Chapter 7 – 11 Review Power Point by Emma Hernandez

History Prior to the Modern World

The Scientific View of the World“Pre-revolutionary” EraThe Scientific RevolutionPolitical Theory: the School of Natural Law

The EnlightenmentThe PhilosophesEnlightened Despotism: France and AustriaRussia…The British Reform MovementThe American Revolution

The French Revolution Old Regime The Revolution in France Impact on Europe The Terror The Directory The Consulate

The Napoleonic Empire French Imperial System The Empire The Continental System National Movements (Resistance to Napoleon) The Congress of Vienna

The Industrial Revolution in BritainThe Agricultural Revolution Industrialism develops…Consequences/Effects

Leonardo da Vinci Artist, engineer, and scientific thinker; Universal genius of the Italian

Renaissance Dissection of human bodies, drew designs for submarines and airplanes,

speculated use of parachutes Isolated Thinker

Witchcraft Panic From 1450 to 1650, the fear of witches was at its height Blamed for all kinds of natural disasters and personal tragedies (deaths of

children, bad harvests, etc.) Lasted longest in Germany and Central Europe due to insecurities of the Thirty

Years’ War; English colonies were the last to have these fears Executions did take place!

Bacon Novum Organum: Insisted on inductive method (from concrete to abstract) One should rid themselves of prejudices and preconceptions and view the

world with a fresh eye Empiricism: the founding of knowledge on observation and experience Greatest weakness: failure to comprehend the crucial role of mathematics

Descartes Mathematician; inventor of coordinate geometry Cartesian dualism: thinking vs. extended substance Principle of systematic doubt

Botany European knowledge of plants expanded with

explorations overseas; herb collections became extensive

Anatomy The Structure of the Human Body: Vesalius Put aside Galen and based his own opinion

Physiology William Harvey put forth the doctrine of the continual

circulation of the blood through arteries and veins. Malpighi: discovery of capillaries Regnier de Graaf: first description of the female ovaries

Astronomy and Physics Overshadowed Chemistry and other sciences Mathematics could be most fully applied Made it more generally possible to think about nature

The Ptolemaic System The cosmos was in a

group of concentric spheres with the innermost sphere being the earth

Geocentric Universe: All spheres revolved around the earth

Mathematical system: corresponding to actual appearances

Nicholas Copernicus Heliocentric Universe! The earth was the one

revolving Its acceptance was very

gradual

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) The greatest authority on the

actual positions and movements of the heavenly bodies

Never accepted the Copernican theory in full

However, his assistant… Johannes Kepler (1571-

1630) Built upon his observations

through Brahe’s accurate astronomical and planetary observations

Discovered that the orbits of the planets were ellipses

Showed that the length of time in which the several planets revolve about the sun varies proportionately with their distance from the sun

A cosmic mathematical relationship between space and time

Galileo (1564-1642) 1609: Built telescope Moon was not itself a

luminous object Sun was not “pure” nor

“perfect” Such observations led

him to feel reassurance of the validity of the Copernican theory

The heavenly bodies might be of the same substance as the earth

Found mathematical laws describing the movement of the bodies on the earth

Condemned by church

Gravity or the pull of the earth upon the objects on earth might be a form of a universal gravitation, or similar pull, characterizing all bodies in the solar system.

All motion that could be timed and measured, whether on earth or in the solar system, could be described by the same mathematical formulas.

It was during his time that the journey to natural knowledge became institutionalized where in 1662 the Royal Society of London was founded.

Scientific periodicals began to be published.

With the rising view of skepticism (all beliefs are relative), Europeans were not content. Looking for understanding not disbelief Wanted new means of telling the true from the false:

new sense of EVIDENCE Evidence is that which allows one to believe a thing

to be true, or at least truer than something else for which the evidence is weaker.

The English law of evidence began to take on its modern form Previously the belief had been that the more atrocious

the crime the less evidence should be necessary in arriving at the verdict of guilty

By the 17th Century, the judge lost his power of discretion in deciding what should constitute evidence

Put an end in the delusions of witchcraft The ideas of witches were no longer accepted as

evidence

Can never be considered purely scientific Science does not tell what

ought to exist Main Purpose: how society

and government ought to be like, in view of human nature and the capacity to be miserable or contented

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) Republican form of

government The Prince: Machiavelli

described how governments and rulers actually behaved

Princes kept their promises or broke them, told the truth or distorted or discolored it.

He suggested how rulers successful rulers obtained their success and how the ought to proceed.

The idea of natural law provides a basis for the development of modern democratic values. It is held that there is a law that distinguishes

right from wrong It held that right is “natural”, not a mere human

invention. Natural law cannot be determined by the

authority of any person or people. Right and law exist outside and above all

peoples; universal Natural law philosophy

Human beings are rational animals The idea of natural law and the faith in human

reason went side by side

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1670) Held a materialistic and atheistic view in philosophy Concluded that humans had no capacity for self-

government He held that people in the “state of nature”, or as

imagined to exist without government, were quarrelsome and turbulent

Leviathan: Absolutism, unlimited sovereignty of the state Produce civil peace, individual security, and a rule of law

John Locke (1632-1704) Good government is an expedient of human purpose Government was based on a kind of contract or

rational agreement Genial view of human nature People in the “state of nature” were reasonable and

well disposed, willing to get along with one another though lacking public authority

The reading public had greatly expanded; by the 1780s in France, literacy rates had risen 47 percent among men and 27 percent among women.

The intellectual middle class was larger than ever. While newspapers and magazines multiplied,

there was a great demand for dictionaries and encyclopedias. Diderot’s Encyclopedie

All writings were written under censorship in order to protect people from harmful ideas. Such censorship was loosely administered

Paris became the heart of the Enlightenment Salons became well-organized meeting places in

which lively conversation spread the reputations of aspiring philosophes. The salon of Madame de Geoffrin

Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Spirit of the Laws:

Forms of government varied according to climate and circumstances

Separation and balance of powers Admired the English constitution

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Civilization was the source of much evil and that

life in a “state of nature” Religious by temperament No admiration for parliamentary institutions

Voltaire (1694-1778) Admirer of England: religious liberty and its

relative freedom of the press First to present history in a purely secular manner Enlightened governments

-a form of absolute monarchy in which rulers were influenced by the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis

upon rationality, and applied them to their territories.

Louis XV Least success All the practical difficulties of the French government could be

traced to its method of raising revenue Louis XIV tried to tax everyone; the taxes were evaded. By the Seven Years’ War, the government tried to increase it,

without success. Same happened during Louis XVI’s reign

Maria Theresa (1740-1780) and Joseph II (1780-1790) Due to war, she lost a lot of support and land. Her subjects did not show much inclination to remain together

under her rule. Attacked institutions of serfdom Joseph II: modernize his instruments of government in an effort

to increase the crown’s authority over the diverse Hapsburg domains and to establish royal power over the church and nobility

Eliminated many internal tariffs; encouraged road building; opposed serfdom

Peter IDetermined to westernize and modernize

RussiaPromoted economic developmentStrengthened Russia’s Armed ForcesReorganized the central administrationExtended state control over the Russian

Orthodox Church Catherine the Great

Little reform in RussiaReduced internal barriers to tradeGave support to Nobles; led to serf revolt

(Pugachev’s Rebellion)

While the Seven Years’ War resulted in a considerable expansion of the British Empire, Great Britain would soon receive opposition from an important part of that empire (the 13 colonies).

The war left Great Britain with a considerable amount of debt for which they had to bear with the continuing costs of protecting the frontier in America.

The colonists objected to new taxes. The revolution began in April 1775, ending

with British surrender in 1781 (Battle of Yorktown) for which the Treaty of Paris was later signed (1783).

When Louis XIV died in 1715, he left France with a heavy burden of debt due to his wars of aggression.

The French monarchy was approaching bankruptcy, both in its finances and in its ability to provide the nation with effective leadership.

Louis XIV’s successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, both proved incapable of dealing with the government’s financial and administrative problems.

The outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 proved to be the immediate effect of such leadership.

The National Assembly ruled for the next two years. Dominated by the reform-minded middle class Established a constitutional monarchy and

reduced the power and privileges of the nobility and the Roman Catholic Church

Under the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) and the National Convention (1792-1795), the revolution entered a more radical phase. The monarchy was abolished The king was executed The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

The Thermidorean Reaction of 1794 established a new government, the Directory, which failed to cope effectively with France’s political and economic problems.

The failure of the Directory resulted in the establishment of Napoleon Bonaparte’s military dictatorship in 1799.

From 1799-1815, the Napoleonic Empire reigned in France and throughout Europe.

In 1799, Bonaparte took power and established the Consulate.

In 1804, he took the title of emperor of the French. Deprived the French people of political liberty Provided an orderly and efficient system of government Confirmed a number of enduring legal and educational reforms

Between 1805 to 1807, Bonaparte achieved his greatest military successes, defeating Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

His power declined… The failed invasion of Russia in 1812 marked his decline

In 1815, Bonaparte returned to power for the “Hundred Days”. Later defeated at Waterloo in June of the same year Exiled to the remote island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic

where he died in 1821

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the agricultural revolution quickened.

The development of scientific agriculture, the introduction of new crops, the enclosure of agricultural lands, and increasing mechanization expanded agricultural production. Ended famine

Due to large production and mechanization, fewer farm workers were needed to produce food for the growing population, and surplus agricultural labor migrated to the new industrial towns to find employment in factories.

Began in Great Britain in the late 18th Century The invention of power-driven machinery The introduction of the factory system Advances in the production in coal, iron and

eventually steel Also, the expansion of banking and credit

facilities and the broader application of the principle of limited liability to business organization stimulated the revolution.

The Industrial Revolution spread gradually beyond Great Britain to the rest of Europe and North America. Brought greater material changes to the lives of

people Industrialization brought great improvements in

the material standard of living however miserable conditions prevailed in the factories and slums. Poverty was brought into a sharp focus