70


The normal curveThe normal curve


How do individuals who are How do individuals who are gifted and those with mental gifted and those with mental retardation differ from others?retardation differ from others?

Terman (1925) studied 1528 people with Terman (1925) studied 1528 people with IQs from 135 to 200IQs from 135 to 200

Compared to the general population, high Compared to the general population, high IQ individualsIQ individuals– Have better mental healthHave better mental health– Earn more academic degreesEarn more academic degrees– Achieve higher occupational status and higher Achieve higher occupational status and higher

incomeincome– Are better adjusted personally and sociallyAre better adjusted personally and socially– Are healthierAre healthier


How do individuals who are How do individuals who are gifted and those with mental gifted and those with mental retardation differ from others?retardation differ from others? Mental retardation Mental retardation is subnormal intelligence is subnormal intelligence

reflected by an IQ below 70 and by severely reflected by an IQ below 70 and by severely deficient adaptive functioningdeficient adaptive functioning

Causes includeCauses include– Brain injuriesBrain injuries– Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndromeChromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome– Chemical deficienciesChemical deficiencies– Hazards present during prenatal developmentHazards present during prenatal development

Degrees of retardationDegrees of retardation– Mild: IQ 55-70Mild: IQ 55-70– Moderate: IQ 40-54Moderate: IQ 40-54– Severe: IQ 25-39Severe: IQ 25-39– Profound: IQ < 25Profound: IQ < 25


Explaining differences Explaining differences in intelligencein intelligence There is a wide range of There is a wide range of

differences in intellectual differences in intellectual functioning in our everyday functioning in our everyday interactions with other people. interactions with other people. What accounts for these What accounts for these differences?differences?


What is the evidence What is the evidence supporting the nature and supporting the nature and nurture sides of the IQ nurture sides of the IQ controversy?controversy?

Nature-nurture debateNature-nurture debate– The debate over whether intelligence and The debate over whether intelligence and

other traits are primarily the result of other traits are primarily the result of heredity or environmentheredity or environment


What is the evidence What is the evidence supporting the nature and supporting the nature and nurture sides of the IQ nurture sides of the IQ controversy?controversy?

Twin studiesTwin studies– Identical twins Identical twins

obtain very obtain very similar scores on similar scores on IQ tests, even IQ tests, even when raised apartwhen raised apart

– This provides This provides evidence that evidence that individual individual differences in differences in intelligence are intelligence are strongly strongly influenced by influenced by genesgenes


What is the evidence What is the evidence supporting the nature and supporting the nature and nurture sides of the IQ nurture sides of the IQ controversy?controversy? Scarr and Weinberg adoption studyScarr and Weinberg adoption study

– 140 African American and interracial 140 African American and interracial children adopted into highly-educated children adopted into highly-educated White familiesWhite families

– Average IQ was 106, above the national Average IQ was 106, above the national averageaverage

– The earlier children were adopted, the The earlier children were adopted, the higher their IQs on averagehigher their IQs on average

– Results suggest that intelligence can be Results suggest that intelligence can be modified by environmentmodified by environment


What is the evidence What is the evidence supporting the nature and supporting the nature and nurture sides of the IQ nurture sides of the IQ controversy?controversy? Craig Ramey’s Craig Ramey’s

intervention studyintervention study– Infants of low-IQ, low-Infants of low-IQ, low-

income mothersincome mothers– Randomly assigned Randomly assigned

to 40-hour-per-week to 40-hour-per-week special daycare and special daycare and preschool programs preschool programs or a control groupor a control group

– Children in the Children in the program scored program scored significantly higher in significantly higher in IQ through age 12IQ through age 12


What arguments have been What arguments have been advanced to explain racial advanced to explain racial differences in IQ scores?differences in IQ scores? Historically, Blacks score about 15 points

lower than Whites on IQ tests in USA Arthur Jensen (1969) attributed the IQ gap to

genetic differences Findings by Ramey and others suggest that Findings by Ramey and others suggest that

differences result from poverty and lack of differences result from poverty and lack of educational opportunitieseducational opportunities

Minority children are more likely to be Minority children are more likely to be identified as gifted when identified as gifted when culture-fair culture-fair intelligence testsintelligence tests are used are used

Racial differences in IQ scores may also be Racial differences in IQ scores may also be explained by explained by stereotype threatstereotype threat


Example item on a Example item on a culture-fair testculture-fair test


In what ways do the cognitive In what ways do the cognitive abilities of males and females abilities of males and females differ?differ? Girls generally have larger vocabularies and Girls generally have larger vocabularies and

outperform boys in reading and writingoutperform boys in reading and writing Boys generally do better in science and mathBoys generally do better in science and math

– Some research indicates that hormonal differences Some research indicates that hormonal differences contribute to the gap in math achievementcontribute to the gap in math achievement

– But others argue that social influences are more But others argue that social influences are more importantimportant

Boys generally outperform girls in some Boys generally outperform girls in some spatial tasksspatial tasks

Overall, gender differences for cognitive Overall, gender differences for cognitive variables are smallvariables are small– And differences within each gender are greater And differences within each gender are greater

than differences between gendersthan differences between genders


Beyond intelligenceBeyond intelligence

There are many aspects of There are many aspects of cognitive functioning that are not cognitive functioning that are not captured by standardized tests of captured by standardized tests of intelligence.intelligence.


What are the components of What are the components of emotional intelligence?emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence is the ability is the ability to apply knowledge about emotions to to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday lifeeveryday life– Includes awareness of one’s emotions, Includes awareness of one’s emotions,

ability to manage emotions, self-ability to manage emotions, self-motivation, empathy, and ability to handle motivation, empathy, and ability to handle relationshipsrelationships

Peter Salovey and David PizarroPeter Salovey and David Pizarro– Argue that emotional intelligence is just as Argue that emotional intelligence is just as

important as the kind of intelligence important as the kind of intelligence measured in IQ testsmeasured in IQ tests


How does creativity differ from How does creativity differ from other forms of cognition, and other forms of cognition, and how has it been measured?how has it been measured? CreativityCreativity is the ability to produce is the ability to produce

original, appropriate, and valuable original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problemsideas and/or solutions to problems

There is a weak to moderate There is a weak to moderate correlation between creativity and IQcorrelation between creativity and IQ

J. P. Guilford suggests that creativity J. P. Guilford suggests that creativity involves involves divergent thinkingdivergent thinking– The ability to produce multiple ideas or The ability to produce multiple ideas or

solutions to a problem for which there is solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solutionno agreed-on solution


How does creativity differ from How does creativity differ from other forms of cognition, and other forms of cognition, and how has it been measured?how has it been measured?

Creative people share several Creative people share several characteristics that distinguish them characteristics that distinguish them from less creative people, includingfrom less creative people, including– Expertise in a specific area built up over Expertise in a specific area built up over

years of study and practiceyears of study and practice– Openness to new experiences and ideasOpenness to new experiences and ideas– Inherent curiosityInherent curiosity– Independent thinkingIndependent thinking

Chapter 7

Education

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