Chapter 5 Interaction, Groups, and Organizations: Connections That Work © Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

Chapter 5Chapter 5Interaction, Groups, Interaction, Groups, and Organizations:and Organizations:

Connections That WorkConnections That Work

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.


Social networks: sets of relationships between individuals, groups, and/or organizations

Micro-, meso-, and macro-level networks:Friends and familyLocal civic, sports, and religious organizations Alumni groups, political parties, subculturesThe nationGlobal entities

Today the internet influences our networks

Networks & Connections


Networks connect us to society and place us within larger social structures

Networks can create opportunities for their members, but also generate obligations that limit members’ freedom

Individuals’ access to networks differs by their gender and other characteristics

Differences in access to opportunity-enhancing networks are one reason for persistent inequality

Networks & Connections


Social interaction consists of two or more individuals purposefully relating to each other

Interaction creates micro-level connections

All interaction has three components:An action A common goal A social context governed by norms

The action, goal, and context help us interpret the meaning of the interaction

The Process of Interaction


People assume that others will share their interpretations of a situation

Shared interpretations include situational norms, which create cues for appropriate behavior

• Dress• Manner• Actions• Communication (verbal and non-verbal)

Interaction norms and expectations are learned through socialization

The Elements of Social Interaction


Interaction includes verbal and non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication: interactions using facial expressions, the head, eye contact, body posture, gestures, touch, walk, status symbols, and personal space

Non-verbal communication are:• Culturally specific• Learned through socialization• Used in all cultures



Personal space: an example of non-verbal communicationThe amount of personal space people need varies by:

Cultural settingGenderStatusSocial context

Personal space communicates social positions

People in higher positions have greater control of physical spaceGender differences



Categories of Social Distance in the U.S.Intimate distance (0-18 inches)

Private and affectionate relationships

Personal distance (18 inches - 4 feet)Friends and acquaintances

Social distance (4-12 feet)Impersonal business relations

Public distance (12 feet or more)Public speaking, especially in formal settings or with high-status speakers



Rational Choice Theory (or Exchange Theory)

Relationships are formed and maintained based on individual rewards and costs

An interaction is sustained when its benefits are high and costs are low

Assumes that our choices about interaction:

Are based on calculations of self-interest (current or eventual payoff)Are guided by reasonInvolve expectations of reciprocity (individual contributions will balance out over time)

Interaction: Theoretical Perspectives


Symbolic Interaction TheoryFocuses on how people interpret interactions and manipulate others’ interpretationsTwo variations

EthnomethodologyDramaturgy



Symbolic Interaction Theory

EthnomethodologyFocuses on the most basic norms governing interactionNorms are not taken for granted, but studied empiricallyResearch is often carried out by violating norms and observing people’s reactionsResearch shows how people develop shared meanings and rules



Symbolic Interaction Theory

Dramaturgy Analyzes interaction as if it were a staged play with audiences, parts, scripts, props, and settingsWe perform different parts for different audiencesWe learn parts and scripts through socialization“Impression management”: we attempt to convey a positive, advantageous image of ourselves“Front stage” behavior: public, scripted, presents an image we hope others will take as real“Back stage” behavior: we relax, let feelings show



Social statuses: positions that individuals hold in the social world

Statuses define how we interact with others Interaction differs according to whether participants are of equal or unequal status

Status set: an individual’s combination of statuses

Ascribed status: a status that is assigned at birth and does not change during an individual’s lifetime

Achieved status: a status that is chosen or earned by decisions one makes or by personal ability

Master status: a person’s most important status, that takes precedence over other statuses

Social Status: The Link to Groups


Social Status: The Link to Groups


Roles: the expected behaviors, rights and obligations associated with a status

Role behaviors are part of our culture, learned through socializationRoles and statuses link us to others in the social worldExpectations for a particular status depend on the statuses of those the individual is interacting with

Statuses can be formal or informal

Statuses connect us to meso- and macro-level organizations

The Relationship Between Status and Role


Role strain: tension between roles within one status

Role conflict: conflict between the roles of two or more statuses

Role Strain and Role Conflict


Group: two or more people who interact with each other because of shared interests, goals, experiences, and needs

Members have a sense of belongingMembership is well-definedThere are rules for members’ behavior(Not all collections of people are groups!)

Groups form through a series of steps:Initial interactionEmergence of a collective goalAttempts to expand collective goals

Groups: The Micro-Meso Connection


Durkheim’s study of suicide

Showed how groups impact individual behavior by comparing different groups’ suicide rates

Group conditions leading to suicide:Anomie – the group lacks norms or rulesEgoism – bonds tying individuals to the group are too weakAltruism – bonds tying individuals to the group are too strong

The Importance of Groups for the Individual


Primary groups: Close, personal relationshipsSense of belonging, caring, identity, loyalty Strong influence on behaviorSmall membership, lasting relationshipsHave intrinsic value: belonging is the goal

Secondary groups: Formal, impersonal, businesslike relationshipsExist to accomplish a task or goalSpecialized tasks and communicationLarge membership; may be short or long-term

Types of Groups


Reference group: members act as role models for one another and establish standards against which members measure their conduct

In-group: members feel a sense of loyalty and belonging; often a reference and/or a primary group

Out-group: a group that exists in competition with or opposition to an in-group

Types of Groups


Organization and Bureaucracies


Modern organizations: formal, rational, bureaucratic; originated during industrialization in the 1700s

Formal organizations: complex secondary groups formed to pursue and achieve certain goals

Rationality: the attempt to reach maximum efficiency

Bureaucracy: a specific type of large, formal organization that attempts to maximize efficiency by establishing formal relations, clear procedures, and stated goals

(Contrast: traditional organizations are run on the basis of custom or whim)

The Evolution of Modern Organizations


Organizational societies: societies in which a majority of people work in organizations

McDonaldization of society: increasing dominance of organizations characterized by

Efficiency maximized by samenessPredictability, nothing left to chanceCalculation of everythingIncreased control over customers and employees

Does McDonaldization lead to dehumanization?

The Evolution of Modern Organizations


Max Weber Studied growth of bureaucracy in the 20th centuryDeveloped “ideal types,” or conceptual models

Ideal type bureaucracy characteristics:Division of labor based on technical competenceAdministrative hierarchyFormal rules and regulationsImpersonal relationshipsEmphasis on rationality and efficiencyProvision of life-long careers

Bureaucracies also have an informal structure, unwritten rules and relationships

Characteristics of Bureaucracy


Some categories of people face special challenges in bureaucracies:

Professionals may face conflicting loyalties to their profession and to the bureaucratic organization

Members of minority groups, such as ethnic minorities or women, may have little opportunity to reach the highest levels

(Nonetheless, both groups make important contributions to bureaucracies.)

Individuals in Bureaucracies


Problems of bureaucraciesAlienation: workers with boring, dead-end jobs feel uninvolved, uncommitted, unappreciated

Oligarchy: concentration of power in a small group

• The iron law of oligarchy

Goal displacement: original purposes are displaced by new, secondary goals

Parkinson’s law: work expands to fill the time available, creating inefficiencies

Alternative organizational structuresEmployee-owned organizationsDemocratic-collective organizations

Problems in Bureaucracies


National & Global Networks

New transportation and communication systems, including the internet, are generating global networks

Multinational corporations make their own rules, without oversight bodies

National and international organizations are governed through rational, bureaucratic systems

Some groups rebel against these structures, resulting in global conflicts

The Macro-Level


Around the world, women are central to economic and social life, but are also marginalized and impoverished

At the macro-level, the United Nations has created many policies to help raise the status of women worldwide

Education initiatives

Micro-lending agencies

Policy Issues: Women and Globalization

Chapter 5 Interaction, Groups, and Organizations: Connections That Work © Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

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