Chapter 4 Syntax 4.1 Introduction Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words (1)a.The hunter fears.

Chapter 4 SyntaxChapter 4 Syntax4.1 Introduction4.1 IntroductionSyntax: study of the internal structures of Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of sentence and the rules for the combination of wordswords(1)a.The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.(1)a.The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.(2)a. Jack looked up the word..(2)a. Jack looked up the word.. b. Jack looked the word up.b. Jack looked the word up.(3)*Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.(3)*Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.Conclusion: structure of the sentence such as Conclusion: structure of the sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not vice sentence is a sequence of words but not vice versa. Sentence formation has rules, so that we versa. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.sentences.

4.2 Word Classes4.2 Word ClassesNouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas.places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas.Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to.or action which a noun refers to.Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events.involving the “things” in events.Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc.when, etc.Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.connections involving actions and things.Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.relationships between events and things.(3) The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds(3) The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art+N+ V+ Art+ N+ Prep+Art+NArt+N+ V+ Art+ N+ Prep+Art+NThe rules which govern the structure of phrases are known The rules which govern the structure of phrases are known as phrase structure rules or rewrite rules.as phrase structure rules or rewrite rules.

4.3 The Prescriptive Approach:4.3 The Prescriptive Approach:An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century

England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English by following Latin.by following Latin.

(a)You must not split infinitives(a)You must not split infinitives(b) You must not end a sentence with a preposition.(b) You must not end a sentence with a preposition.To boldly go.To boldly go.Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with.Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with.Who do you see?Who do you see?

4.4 The Descriptive Approach:4.4 The Descriptive Approach:

an approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to an approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to describe thedescribe the

regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting samples.samples.

4.4.1 Structural Analysis:4.4.1 Structural Analysis:

a descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms a descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames.in a language by means of test frames.

(4) The ----- makes a lot of noise.(4) The ----- makes a lot of noise.(5) I heard a ----- yesterday.(5) I heard a ----- yesterday.(6) ----- makes a lot of noise.(6) ----- makes a lot of noise.(7) I hear ----- yesterday.(7) I hear ----- yesterday.

• Categories and basic clause types in English: Categories and basic clause types in English: NP,VP,PP…NP,VP,PP…

• 1. SV1. SV• 2. SVC2. SVC• 3. SVO3. SVO• 4. SVA4. SVA• 5. SVOA5. SVOA• 6. SVOC6. SVOC• 7. SVOiOd7. SVOiOd• Or rather,Or rather,• 1. SV(A)1. SV(A)• 2. SVC2. SVC• 3. SVO(A)3. SVO(A)• 4. SVOC4. SVOC• 5. SVOiOd5. SVOiOd

Phrase categories and their Phrase categories and their structures structures • Phrase categories----the syntactic units that Phrase categories----the syntactic units that

are built around a certain word category are are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). AP(A), PP(P).

• The structure: specifier + head + complement The structure: specifier + head + complement • Head---- the word around which a phrase is Head---- the word around which a phrase is

formedformed• Specifier---- the words on the left side of the Specifier---- the words on the left side of the

headsheads• Complement---- the words on the right side of Complement---- the words on the right side of

the headsthe heads

Phrase structure rulesPhrase structure rules • The grammatical mechanism that regulates the The grammatical mechanism that regulates the

arrangement of elements that make up a phrase arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:is called a phrase structure rule, such as:

• NP NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.fish on the plate, pretty girls.

• VP VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.games, finish assignments.

• AP AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close topessimistic, familiar with, very close to

• PP PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.boat, quite near the station.

specifier X'

X (head) complement

X"

The X Bar TheoryThe X Bar Theory

Note: The phrase structure rules can be Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.

4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysisLanguage is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis(IC).is called immediate constituent analysis(IC).

9) [[[the] [man]] [[bought] [[a] [car]]]]9) [[[the] [man]] [[bought] [[a] [car]]]]

• Cutting sentences into their constituents can Cutting sentences into their constituents can show up and distinguish ambiguities, as in show up and distinguish ambiguities, as in the case of the ambiguous phrasethe case of the ambiguous phrase old men old men and womenand women, , which may either refer towhich may either refer to old old menmen andand women of any agewomen of any age or toor to old menold men andand old womenold women. . The two different The two different interpretations can be represented by two interpretations can be represented by two different tree structures:different tree structures:

4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar: 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar: A grammar A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels. constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels. The main principle is labeling and bracketing based on the The main principle is labeling and bracketing based on the idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions or can themselves be made up of smaller constructions or can themselves be made up of smaller parts. (binary and verb-centered)parts. (binary and verb-centered)

Inverted tree diagram:Inverted tree diagram:

Generative RulesGenerative RulesS→NPS→NP ＋＋ VPVPVP→Vtr. VP→Vtr. ＋＋ NPNPNP→ArtNP→Art ＋＋ NNVtr.Vtr. →buy, sell, build, repair, wash, etc.→buy, sell, build, repair, wash, etc.N→N→man, woman, car, house, bicycle, etc.man, woman, car, house, bicycle, etc.Art→Art→a, an, thea, an, the(12)a. The man bought a car.(12)a. The man bought a car. b. The man sold a car.b. The man sold a car. c. The woman repaired the bicycle. c. The woman repaired the bicycle.

there is a large number of sentences in there is a large number of sentences in English that such rules cannot produce. This English that such rules cannot produce. This set of rules has very limited generative set of rules has very limited generative power. The above rules only deal with power. The above rules only deal with simple noun phrases and transitive verbs. simple noun phrases and transitive verbs. They do not allow us to deal with any part of They do not allow us to deal with any part of the verb structure such as tense, modals or the verb structure such as tense, modals or aspect.aspect.

(13) a. The man sells the car in the garage.(13) a. The man sells the car in the garage. b. The woman washes the bicycle in the b. The woman washes the bicycle in the

street.street. c. The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.c. The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.

DisambiguateDisambiguate

RecursionRecursionJohn said Cathy thought Mary helped George.John said Cathy thought Mary helped George.This is the farmer sowing his cornThis is the farmer sowing his cornThat kept the cock that crowed in the mornThat kept the cock that crowed in the mornThat waked the priest all shaven and shornThat waked the priest all shaven and shornThat married the man all tattered and tornThat married the man all tattered and tornThat kissed the maiden all forlornThat kissed the maiden all forlornThat milked the cow with the crumpled hornThat milked the cow with the crumpled hornThat tossed the dogThat tossed the dogThat worried the catThat worried the catThat killed the ratThat killed the ratThat ate the maltThat ate the maltThat lay in the house that Jack built.That lay in the house that Jack built.

Lexical selection restriction and TG Lexical selection restriction and TG grammargrammar(17) *The belief washed an apple.(17) *The belief washed an apple. The boy cleaned the room up. (discontinuous)The boy cleaned the room up. (discontinuous) Brian hit GeorgeBrian hit George→→George was hit by Brian.George was hit by Brian.

4.6 TG grammar: 4.6 TG grammar: a grammar including phonology a grammar including phonology and semantics.and semantics.

Classical theory: phrase structure rules, transformational Classical theory: phrase structure rules, transformational rules and morphophonemic rules.Srules and morphophonemic rules.S→→NP+VP; simple NP+VP; simple active declarative kernel sentences; negative, passive active declarative kernel sentences; negative, passive or interrogative sentencesor interrogative sentences

(17) (17) NP1NP1 ＋＋ AuxAux ＋＋ VV ＋＋ NP2→NP2 NP2→NP2 ＋＋ AuxAux ＋＋ bebe ＋＋ enen ＋＋ VV ＋＋ byby ＋＋NP1NP1

The boy has repaired the bicycle→The bicycle has been repaired The boy has repaired the bicycle→The bicycle has been repaired by the boyby the boy. .

features: generation and context-freefeatures: generation and context-free

Standard theory: deep structure and surface structureStandard theory: deep structure and surface structure

Infl PhraseInfl Phrase

InflP （ =S）NP VP

NP

Det N Infl V Det N

A boy Pst find the evidence

Deep structure & surface Deep structure & surface structure structure

• Consider the following pair of sentences:Consider the following pair of sentences:

John is easy to please.John is easy to please.

John is eager to please.John is eager to please.

• Structurally similar sentences might be Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. have quite different deep structures.

Deep structure & surface Deep structure & surface structure structure • Consider the following pair of sentences:Consider the following pair of sentences:

John is easy to please.John is easy to please.

John is eager to please.John is eager to please.

• Structurally similar sentences might be Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. have quite different deep structures.

Deep structure & surface Deep structure & surface structure structure • Consider the following pair of sentences:Consider the following pair of sentences:

John is easy to please.John is easy to please.

John is eager to please.John is eager to please.

• Climbing plants can be terrible.Climbing plants can be terrible.

TransformationsTransformations

• Auxiliary movement (inversion) Auxiliary movement (inversion)

• DoDo insertion insertion

• Wh-movement Wh-movement

• Move Move αα and constraints on and constraints on transformations transformations

Auxiliary movementAuxiliary movement

CP

SC NP

Infl Det N Infl V

Will the train e arrive

• DoDo insertion insertion

CP

C

S

NP Infl VPBirds fly

CP CP

C C

SS

Infl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBirds do fly Do birds e fly

Figure-1

Figure-2 Figure-3

• Wh-movement---- Move a Wh-movement---- Move a whwh phrase to phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)the specifier position under CP. (Revised)

CP

VP

V NP

win the game

S

NP Infl

e Pst

NP C

Who

4.7 Functional Grammar: 4.7 Functional Grammar: Linguists who adopt this view Linguists who adopt this view are interested in relating the various kinds of structures and are interested in relating the various kinds of structures and patterns that language shows to the functions that language patterns that language shows to the functions that language fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used.fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used.Difference from TG: function and contextual, purposefulDifference from TG: function and contextual, purposefulHalliday’s three meta-functions: Halliday’s three meta-functions: ideational,ideational,(19) (19) The boy kicked the postThe boy kicked the post. (the post was kicked by the boy). (the post was kicked by the boy)(20) (20) The man liked the new houseThe man liked the new house..(21) (21) The child is homelessThe child is homeless..(22) (22) The girl laughedThe girl laughed..(23) (23) The visitor said “helloThe visitor said “hello”.”.(24) (24) There is a girl over thereThere is a girl over there..Interpersonal: declarative, interrogative and imperative; Interpersonal: declarative, interrogative and imperative; mood; politenessmood; politeness(27)a. Pass the salt.(27)a. Pass the salt. b. Please pass the salt.b. Please pass the salt. c. Can you pass the salt?c. Can you pass the salt? d. Could you possibly pass the salt?d. Could you possibly pass the salt? e. You couldn’t possibly pass the salt, could e. You couldn’t possibly pass the salt, could you?you?Textual: thematic and information structureTextual: thematic and information structure

MetafunctionsMetafunctions

Process Process typetype

subcategorysubcategory Nuclear Nuclear participantsparticipants

exampleexample

materialmaterial Event(i.e. Event(i.e. happening)happening)Action(i.e. doing)Action(i.e. doing)

Actor, goal, Actor, goal, (beneficiary/recip(beneficiary/recipient, ient, range/circumstanrange/circumstance)ce)

She built the house (for the kids)She built the house (for the kids)She climbed (the mountain)She climbed (the mountain)

mentalmental PerceptionPerceptionCognitionCognitionaffectionaffection

Senser, Senser, phenomenonphenomenon

She saw the carShe saw the carShe forgot his nameShe forgot his nameShe liked his musicShe liked his music

relationalrelational AttributiveAttributiveidentifyingidentifying

Carrier, attributeCarrier, attributeToken, valueToken, value

Maggie was strongMaggie was strongMaggie was our leaderMaggie was our leader

BehaviouraBehaviourall

behaverbehaver She laughedShe laughed

verbalverbal sayersayer She repliedShe replied

existentialexistential existentexistent There was a beautiful princessThere was a beautiful princess

Ideational Function: transitivity

The lion chased the tourist lazily through the forest.The lion chased the tourist lazily through the forest.

subjectsubject finitefinite predicatpredicatoror

moodmood residueresidue

Interpersonal Function: Mood

Textual Function: Theme and Information

The book is on a tableThe book is on a table

ThematicThematic themetheme rhemerheme

informatioinformationn

oldold newnew

Field refers to the nature of the social action: what it is the Field refers to the nature of the social action: what it is the interactants are about. Tenor refers to the statuses and interactants are about. Tenor refers to the statuses and role relationships: who is taking part in the interaction. role relationships: who is taking part in the interaction. Mode refers to the rhetorical channel and function of the Mode refers to the rhetorical channel and function of the discourse: what part the text is playing.discourse: what part the text is playing. SilverSilverIn this job, Anne, we’re working with silver. Now silver In this job, Anne, we’re working with silver. Now silver needs to have love. Yea, You know---the people that buy needs to have love. Yea, You know---the people that buy silver love it.silver love it.Yea---guess they wouldYea---guess they wouldYes, mm-well naturally, I mean to say that it’s got a lovely Yes, mm-well naturally, I mean to say that it’s got a lovely gleam about it, you know; and if they come in, they’re gleam about it, you know; and if they come in, they’re usually people who love beautiful things. So you have to usually people who love beautiful things. So you have to be beautiful with it; and you sell it with beauty. You-I’m be beautiful with it; and you sell it with beauty. You-I’m sure you know how to do that. Oh but you must! Let’s sure you know how to do that. Oh but you must! Let’s hear-let’s hear-look: you say ‘Madam! Isn’t that beautiful!” hear-let’s hear-look: you say ‘Madam! Isn’t that beautiful!” If you suggest it’s beautiful, they see it as beautiful.If you suggest it’s beautiful, they see it as beautiful.

FieldField (a) General. Retail selling in department (a) General. Retail selling in department store: silver department. Task: selling silverware. store: silver department. Task: selling silverware. (b) Specific. Instruction of new member. Task: (b) Specific. Instruction of new member. Task: teaching how to sell silverware. Means of teaching how to sell silverware. Means of achievement : [premise 1] virtues of silver, achievement : [premise 1] virtues of silver, [premise 2] customers’ appreciation thereof, [premise 2] customers’ appreciation thereof, [action] encouragement of this appreciation.[action] encouragement of this appreciation.TenorTenor Manageress and new salesgirl; a complex Manageress and new salesgirl; a complex status relationship embodying (a) senior-junior, status relationship embodying (a) senior-junior, (b) expert-novice, (c) teacher-apprentice, with a (b) expert-novice, (c) teacher-apprentice, with a fourth, personal relationship at a metaphorical fourth, personal relationship at a metaphorical level, (d) mother-daughter.level, (d) mother-daughter.ModeMode Natural, spontaneous speech. One-sided Natural, spontaneous speech. One-sided dialogue (monologue with acknowledgement). dialogue (monologue with acknowledgement). Part 1, expository: exposition-doubt-explanation. Part 1, expository: exposition-doubt-explanation. Part 2, exhortatory: injunction-doubt-illustration Part 2, exhortatory: injunction-doubt-illustration and reassurance. (Halliday, 2000:390)and reassurance. (Halliday, 2000:390)