Chapter 4 Words and Sentences. Overview From Morphology From Morphology – The analysis of words – and how they are structured To Syntax To Syntax – The.

Chapter 4Chapter 4 Words and Sentences Words and Sentences

OverviewOverview

• From Morphology From Morphology – The analysis of words The analysis of words

– and how they are structuredand how they are structured

• To SyntaxTo Syntax– The analysis of phrases and sentencesThe analysis of phrases and sentences

– and how they are structured.and how they are structured.

MorphologyMorphology

• Words vs morphemesWords vs morphemes

• Morphemes as smallest units of Morphemes as smallest units of meaningmeaning in in a languagea language– respect+ful; dis+respect+fulrespect+ful; dis+respect+ful

– room+mate; stir+fryroom+mate; stir+fry

– fire+fight+erfire+fight+er

– Manhattan.Manhattan.

Morphological AnalysisMorphological Analysis

• Describing morphemes…Describing morphemes…

• Analyzing their arrangements….Analyzing their arrangements….

Describing Morphemes: Describing Morphemes: Bases Bases

• Form foundations of wordsForm foundations of words

• Establish basic meaningsEstablish basic meanings– English: fish; talkEnglish: fish; talk

– Shinzwani: -lo- (fish); -lagu- (talk)Shinzwani: -lo- (fish); -lagu- (talk)

– Czech: piv- (beer)Czech: piv- (beer)

Kinds of BasesKinds of Bases

– RootsRoots• Serve as underlying foundationServe as underlying foundation• CanCan’’t be broken down any furthert be broken down any further

– English: fishEnglish: fish– Shinzwani: -lo- (fish)Shinzwani: -lo- (fish)

– StemsStems• Derived from rootsDerived from roots

– By means of By means of affixesaffixes (see (see ‘‘affixaffix’’ slide slidess)) English: fish+ing = fishing; talk+er = talkerEnglish: fish+ing = fishing; talk+er = talker Shinzwani: lo+a = -loa (fishing)Shinzwani: lo+a = -loa (fishing)

• Can have Can have additional additional affixes attachedaffixes attached– English: talker+s = talkersEnglish: talker+s = talkers– Shinzwani: ni+ku+loa = nikuloa (I am fishing).Shinzwani: ni+ku+loa = nikuloa (I am fishing).

Describing Morphemes: Describing Morphemes: AffixesAffixes

• Attach to basesAttach to bases

• Add grammatical informationAdd grammatical information– English: -er; -ingEnglish: -er; -ing

• = fisher, fishing, talker, talking= fisher, fishing, talker, talking

– Shinzwani: hu- (to) ; niku- (I am)Shinzwani: hu- (to) ; niku- (I am)• = huloa (to fish), hulagua (to talk)= huloa (to fish), hulagua (to talk)

• = nikuloa (I am fishing), nikulagua (I am talking)= nikuloa (I am fishing), nikulagua (I am talking)

– Czech: -o; -a; -Czech: -o; -a; -ØØ• = pivo (beer), piva ((2, 3, 4) beers), piv ((5+) beers).= pivo (beer), piva ((2, 3, 4) beers), piv ((5+) beers).

Kinds of AffixesKinds of Affixes

• PrefixesPrefixes– imim+possible+possible

– unun+likely+likely

• SuffixesSuffixes– walk+walk+inging

• InfixesInfixes– fan+fan+bloodybloody+tastic+tastic

• CircumfixesCircumfixes– mm+loz++loz+ii (fisherman) (fisherman)

• ReduplicationReduplication– mpole+mpole (mpole+mpole (veryvery slow) slow)

• InterweavingInterweaving– k+k+ii+t++t+aaaa+b (book)+b (book)

• PortmanteauPortmanteau– BlogBlog

– BrunchBrunch

What Affixes DOWhat Affixes DO• DerivationDerivation

– Changing one Changing one kindkind of word into another of word into another• verbs into nouns: read -- readverbs into nouns: read -- readerer; -lo- -- ; -lo- -- mmlolozizi

• adjectives into verbs: modern -- modernadjectives into verbs: modern -- modernizeize

• InflectionInflection– Showing relationships among words in a groupShowing relationships among words in a group

• tenses: hunttenses: hunteded -- hunt -- huntinging

• comparisons: big -- biggcomparisons: big -- biggerer -- bigg -- biggestest

• persons: I fish -- she fishpersons: I fish -- she fisheses

• number: cat -- catnumber: cat -- catss; mpaha – ; mpaha – zizimpaha (cat/cats).mpaha (cat/cats).

How Many Morphemes?How Many Morphemes?

• The dogs chased the cats into the bushes.The dogs chased the cats into the bushes.

How Many Morphemes?How Many Morphemes?

• The dog-z chas-t the cat-s in-to the bush-ez.The dog-z chas-t the cat-s in-to the bush-ez.

• What is the difference between –z and –s?What is the difference between –z and –s?

• And what about –ez?And what about –ez?

Analyzing Arrangement:Analyzing Arrangement:Free and Bound MorphemesFree and Bound Morphemes

• Free morphemes are like basesFree morphemes are like bases– Can stand aloneCan stand alone

• e.g., words: speak; respect; Manhattane.g., words: speak; respect; Manhattan

• Bound morphemes are like affixesBound morphemes are like affixes– Must be attached to other morphemesMust be attached to other morphemes

• e.g., affixes: -er; -ing; dis-; -fule.g., affixes: -er; -ing; dis-; -ful– speak-speak-er;er; speak- speak-inging; ; disdis-respect--respect-fulful

• But note: roots can also be BOUND MORPHEMESBut note: roots can also be BOUND MORPHEMES– e.g., Shinzwani -lo- e.g., Shinzwani -lo- ‘‘fishfish’’, Czech piv- , Czech piv- ‘‘beerbeer’’

• Hierarchy among affixesHierarchy among affixes– English: derive first, then inflect…English: derive first, then inflect…

• hhelp+er+s (not help+s+er).elp+er+s (not help+s+er).

AllomorphsAllomorphs

• Variant forms of a single morphemeVariant forms of a single morpheme– e.g., Shinzwani (see page e.g., Shinzwani (see page 9090 in textbook): in textbook):

• {singular-}{singular-}– /shi-/ with -ri, -sahani, -kombe/shi-/ with -ri, -sahani, -kombe– /mu-/ with -hono, -ndru/mu-/ with -hono, -ndru

• {plural-}{plural-}– /zi-/ with -ri, -sahani, -kombe/zi-/ with -ri, -sahani, -kombe– /mi-/ with –hono, -ndru/mi-/ with –hono, -ndru

– e.g., English: cats, dogs, & horsese.g., English: cats, dogs, & horses• {-plural}{-plural}

– /-s/ following voiceless stops/-s/ following voiceless stops– /-z/ following voiced stops and vowels /-z/ following voiced stops and vowels – /-/-IIz/ following fricatives.z/ following fricatives.

How & Why Allomorphs How & Why Allomorphs ChangeChange

• Adjusting to neighboring soundsAdjusting to neighboring sounds– called called ““morphophonemic conditioningmorphophonemic conditioning””

• English: cats, dogs, horses; improbable, illogicalEnglish: cats, dogs, horses; improbable, illogical

• KiSwahiliKiSwahili: W/R 4.11 (pages : W/R 4.11 (pages 74-7574-75))

• Reflecting semantic categoriesReflecting semantic categories– called called ““semantic conditioningsemantic conditioning””

• KiSwahilKiSwahili: W/R 4.12 (pages i: W/R 4.12 (pages 76-7776-77))

SyntaxSyntax

• How words combine into phrases & sentencesHow words combine into phrases & sentences• Note fuzzy boundary between morphology and Note fuzzy boundary between morphology and

syntax syntax – Shinzwani: ni+tso+hu+venzaShinzwani: ni+tso+hu+venza ‘‘I+will+you+likeI+will+you+like’’

• All one wordAll one word

– English: I will like youEnglish: I will like you• Four different words.Four different words.

Analyzing SyntaxAnalyzing Syntax• Finding and testing Finding and testing substitution framessubstitution frames

– Also called Also called ‘‘slots and fillersslots and fillers’’• The cat in the hatThe cat in the hat• The cat in the basketThe cat in the basket• The cat in the treeThe cat in the tree

• M+paha M+paha i+send+a mji+ni – i+send+a mji+ni – The cat is going to townThe cat is going to town• M+wana M+wana a+send+a mji+ni – The child is going to towna+send+a mji+ni – The child is going to town• Gari li+send+a mji+ni – Gari li+send+a mji+ni – The car is going to townThe car is going to town

• M+tu m+zuri m+moja u+le -- that one good personM+tu m+zuri m+moja u+le -- that one good person• Ki+kapu ki+zuri ki+moja ki+le -- that one good basketKi+kapu ki+zuri ki+moja ki+le -- that one good basket• Gari zuri moja li+le -- Gari zuri moja li+le -- that one good car.that one good car.

Labeling Substitution Labeling Substitution FramesFrames

• Let the language be your guideLet the language be your guide

• Be prepared for different categoriesBe prepared for different categories– Grammatical genderGrammatical gender

• Czech: masculine, feminine, neuterCzech: masculine, feminine, neuter

• Shinzwani: human, animal, body part, useful, abstract, Shinzwani: human, animal, body part, useful, abstract,

– CaseCase• Czech: subject, object, possession, location, Czech: subject, object, possession, location,

• The effect of obligatory categoriesThe effect of obligatory categories– Grammatical categories that Grammatical categories that mustmust be expressed. be expressed.

Ordering Substitution Ordering Substitution FramesFrames

• RestrictionsRestrictions– Which words can go together?Which words can go together?

• The hat in the cat?The hat in the cat?

• The cat exploded on the rug?The cat exploded on the rug?

• Roasting a pot of coffee?Roasting a pot of coffee?

– Which orders are permitted?Which orders are permitted?• the black cat vs le chat noirthe black cat vs le chat noir

• (the) good person vs mtu mzuri(the) good person vs mtu mzuri

• Anymore I donAnymore I don’’t eat pizza?t eat pizza?

– SVO languages and prepositions?SVO languages and prepositions?• The cat The cat in in the tree vs Mpaha mwirithe tree vs Mpaha mwirijuujuu..

• Let the language be your guide.Let the language be your guide.

AmbiguitiesAmbiguities

• Indicate alternative substitution framesIndicate alternative substitution frames– Cow kills farmer with axCow kills farmer with ax

• (newspaper headline)(newspaper headline)

– Put more HPut more H22O in the coffee, then the bonesO in the coffee, then the bones• (message on chalkboard in physical anthro lab)(message on chalkboard in physical anthro lab)

– Fruit flies like a bananaFruit flies like a banana• (attributed to Groucho Marx).(attributed to Groucho Marx).

Kinds of GrammarsKinds of Grammars

• PrescriptivePrescriptive– Provides a model of Provides a model of ‘‘properproper’’ speech speech

• Many schoolteachers, even todayMany schoolteachers, even today

• DescriptiveDescriptive– Describes a language structure on its own termsDescribes a language structure on its own terms

• Boas and anthropologists, 1900sBoas and anthropologists, 1900s

• GenerativeGenerative– Generates all possible sentences of a languageGenerates all possible sentences of a language

• Noam Chomsky, 1950s.Noam Chomsky, 1950s.

Generating SentencesGenerating Sentences

• Begin at the level of Deep Structure Begin at the level of Deep Structure

• Phrase Structure Rules Phrase Structure Rules – produce abstract sentencesproduce abstract sentences

• Transformation RulesTransformation Rules– change sentence structureschange sentence structures

• Does time fly like an arrow?Does time fly like an arrow?

• Phonological rules assign soundsPhonological rules assign sounds

• Result is pronounceable sentenceResult is pronounceable sentence– At the level of Surface Structure.At the level of Surface Structure.

Advantages of Generative Advantages of Generative GrammarGrammar

• Trees show structure more clearly.Trees show structure more clearly.

Disadvantages of Disadvantages of Generative GrammarGenerative Grammar

– Relies on introspectionRelies on introspection• You need to know the language well enough to judge You need to know the language well enough to judge

grammaticality of sentencesgrammaticality of sentences

– Assumes universal underlying structureAssumes universal underlying structure• Accessible through any languageAccessible through any language

– But new data continues to challenge universalsBut new data continues to challenge universals

– Not as useful in learning new languagesNot as useful in learning new languages• Working with surface level sentencesWorking with surface level sentences

– Requires working with actual speakersRequires working with actual speakers

– And discovery of substitution framesAnd discovery of substitution frames