Chapter 6 States of Consciousness

Chapter 6States of Consciousness

Some Early Definitions

• Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant

– Waking consciousness: Normal, clear alert awareness

• Altered state of consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity; different from waking consciousness

Video: Stages of Sleep, Part 1

Sleep

• Innate, biological rhythm• Sleep deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleep• Hypersomnia: Excessive daytime sleepiness• Microsleep: Brief shift in brain activity to pattern normally recorded during sleep

More on Sleep

• Sleep-deprivation psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss

• Sleep patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking

Fig. 6-1, p. 183

Measuring Sleep Changes

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain

• Beta waves: Small, fast waves associated with alertness and wakefulness

• Alpha waves: Large, slow waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep

Fig. 6-5a, p. 186

Fig. 6-5b, p. 186

Stages of Sleep

Stage 1

• Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep)– Hypnic jerk: Reflex muscle twitch

Video: Stages of Sleep, Part 2

Stage 2

• Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (short bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear

Video: Stages of Sleep, Part 3

Stage 3

• Deeper sleep; delta waves appear; very large and slow

Video: Stages of Sleep, Part 4

Stage 4

• Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely delta waves

Video: Stages of Sleep, Part 5

Fig. 6-2, p. 185

Fig. 6-4, p. 185

Video: Stages of Sleep, Part 6

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

• Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light• Return to Stage 1 sleep EEG patterns• Body is very still during REM sleep

Non-REM (NREM) Sleep

• Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs

• 90 percent of non-REM sleep is dream-free• Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue

Fig. 6-6, p. 187

Sleep Disturbances

• Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, or waking too early

– Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency

• Drug-dependency insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills

• Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is called REM behavioral disorder

Temporary Insomnia

• Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement– Avoid fighting it and read a book, for

example, until you’re struggling to stay awake

Chronic Insomnia

• Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks– Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the

same time each night, for example

Stimulus Control

• Linking a particular response with specific stimuli

Tryptophan

• Amino acid (chemical) that increases serotonin levels and therefore leads to sleepiness

Sleep Disturbances

• Sleepwalking (somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4

• Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep

Some Other Sleep Disturbances

• Nightmares: Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep – May occur once or twice a month; brief and

easily (unfortunately) remembered• Imagery rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the

changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares

Night Terrors

• Night terrors: Total panic occurs; hallucinations may occur during Stage 4 NREM sleep – Most common in childhood; may occur in

adults– Not remembered

Sleep Apnea

• Repeated interruption during sleep• Produces loud snoring with short silences

and gasps for breath• Apnea can be treated by

– Surgery– Weight loss– Breathing mask

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS; Crib Death)

• Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant (infants should sleep on back to try to prevent it)– May be related to sleep apnea– May have weak arousal reflex– May be related to secondhand smoke– Remember “back to sleep”

Narcolepsy

• Sudden, irresistible sleep attacks– May suffer from catalepsy: Sudden, temporary

muscle paralysis leading to complete body collapse

– Fall directly into REM sleep

Fig. 6-7, p. 191

REM Rebound

• Occurrence of extra REM sleep following REM sleep deprivation

Dreams

• Psychodynamic (Freudian) theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

• Wish fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires– Much evidence to refute this

• Dream symbols: Images in dreams that have a deeper symbolic meaning

Dream Content (Freud)

• Manifest: Obvious, visible meaning of dream• Latent: Hidden symbolic meaning of dream

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

• Random activity in lower brain centers results in the manufacture of relatively bizarre dreams by higher brain centers

Neurocognitive Dream Theory

• Dreams reflect everyday working thoughts and emotions

Hypnosis

• Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion

– Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)

– Mesmer was, in effect, a fraud and a quack

– Must cooperate to become hypnotized

Hypnotic Susceptibility

• How easily a person can be hypnotized• Basic suggestion effect: Tendency of

hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary

• Hidden observer: Detached part of hypnotized person’s awareness that silently observes events

Fig. 6-8, p. 196

Hypnosis Can…

• Help people relax• Reduce pain• Get people to make better progress in

therapy

Hypnosis cannot…

• Produce acts of superhuman strength• Produce age regression• Force you to do things against your will

Stage Hypnosis

• Simulation of hypnotic effects

“Tricks of the Trade”

• Waking suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction

• Selection of responsive subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the group on stage and does not follow instructions is “thrown off”

More “Tricks of the Trade”

• Hypnotists as director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it. The hypnotists only need to direct them

• The hypnosis label disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!

More “Tricks of the Trade”

• Stage hypnotists use tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation

• Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize

Fig. 6-9a, p. 197

Fig. 6-9b, p. 197

Meditation

• Mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness– Concentrative meditation: You attend to a

single focal point, object, or thought– Mindfulness meditation: Based on widening

attention to become aware of everything experienced at any given moment

Sensory Deprivation (SD)

• Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation

• Benefits– Sensory enhancement– Relaxation– Changing habits

• Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy

Fig. 6-10, p. 198

Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness

• Psychoactive drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception

• Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system

• Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system

Fig. 6-11, p. 200

Physical Dependence

• Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms– Drug tolerance: Reduction in body’s

response to a drug– Withdrawal symptoms: Physical illness and

discomfort following withdrawal of a drug

Psychological Dependence

• Drug dependence based primarily on psychological or emotional needs– Drug is necessary to maintain comfort and

well-being– Crave drug and its rewarding qualities

Stimulants

• Amphetamines: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system– Dexedrine and methamphetamine are two

types of stimulants• Amphetamine psychosis: Loss of contact with

reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions

Video: Psychoactive Drugs: Interaction of Dopamine and Amphetamines

Cocaine

• Central nervous system stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant– From 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed

have cocaine in it!– Highly addictive drug– Anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure):

Common after cocaine withdrawal

Video: Psychoactive Drugs: Interaction of Dopamine and Cocaine

p. 204

MDMA (Ecstasy)

• Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in the drug’s structure– May cause severe liver damage and fatal

heat exhaustion– Repeated use damages serotonergic brain

cells

Caffeine

• Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea

• Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus; suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness

Caffeinism

• Physiological dependence on caffeine• Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of

appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature

• May be hazardous to pregnant women if used excessively; may cause birth defects

Nicotine

• Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco• In large doses may cause stomach pain,

vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors• Addictive• Smoking is one cause of lung cancer• Sum: Don’t smoke; smoking kills (so does

chewing tobacco)

Barbiturates

• Sedative drugs that depress brain activity– Seconal and Nembutal are two types

GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate)

• Central nervous system (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner– Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss

of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness

– Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit

Tranquilizers

• Lower anxiety and reduce tension– Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are

four types– Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers

inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication. Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep• Date rape drug, because it’s odorless

and tasteless (“roofies”)

Drug Interaction

• Combined effect of two drugs that exceeds addition of one drug’s effects to the other

Alcohol

• Ethyl alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors– NOT a stimulant but does lower inhibitions– Depressant

• Alcohol myopia: Shortsighted thinking and perception that occurs during alcohol intoxication

Binge Drinking

• Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women– Serious sign of alcohol abuse– May lead up to 10 percent loss of brain

power, especially memory

p. 209

Fig. 6-13, p. 208

Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

• Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; often necessary before long-term treatment begins

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)

• Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover– Spiritual component– Free; around for over 70 years!

An AA Alternative

• Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternative

Some Hallucinogens

• A substance that alters or distorts sensory impressions

• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and other psychotic-like symptoms

• Mescaline (peyote) and psilocybin (magic mushrooms) are two other types of hallucinogens

PCP (Angel Dust)

• Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects

Marijuana (Pot)

• Cannabis sativa (marijuana; pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant– Active Chemical: THC– Effects: Relaxation, time distortion,

perceptual distortions– Psychologically and physiologically

addictive

Video: Psychoactive Drugs: Interaction of Anandamide and Marijuana

Fig. 6-14, p. 210

Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana

• May increase risk of prostate and cervical cancer

• May suppress immune system, perhaps increasing risk of disease

• THC may cause a higher rate of miscarriages• Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than

normal in pot users• Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory

centers

Dream Interpretation

• Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true purposes of dreams

Condensation

• Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image

Displacement

• Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images

Symbolization

• Nonliteral expression of dream content

Secondary Elaboration

• Making a dream more logical and complete while remembering it

p. 213

Dream Interpretation: A Different View

• Perls: Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing, or feelings that we need to re-own

Lucid Dreaming

• Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action