Chapter 5 Learning. chapter 5 What is Learning? Occurs whenever experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior.

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Learning

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What is Learning?Occurs whenever experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior

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Classical ConditioningA form of learning in which a response elicited by one stimulus becomes elicited by a previously neutral stimulus

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Classical ConditioningTermsUnconditioned

stimulus (US)Unconditioned

response (UR)Neutral stimulusConditioned stimulus

(CS)Conditioned response

(CR)

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Response Acquisition

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Classical Conditioning in HumansEarly research

J. B. Watson classically conditions “Little Albert” to fear white rats

Mary Cover Jones conditions “Peter” to not fear white rats

J. Wolpe adapted Jones’ procedure

“desensitization therapy”

Teaching relaxation in periods of fearful or anxious situations

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Classical Conditioning Is Selective

Why don’t we develop phobias of everything we pair with harm?

“Preparedness:”• Certain conditioned responses are acquired

very easily• A biological predisposition• “conditioned taste aversions”

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Thorndike’s “Puzzle Box”Found cats could undo a cage latch more quickly on successive trials.

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Elements of Operant ConditioningLearning to make or withhold a certain response because of its consequences

We make operant behaviors, and

Consequences follow

Consequences take one of two forms

Reinforcers

Punishers

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Establishing an Operantly Conditioned Response

Operant behaviors should be voluntary

Training can take time

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior

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A Closer Look At Reinforcement

Positive reinforcer A pleasant event that follows an operant

response, increasing the likelihood that the response will recur

Negative reinforcerStrengthens a given response by removing

an aversive stimuli

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PunishmentPunisher

An unpleasant consequence that reduces the likelihood that we will repeat a behavior.

Not the same as negative reinforcement

To be effective, punishment needs to be

Swift, sufficient, and certain

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Drawbacks of PunishmentPunishment cannot “unteach” unwanted behaviors.

Punishment can backfire.

Punishment can teach aggression.

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Learned HelplessnessLearning a “giving-up” response

Classic learned helplessness study (Seligman)

Findings applied to humans

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Shaping Through BiofeedbackBiofeedback

Use of operant conditioning to control certain biological functions

Conditioning through biofeedback

Medical treatment

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Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning

In both forms of conditioning, a “contingency” existsOne relationship depends on another

Contingencies in classical conditioningContingency between CS and US

Contingencies in operant conditioningContingency between action and outcome

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Schedules of ReinforcementPartial reinforcement schedules

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ExtinctionLearned responses can weaken and disappear

In classical conditioning:• Occurs when CS-US pairing lapses

In operant conditioning:• Occurs when reinforcing is withheld

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Spontaneous RecoveryPreviously extinguished response reappears without retraining

In classical conditioning:• CS predicts US again

In operant conditioning:• Behavior produces old consequence again

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Response Acquisition and Extinction in Classical Conditioning

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Factors Involved In Extinguishing Operant Conditioning

Strength of the original learning

Pattern of reinforcement

Variety of settings in which original learning took place

Complexity of the behavior

Learning through punishment

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Stimulus ControlThe available stimuli exerts a control over conditioned responses.

Occurs for both classical and operant conditioning

Takes two forms:

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Discrimination

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Stimulus GeneralizationTendency to respond to cues similar to ones we have become conditioned to

Classical• Stimuli similar to CS will elicit CR

Operant• Supplying different response to stimulus

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Stimulus DiscriminationLearners can be trained not to generalize, but rather to make a conditioned response only to a single stimulus.

Classical• CR is specific to a certain CS-US pairing

Operant• Reinforcing only specific responses

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New Learning Based On Original Learning

Higher order conditioning

Conditioning based on previous learning

Primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself

Secondary reinforcer

A reinforcer that acquires its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer

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Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Passivity

Classical conditioning is passive;

Operant conditioning relies on the learner to actively participate in learning

Incentives

In operant conditioning reinforcers act as incentives for learning;

Classical conditioning does not provide incentives.

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Cognitive LearningMental processes that go on when we learn

Are not directly observable, but inferred

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Latent Learning

Learning happens even when not demonstrated

Stored internally

Tolman’s rats

Cognitive maps

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Insight & Learning SetsInsightLearning that occurs rapidly as a result of

understanding all the elements of a problem

Learning setsThe ability to become increasingly more

effective in solving problems as more problems are solved• i.e., “learning how to learn”

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Learning By ObservingWe can learn by observing a model, without firsthand experience by the observer

Observational learning

Selective in nature

Bandura’s doll study