Chapter 6 Learning © 2014 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga Psychology in Your Life FIRST EDITION
Jan 16, 2016
Chapter 6Learning
© 2014 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga
Psychology in Your Life
Psychology in Your Life
FIRST EDITION
Section 6.1
How Do the Parts of Our Brains Function?
6.1 What Are the Three Ways We Learn?
• Learning: A change in behavior, resulting from experience– Central to almost all areas of human
existence
We Learn From Experience
• Behaviorism: a formal learning theory from the early twentieth century– John Watson: focused on environment and
associated effects as key determinants of learning
– B. F. Skinner: designed animal experiments to discover basic rules of learning
We Learn From Experience
• Critical for survival
• Adapt behaviors for a particular environment– Which sounds indicate potential danger?– What foods are dangerous?– When is it safe to sleep?
We Learn in Three Ways
1. Non-associative learning
2. Associative learning
3. By watching others
We Learn in Three Ways
• Non-associative learning– Information about one external stimulus (e.g.,
a sight, smell, sound)– Habituation: A decrease in behavioral
response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus
– Especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding
• See Figure 6.2a next slide
We Learn in Three Ways
• Non-associative learning: information about one external stimulus (e.g., a sight, smell, sound)
We Learn in Three Ways
We Learn in Three Ways
• Non-associative learning– Sensitization: An increase in behavioral
response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus
– Heightened preparation in a situation with potential harm or reward
• See Figure 6.2b next slide
We Learn in Three Ways
We Learn in Three Ways
• Associative learning– Understanding how two or more pieces of
information are related
We Learn in Three Ways
• Associative learning
• Classical conditioning: learn that two stimuli go together– Example: music from scary movies elicits
anxiousness when heard
• Operant conditioning: learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome– Example: studying leads to better grades
We Learn in Three Ways
• Learning by watching others– Observational learning – Modeling– Vicarious conditioning
The Brain Changes During Learning
• Long-term potentiation (LTP)– The strengthening of synaptic connections
between neurons– Recall that “cells that fire together, wire
together”– Exposure to environmental events causes
changes in the brain to allow learning
Section 6.2
How Do We Learn by Classical Conditioning?
6.2 How Do We Learn by Classical Conditioning?
• Familiar example: association between scary music in movies and bad things happening to characters
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Pavlov: Nobel Prize in 1904 for research
on the digestive system
• Observed dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw bowls of food– Salivating at the sight of a bowl is not
automatic– Behavior acquired through learning by
association
• See Figure 6.3b next slide
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn Stimuli Are Related
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related
• Classical conditioning– A type of learned response in which a neutral
object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the
Four Steps in Classical Conditioning :1. Present unconditioned stimulus: evokes
unlearned response
2. Present neutral stimulus: no response
3. Pair stimuli from Steps 1 and 2: learned response (conditioning trials)
4. Neutral stimulus alone will trigger learned response (critical trials)
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the
Four Steps in Classical Conditioning– Step 1: presenting food causes salivary reflex– Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus
that elicits a response that is innate and does not require any prior learning (Food)
– Unconditioned response (UR): A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex (Salivation)
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Step 2: clicking metronome is neutral
stimulus– Neutral stimulus: anything seen or heard;
must not associate with the unconditioned response
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Step 3 (conditioning trials): start of
learning– Dog begins to associate US (food) and
neutral stimulus (metronome)
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Step 4 (critical trials): Association learned
– Metronome alone, without food, makes dog salivate
• See Figure 6.3 next slide
Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A stimulus
that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
• Conditioned response (CR): A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
• See Scientific Thinking: Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal Learning by Classical Conditioning next slide
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Animals adapt via conditioning– Learning to predict outcomes leads to new
adaptive behaviors
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition– Acquisition: The gradual formation of an
association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
– Strongest conditioning occurs when CS is presented slightly before US
• See Figure 6.5a next slide
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Extinction – Extinction: A process in which the
conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus
• See Figure 6.5b next slide
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Spontaneous recovery– Spontaneous recovery: A process in which a
previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again
– Can occur after only one pairing following extinction
– Response will weaken if CS-US pairings do not continue
• See Figures 6.5c, 6.5d next slide
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Generalization, discrimination, and second-order conditioning– Stimulus generalization: Learning that
occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
– Animals respond to variations in CS
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Generalization, discrimination, and second-order conditioning– Stimulus discrimination: A differentiation
between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
• See Figure 6.6 next slide
Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning– Second-order conditioning: second CS
becomes associated with first CS; elicits CR when presented alone
– Neither US nor original CS present– Example: pairing black square (second CS)
with metronome (first CS) so black square produces salivation (CR) on its own
We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• Phobia– Acquired fear that is very strong in
comparison to threat
We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• The Case of Little Albert
• Classical conditioning demonstrated in phobias:– Watson showed “Little Albert” various neutral
objects (e.g., white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, white wool)
– Paired rat (CS) and loud clanging (US) until rat alone produced fear (CR)
– Fear generalized to all similar stimuli
• See Figure 6.7 next slide
The Case of Little Albert
We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• Counterconditioning– Counterconditioning: exposing subject to
phobia during an enjoyable task– Systematic desensitization: exposure to
feared stimulus while relaxing
– CS -> CR1 (fear) connection replaced with CS -> CR2 (relaxation) connection
Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s belief: Any two events presented together would produce learned association
• By 1960s, data suggested that some conditioned stimuli more likely to produce learning
Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Evolutionary Influences– Certain pairings more likely to be associated– Conditioned taste aversions: easy to produce
with smell or taste cues– Auditory and visual stimuli: value for signaling
danger
• See figure 6.8 next slide
Adaptation and Cognition InfluenceClassical Conditioning
Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Cognitive Influences– Through classical conditioning, animals
predict events– Easier when CS before US rather than after
US– Easier when CS is more unexpected or
surprising
• See figure 6.9 next slide
Section 6.3
How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning?
6.3 How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning?
• Operant conditioning– A learning process in which the
consequences of an action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future
Animals Learn through the Outcomes
of Their Actions• Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the
Effects of Action– Thorndike’s puzzle box: challenged food-
deprived animals to find escape– Trap door would open if animal performed
specific action– Animal quickly learned to repeat behavior to
free itself and reach the food
• See Figure 6.10 next slide
Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action
Animals Learn through the Outcomes
of Their Actions• Thorndike’s general theory of learning
– Law of effect: any behavior leading to a “satisfying state of affairs” likely to be repeated
– Any behavior leading to an “annoying state of affairs” less likely to reoccur
Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner’s learning theory based on the law of effect– Animals operate on environments to produce
effects– Reinforcer: stimulus occurs after response and
increases likelihood of response reoccurring– Consequences determine likelihood of
behavior in future
• See figure 6.11 next slide
Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• Shaping– Shaping: operant-conditioning technique;
reinforce behaviors increasingly similar to desired behavior
• See Figure 6.12 next slide
Shaping
Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcers can be conditioned– Reinforcers that are necessary for survival,
such as food or water, are called primary reinforcers
– Events or objects that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs are called secondary reinforcers
Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcer potency – Premack principle: more valued activity can
reinforce performance of less valued activity– Example: “Eat your spinach and then you’ll
get dessert”
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement and punishment have opposite effects on behavior– Reinforcement: behavior more likely to be
repeated– Punishment: behavior less likely to occur
again
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and negative reinforcement– Both positive and negative reinforcement
increase likelihood of a given behavior
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and negative reinforcement– Positive reinforcement: The addition of a
stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated
– Example: feeding a rat after it has pressed a lever
– Negative reinforcement: The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated
– Example: taking a pill to get rid of a headache
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and negative punishment– Both positive and negative punishment
reduce likelihood that behavior will be repeated
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and Negative Reinforcement– Positive punishment: The addition of a
stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur
– Example: electrical shock, speeding ticket– Negative punishment: The removal of a
stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur
– Example: loss of food, loss of privileges
• See figure 6.14 next slide
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Continuous reinforcement: behavior
reinforced each time it occurs– Fast learning, uncommon in real world– Partial reinforcement: behavior is occasionally
reinforced – More common in real world
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– How reinforcement given by how
consistently given = four common schedules
1. Fixed schedule: predictable basis
2. Variable schedule: unpredictable basis
3. Interval schedule: based on passage of time
4. Ratio schedule: based on number of responses
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Fixed interval schedule (FI): Reinforcing the
occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reward
– Example: paycheck
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Variable interval schedule (VI): Reinforcing
the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reward
– Example: pop quiz– More consistent response rates than fixed
interval
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Fixed ratio schedule (FR): Reinforcing a
particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined number of times
– Example: paid by the completed task– Often yields better response rates than fixed
interval
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Variable ratio schedule (VR): Reinforcing a
particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times
– Example: slot machine
• See Figure 6.15 next slide
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Partial-reinforcement extinction effect:
behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement
• To condition behavior to persist:– Use continuous reinforcement initially– Slowly change to partial reinforcement
Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
• To be effective, punishment must be– Reasonable– Unpleasant– Applied immediately– Clearly connected to the unwanted behavior
Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
• Punishment can cause confusion– Wrongly applied after desirable behavior– Leads to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety)– Fails to offset reinforcing aspects of the
undesired behavior
• Reinforcement teaches desirable behavior
• See Figure 6.16 next slide
Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Behavior modification– Behavior modification: operant conditioning
replaces unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors
– Token economies: opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and lose tokens for behaving badly
– Tokens later traded for objects or privileges– Gives participants sense of control
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Behaviorists believed conditioning principles explained all behavior. In reality, reinforcement explains only a certain amount of human behavior
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Dopamine activity affects reinforcement– Dopamine has a biological influence on
reinforcing value– Drugs that block dopamine’s effects disrupt
operant conditioning– Drugs that enhance dopamine activation
increase reinforcing value of stimuli
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Biology constrains reinforcement– Some animal behaviors hardwired– Difficult to learn behaviors counter to
evolutionary adaptation– Conditioning most effective when matched to
animal’s biological predispositions
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement– Tolman argued that reinforcement impacts
performance more than knowledge acquisition– Ran rats through complex mazes to obtain
food– Cognitive map: A visuospatial mental
representation of an environment
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement
• In Tolman’s study three groups of rats traveled maze
– Group 1: No reinforcement
– Group 2: Reinforcement every trial
– Group 3: Reinforcement only after first 10 trials
• See Figure 6.19 next slide
Learning Without Reinforcement
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement– Latent learning: Learning that takes place in
the absence of reinforcement– Group 1: Slow, many wrong turns– Group 2: Faster, fewer errors each trial– Group 3: Before reinforcement, similar to
Group 1. After reinforcement, better than Group 2
Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement– Insight learning: A sudden understanding of
how to solve a problem after a period of either inaction or thinking about the problem
Section 6.4
How Do We Learn by Watching Others?
6.4 How Do We Learn by Watching Others?
• Behaviors we learn by watching others– Mechanical skills, social etiquette, situational
anxiety, attitudes about politics and religion
• Three ways we learn by watching1. Observational learning
2. Modeling
3. Vicarious conditioning
Three Ways We Learn through Watching
1. Observational learning: The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior– Examples: foods safe to eat, objects and
situations to fear– Powerful adaptive tool
• See Figure 6.20 next slide
Three Ways We Learn through Watching
Three Ways We Learn through Watching
• Bandura’s research reveals learning through observation– Observation of aggression: Bandura’s Bobo
doll study– Group 1: watched film of adult playing quietly
with Bobo, an inflatable doll– Group 2: watched film of adult attacking Bobo– Viewers of aggression were more than twice
as likely to play aggressively
Three Ways We Learn through Watching
• Learning through modeling
• Modeling: The imitation of behavior through observational learning– More likely to imitate actions of attractive,
high-status models similar to ourselves
• See Figure 6.22 next slide
Learning Through Modeling
Three Ways We Learn through Watching
• Learning through vicarious conditioning
• 3. Vicarious conditioning: Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action– Rewarded behavior more imitated– Punished behavior less imitated
• See Figure 6.23 next slide
Learning Through Vicarious Conditioning
Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission
• Meme: shared piece of cultural knowledge– Similar to genes, selectively passed across
generations, can spread much faster– Animals also show this kind of knowledge
sharing
• See Figure 6.24 next slide
Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission
Biology Influences Observational Learning
• Mirror neurons– Fire in your brain and other person’s brain
every time you watch them engaging in an action
– Does not always lead to imitation– Scientists are still debating mirror neurons’
function