Chapter 6

©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Col©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Cole Publishinge Publishing

Becoming an Effective Becoming an Effective Policy AdvocatePolicy Advocate

Bruce Jansson, University of Southern CaliforniaBruce Jansson, University of Southern California

PowerPoint created byPowerPoint created by

Gretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD CandidateGretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD Candidate

University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California

School of Social WorkSchool of Social Work


Chapter 6Chapter 6Committing to an Issue: Committing to an Issue:

Building AgendasBuilding Agendas


Committing to an Issue: Committing to an Issue: Building AgendasBuilding Agendas

Policy advocates’ first challenge is to get a specific policy issue on decision makers’ agendas in agency, community, or legislative settings

They have to use a combination of political, interactional, and analytic skills to place their issues on decision makers’ agendas


Committing to an Issue: Committing to an Issue: Building AgendasBuilding Agendas

This Chapter discusses:This Chapter discusses:– The importance of agenda-building processes to The importance of agenda-building processes to

policy practicepolicy practice– The three stages of agenda building: diagnosing, The three stages of agenda building: diagnosing,

softening, and activatingsoftening, and activating– How social problems and solutions reach agendasHow social problems and solutions reach agendas– How political processes shape agendasHow political processes shape agendas– How windows of opportunity and policy entrepreneurs How windows of opportunity and policy entrepreneurs

shape agendasshape agendas– How direct-service staff can build agendasHow direct-service staff can build agendas– The challenges policy advocates face in shaping The challenges policy advocates face in shaping

agendasagendas


How do we know when an issue is on the agenda?

In legislative settings:In legislative settings:– When legislation has been introduced into the

legislative process and referred to a committee, and has attracted the serious attention of some legislators

In agency settings:In agency settings:– When it has become part of the agency’s

deliberations (i.e. a task force or committee to study it has been formed)

In community settings:In community settings:– When community leaders and decision makers have

decided to take it seriously enough to convene meetings to consider solutions


A few words of caution…A few words of caution…

Placing issues or proposals on agendas does not necessarily have a positive outcome– Many issues never reach the agenda because

opposing groups successfully use tactics to keep them off the agenda

Placement on the agenda does not tell us precisely what kind of proposal or solution will finally emerge– Proposals are finalized in the give-and-take of

deliberations


Taking the First StepTaking the First Step

Your immediate challenge is to convince others, Your immediate challenge is to convince others, preferably decision makers, that the problem preferably decision makers, that the problem merits their serious attentionmerits their serious attention

You must place the issue on the agenda so that You must place the issue on the agenda so that someone will examine the issue in more detail or someone will examine the issue in more detail or delegate it to others for further explorationdelegate it to others for further exploration

You must try to create favorable conditions, You must try to create favorable conditions, interest, and support for a policy reform at the interest, and support for a policy reform at the outsetoutset


Why Agenda Building is NeededWhy Agenda Building is Needed

LegislaturesLegislatures– They must limit the number of issues they consider and

must rank them in some order– If they were to debate the thousands of pieces of

legislation introduced each session, they would work to exhaustion and not give careful attention to any of them

– Legislators thus reserve their scarce time for those pieces of legislation they most want to concentrate on

– They avoid issues that appear to give them little or no political advantage in reelection

– However, they are sometimes attracted to issues associated with conflict, if such issues can gain them support among their constituents



AgenciesAgencies– Agency executives have many tasks that occupy their

time, including policy issues– They must ignore or defer many issues, else they

would become exhausted and frustrated – They ignore or defer certain issues because they

would embroil the agency in conflict– Policy advocates must convince them that a specific

policy innovation will help an agency increase its resources and attract more support, rather than diminishing it or having no effect on an agency’s ability to survive



CommunitiesCommunities– Agenda building occurs in community settings as

various issues vie for attention– Advocates may introduce ideas to community groups,

the media, city or town councils, school boards, or other community influentials

– They may draw attention to a policy proposal by getting a story in the mass media, holding a community forum, or staging a protest

– The ultimate goal is to persuade community decision makers to prioritize the issue in their deliberations


The Agenda-Building Funnel

Policy advocacy must understand the agenda building funnel:– There are many potential issues that exist in

any setting– A specific issue is placed on the decision

agenda when someone or some group prioritizes it for systematic deliberation

– It then enters policy deliberations where it is waylaid, defeated, or enacted


Challenges in Agenda Building

Challenge 1: Challenge 1: Diagnose Diagnose the contextthe context– Policy advocates must diagnose the context to

identify contextual constraints and opportunities– If they decide that specific policies will be extremely

difficult to change, they must work to change the context or to focus on alternative policy changes

– If they decide that the contextual opportunities far outnumber constraints, they can initiate a policy changing strategy at once

– In some cases, the prognosis will be guarded or unclear



Challenges 2: Challenges 2: Soften Soften the contextthe context– Policy advocates must make the context more

amenable to a specific policy initiative– They might have conversations with

strategically placed persons, or work with a coalition or advocacy group to pressure decision makers to take interest in a specific issue



Challenge 3: Challenge 3: ActivateActivate change change– Policy advocates must get a decision maker

or legislator to put an issue on the agenda of the other decision makers in the agency, community, or legislative setting



Agenda building is usually a precursor to other policy practice tasks

Even if a proposal is developed first, advocates must return to agenda building to get the issue on decision makers’ agendas

Otherwise they find their issue stymied for lack of interest by them



Prior to the writings of John Kingdon, many people ignored the agenda-building taskThey conveyed that policy reforms magically appear with no prior work by policy practitionersRationalists assumed that decision makers placed issues on agendas only when they received technical reports or data that recommended a specific changeIncrementalists assumed that administrators and legislators only introduced modest changes in existing policies in response to complaints or pressures



Yet others promoted the garbage can theory of agenda building– Particularly in agency settings, most policy

problems and solutions remain in a state of limbo—a figurative garbage can—until they are placed on the agendas of decision makers at a later point in time

– Myriad problems and solutions also exist in the “garbage cans” of legislatures



Agenda building is a precursor to actual deliberationsIt gets specific issues or policies on the table to be followed by actual deliberations where they are processed by committees and legislaturesWhat is actually enacted or approved is only a small fraction of the issues and policies that are proposed


The Diagnosing StageThe Diagnosing Stage

When diagnosing the context, policy advocates must analyze: – streams of problems and solutions– recent professional decisions and trends– political realities



Streams of problems and solutionsStreams of problems and solutions– Policy advocates must consider the kinds of problems

and solutions that have already been considered in a setting

– By doing so, they discover where their issue fits into this larger picture, and a better sense of their issue’s prognosis

– They can examine developments in an agency or community during recent years to see that a problem stream exists

– A stream of solutions also exists in agency, community, and legislative settings



Solutions can be classified into 3 groups:Solutions can be classified into 3 groups:1. Specific programs

– Ex: Interventions to help children, single mothers, or older people

2. Those that aim to correct institutional problems– Ex: Financing a program, changing an agency’s fee

structure, or enhancing collaboration to serve a specific client group

3. Methods of making decisionsEx: Setting up a task force, establishing a committee, or organizing an interagency planning committee



Recent Professional Developments and TrendsRecent Professional Developments and Trends – Fads and trends can powerfully shape the prognosis

of a policy reformEx: A push in the 1990s for collaboration, recent promotion of evidence-based practices

– They can be discerned by examining professional journals, talking with professionals, and analyzing the kinds of innovations that funders prioritize

– Problem and solution streams exist in a cultural context whether in nations or in specific settings

– It is important to be familiar with the culture of specific settings to better understand the kinds of innovations that are relatively feasible in them



Political RealitiesPolitical Realities– Political developments powerfully influence whether

specific issues will be placed on policy agendas– Policy advocates need to consider the viewpoint of

important officials by finding out what position they have taken on similar issues or reforms in the past

– They also need to consider court rulings that are germane to their issue



Political realitiesPolitical realities– In agency settings, they must consider many factors

that shape the prognosis of a specific reform, such as: Whether it is consonant with the mission statementThe state of the budgetFunder interestThe position of accrediting bodies

– In communities they must consider the viewpoints ofCommunity leadersThe public Mass media



Factors that suggest when a specific policy innovation will be difficult to achieve:– The sheer magnitude of the proposed policy change – Whether the issue is already politicized – Whether persons with considerable power believe

that specific policy change will harm their economic, professional, or political self-interest

– Whether a specific reform will be expensive or difficult to implement


The Softening StageThe Softening Stage

Policy advocates can attempt to enhance the prognosis of a policy reform even before it enters policy deliberations by: – working in problem and solution streams– building political support



Working in problem and solution streams– Those who want decision makers to take their

problem seriously have to convince them that it is a problem and not merely a condition

– A problem poses a threat or danger to someone, whether a group in the population, an agency, or politicians

– Problems are more likely to be viewed as important because it is believed that someone will suffer dire consequences if it is not addressed



How do we convince other people that How do we convince other people that certain conditions are problems?certain conditions are problems?

1. Data– to argue that a condition is serious in its absolute

numbers, that some subset of the population is afflicted far more than other portions of the population, or that the problem is becoming steadily worse

– to demonstrate that a specific social problem has important implications that extend beyond a specific issue or population



How do we convince other people that certain How do we convince other people that certain conditions are problems?conditions are problems?

2. Language / Terminology– use words such as crisis to describe a condition– refer to a social program as “investing” in human

needs rather than merely “spending” resources

3. Potential for successdemonstrate that a problem is not hopeless and can be amelioratedfind successful pilot projects that demonstrate that specific reforms will yield positive outcomes




4. Appeal to Values– such as the ethical principles of beneficence, social

justice, and fairness – illustrate with specific case studies of persons who

suffer from problems

5. State problems in relatively broad terms– present problems in general terms– frame them as important to significant segments of

legislators’ constituencies




6. Cost-efficiency– try to show that a policy will avert subsequent costly problems

7. Preventioncan be a double-edged sword most people prefer preventing a problem to fixing it afterwardbut decision makers often view prevention negativelythey often want to prioritize services for those already afflicted with a problem rather than to fund preventionadvocates need to find evidence that they can successfully avert problems when proposing a policy



Advocates need to anticipate likely Advocates need to anticipate likely objections or opposition to a specific policy objections or opposition to a specific policy so they can diminish or rebut themso they can diminish or rebut themAs they successfully counter objections, As they successfully counter objections, they soften the context, making it easier they soften the context, making it easier not only to get an issue placed on the not only to get an issue placed on the agenda but to get a reform enactedagenda but to get a reform enactedThe media can serve as an important The media can serve as an important educational tooleducational tool



Only certain solutions make it to agency or Only certain solutions make it to agency or legislative agendaslegislative agendasDecision makers will examine the fiscal, Decision makers will examine the fiscal, administrative, and political feasibility of those administrative, and political feasibility of those solutionssolutionsThey will also judge a solution’s likely They will also judge a solution’s likely effectiveness and technical meritseffectiveness and technical meritsPolicy advocates must try to place a solution in a Policy advocates must try to place a solution in a favorable light if they want it to get onto decision favorable light if they want it to get onto decision makers’ agendasmakers’ agendas



Political RealitiesPolitical Realities– Soften the context by diminishing opposition

talk with persons in strategic positions to educate them about the need for a specific reformdirectly address their concerns or objectionscorrect erroneous information

– Construct a “big tent” with many perspectives, even divergent ones

be open to input from a variety of peoplehave good listening skills to understand various POVsbe willing to compromise


The Activating StageThe Activating Stage

The use of tactics (such as timing, coupling, negotiating, assembling early sponsors and supporters, and routing) to pull an issue into the decision funnel

Is usually done by a policy entrepreneur– a decision maker, legislator, chairperson,

executive, or other person who has the power to pull an issue onto an agenda so that it will receive serious consideration



Timing and Windows of Opportunity – Relatively brief moments when “the time is

ripe” for specific initiatives– Key events can sensitize legislators to a

specific issueEx: Sept. 11th, Hurricane Katrina, the results of an investigation, the shift in majority control from one party to another, annual budget preparations, a new head of government or new Executive Director

– Windows of opportunity often close rapidly



Timing and Windows of OpportunityTiming and Windows of Opportunity– In strategizing, policy advocates should:In strategizing, policy advocates should:

prepare for an opportunity by analyzing an issue or problem

recognize when a window of opportunity augurs well for it

seize the moment by seeking support for placing it on the decision agenda



CouplingCoupling– Making imaginative connections between the

solution, problem, and political streamsEx: Connecting a stimulus package with other social problems such as homelessness



Framing and Finding TitlesFraming and Finding Titles– Putting a twist on proposals to make them

appealing to decision makersEx: portray a benefit as an earned benefit to make it difficult for opponents to argue that it is a welfare benefit



Negotiating and BargainingNegotiating and Bargaining– Accommodating different points of view, even

before an issue appears on the decision agenda

– Try to create a win-win atmosphere that allows different people and factions to believe they will each have a piece of the action



Assembling Early Sponsors and Assembling Early Sponsors and SupportersSupporters

– Enlisting people to sponsor a legislative proposal by placing their names on it

– They should be powerful politicians who also represent an array of perspectives

– Solicit their advice and make them part of the planning process



RoutingRouting– Finding a home base for an issue by routing it

to decision makers who want to resolve it in ways that are acceptable

– This involves deciding which committee should get jurisdiction



Media CoverageMedia Coverage

– Getting timely coverage of proposals– Using the media to get stories about activities

printed or placed on television


Can Direct-Service Staff Help to Can Direct-Service Staff Help to Build Agendas?Build Agendas?

Legislators and high-level agency staff are best situated to assume pivotal roles in building agendas

However, direct-service staff can participate in agenda building in both agency and legislative settings



Direct-Service Staff can:Direct-Service Staff can:– Work within their agencies to locate

unaddressed or poorly addressed community needs

– Read professional literature and find evidence-based practices that could be (but are not) implemented in specific settings

– Join coalitions and advocacy groups that already exist in the community and lend them volunteer and other support



Direct-Service Staff can also:Direct-Service Staff can also:– Move beyond their agencies into the broader policy

world– Talk with legislative aides about specific unaddressed

or poorly addressed issues that they have seen – Encourage their clients to call high-level officials or

help them draft letters to these officials– Ask whether voter registration projects can be

organized by their agency – Search for policy entrepreneurs who can place a

specific issue on their agency’s or a legislature’s agenda


Policy Advocacy for Powerless Policy Advocacy for Powerless Populations and Unpopular IssuesPopulations and Unpopular Issues

The agenda building process is often The agenda building process is often skewed against unpopular issues and skewed against unpopular issues and powerless groupspowerless groups

Groups that plug away for unpopular Groups that plug away for unpopular issues and populations may be laying the issues and populations may be laying the groundwork for subsequent policy groundwork for subsequent policy changeschanges


Policy Advocacy for Powerless Policy Advocacy for Powerless Populations and Unpopular IssuesPopulations and Unpopular IssuesSome policy advocates conclude at times that Some policy advocates conclude at times that they cannot secure policy initiatives working they cannot secure policy initiatives working solely through conventional channelssolely through conventional channels– Ex: Abolitionists, suffragettes, civil rights advocates

ProtestsProtests– Can sometimes harden the positions of public officials

against the sought reforms– However, they can also get decision makers to pay

attention, and draw public awareness to the issue


Electoral ProcessesElectoral Processes

Agenda building often takes place within Agenda building often takes place within electoral politics electoral politics

Politicians, parties, and activists try to find issues Politicians, parties, and activists try to find issues that:that:– distinguish them from their opposition– appeal to their natural constituencies as well as to

swing voters– divide the opposing party (i.e. wedge issues)– generate support for themselves as compared to their

opponents


Electoral ProcessesElectoral Processes

Ideology assumes a key role in the Ideology assumes a key role in the process of agenda buildingprocess of agenda building – The two major parties have somewhat

different bases of political support– They gravitate toward somewhat different

positions on issues– However, they often battle for the center,

seeking policies that will appeal to centrist voters so they can gain a winning edge


Developing Links with Advocacy Developing Links with Advocacy GroupsGroups

Policy advocates should consider Policy advocates should consider connecting with an established advocacy connecting with an established advocacy groupgroup

Examples:Examples:– Join a local group or a local chapter of a

national group, such as NASW – Campaign for politicians they believe will put

certain issues on policy agendas


Multiple Skills for Agenda BuildingMultiple Skills for Agenda Building

Policy advocates use all four skills when they try Policy advocates use all four skills when they try to influence policy agendasto influence policy agendas– Political skills to analyze and engage in the political

stream– Analytic skills to develop and use data in the problem

and solution streams– Interactional skills to help proposals reach policy

deliberations, persuade people to take specific problems seriously, participate on committees and task forces, and organize coalitions

– Value-clarifying skills to decide whether to invest energy in promoting an issue in the first place, and to decide how to frame it

Chapter 6

Education

policy issues

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decision agenda

agenda building challenge

policy deliberations

specific policy issue

communities agenda building