Chapter 4 Republic to Empire

ROME

From Republic to Empire

A Surprising Beginning

Started as small village; eventually ruled world

Influenced by Greeks

Unprecedented unity, peace, prosperity

1,000 year reign

500 years = the Republic; 500 years = the Empire

A Legendary Beginning

According to legend, Romulus and Remus were twin sons of the war god, Mars. Abandoned at birth, the twins were raised by a she-wolf.

The boys grew up and decided to create a great city, but they arguedover where they should build it. Romulus killed his brother and named the new city, Rome, after himself.

Romulus founded the city of Rome in 753 B.C.

The Earliest Inhabitants

Prehistoric Italy

Culture developed slowly

Warlike invaders arrived about 1,000 B.C.

Spoke language related to “Italic”

Cremated dead; weapons, armor in tombs

High quality bronze-work (weapons, armor, tools)

Resilient People

Tough mountain people

Umbrians

Sabines

Samnites

Latins

Combined with Etruscans, Greeks, Celts

The Etruscans

Most powerful influence on Romans

Arose in Etruria (Tuscany): northern Italy

Origin unknown

Culture seen in tombs and art

Eastern influence? (Asia Minor); religious rituals similar

The Etruscans migrated to Italy and brought their art with them.

Etruscan Government

Self-governing settlements; fortified city-states

12 city-states formed loose, religious confederation

Ruled by kings at first

Agrarian aristocracy replaced king’s authority

Council of nobles elected magistrates annually

Etruscan Domination

Aristocracy skilled with horses, chariots

Military ruling class dominated, exploited Italians:

Farming, mining, infantry in Etruscan armies

Etruscans became wealthy:

Agriculture, industry, piracy, trade with Carthaginians, Greeks

An Etruscan House

Few Etruscan buildings have survived.

Etruscan Religion

Influenced Roman religion

Gloomy view

Gods, spirits: many evil

Relied on rituals, priesthood

Greek influence: gods in human form, temples

Etruscan Views of Women

Tombs mention names

of mother AND father More influential than Greek women

Women appeared in public with husbands

Festivals, banquets

Many were educated

Attended, took part in athletic contests

Etruscan sculpture

Notice the clothing and hair styles.

Etruscan art shows positive images of husbands and wives.

Expansion of Power

In Italy = Latium (included small village: Rome)

South = neighbors to Greeks in Naples

North to Po River Valley

Across sea to Corsica, Elba

Struggle for Control

Etruscan chieftains raided land

Not much unity

Etruscan power peaked before 500 B.C.; rapidly declined

Celtic people from Gaul invaded Po River Valley

Gaul = modern France; Celts drove out Etruscans

Etruscan “Memories”

Etruscan language forgotten

Etruscan culture assimilated into other cultures

Had lasting influence on Romans

Royal Rome

Focus on Rome

Located near Tiber River

Built on one of seven hills

Villages built, joined, made one big town

Prime location for:

Communication and trade

The Tiber River

The Tiber River at SunsetA Spectacular View

Rome was built on seven hills.

Avetino Hill

Aventino is a district in Rome, named after the hill that rises up near the Tiber river, and is one of the legendary seven hills of Rome.

From the top of this hill you'll get an amazing view of the entire city, and can see into three countries: Malta, Rome (Italy) and St. Peter's Basilica (Vatican City).

Palatine Hill

Palatine Hill at the Roman Forum: one of the seven hills of Rome.

According to legend, it was here that Romulus killed Remus so that the great city of Rome could be built .

Government

Latium

Sixth century B.C. = Rome came under Etruscan control.

Led by Etruscan kings

Roman army equipped, organized like Greek phalanx

The Early Days of Rome

Romulus = first king of Rome

Other kings conquered neighbors, expanded Rome

641-616 B.C. = first bridge across Tiber constructed

600 B.C. = Latin first written in script still used today

509 B.C. = Temple of Jupiter completed

The Temple of JupiterLocated in Rome

Birth of the Republic

Tarquinius founding the Temple of Jupiter

Tarquin kings controlled Rome, abused power

Tarquinius the Proud = last Tarquin king

Tyrant, hated by the people

509 B.C.: Lucius Junius Brutus drove Tarquinius out of Rome

Lucias Junius Brutus established the first republic

Lucius Junius Brutus

Drove out the last of the Tarquin kings

and established a republic in 509 B.C.

The Republican Government

Based on representation, not monarchy

Romans feared, hated idea of a SINGLE ruler

Senate = powerful, wealthy citizens

Senate chose two consuls each year

By 493 B.C., commoners had representatives(tribunes)

Imperium

Romans gave both consuls imperium

The right to issue commands

The right to enforce commands through:

Fines, arrest, punishment, death

Consulship

Two consuls elected each year

Roman Senate = approved candidates

Assembly of people =granted imperium

Consul’s Responsibilities

Commander of the army

Chief priest

Supreme judge

Consul’s Imperium

Make decisions in foreign affairs

Call out army

Lead army in battle

Impose discipline on troops

The Senate: Founded by Romulus

100 leading men; grew to 300

Met only when consul called senate into session

Advised the consuls

Senators served for life

Leaders were experienced, influential

Curiate Assembly: All Roman Citizens

Citizenship limited = Father, mother must be Romans

Divided into 30 groups = voted by group

Met only when summoned by a consul

Consul determined agenda, made proposals, recognized speakers

Assembly listened, gave approval

The Family

The Roman Father

Father = paterfamilias

Family’s chief priest, offers prayers

Authority like king

Type of imperium over his children

Could sell his children into slavery; power of life/death

The Roman Wife

Mother = materfamilias

Could not be sold or killed

Could not be divorced easily

Convicted only by court of male blood relatives

Wifely Duties

Control access to storerooms

Keep family accounts

Supervise slaves

Raise children

Part of family council(advice on family matters)

Women in Early Rome

Women in early Roman Society

Controlled by adult male

Before marriage: father

After marriage: husband

Other male guardian

Needed guardian’s approval to buy/sell land, make contracts

A Married Couple

What does this fresco suggest about this couple?

Manus = “hand”

Father transferred control of daughter to husband

Control could remain with father after marriage

Like “common law” marriage

Enabled daughter to keep inheritance after father died

Divorce

Rare, difficult to obtain

Limited to serious offenses

Wife retained dowry

Clientage

The Client

Entrusted self to person in a position to help

Client provided services in return for protection

The Patron

Usually wealthy land owner

Socially superior

More powerful than client

Client in the fides, or trust, of his patron

Duties of the Client

Fight for his patron

Work his land

Support him politically

Duties of the Patron

Physical, legal protection

Financial help:

Patron could give a land grant

Client worked patron’s land (tenant farmer, laborer)

Patron could give client handouts

Changes in the Patron-Client Relationship

Initially, patrons = rich, powerful ; clients = poor, weak

Changed:

Some rich became clients of powerful men

Client-patron relationship = hereditary

Client-patron families tied to each other

Patricians & Plebeians

Patricians

Aristocrats, wealthy upper class

Most power

Conducted state religious ceremonies

Sat in the Senate, held office

Patricians married patricians

Plebeians

Commoners, lower class

Poor, dependent small farmers

Laborers

Artisans

Clients of the nobility

Changes

Working families grew wealthy

Result: more rich plebeiansand poor patricians

Lack of equality; plebeians wanted equality

Fought for 200 years to gain equality

The Republic

The Roman Constitution

Unwritten laws

Largely based on tradition, custom

Consuls

Two elected consuls

Had to be patricians

Were given imperium

Duties of Consul

Lead the army

Religious duties

Serve as judges

Consuls treated like royalty

Symbols of royalty: purple robe + ivory chair

Had lictors

Minor officials, accompanied the consuls

Carried rods and axe, symbols of authority

Quaestor

Originally two quaestors

Assisted the consuls

Were financial officials

Eventually there were eight of them

Tetradrachm with a quaestor on it

On the front:

Aesillas the Quaestor

On the back:

Hercules club down in center, money chest to left, quaestor's chair to right, Q in right field, all within olive wreath

Consulship

Served for one year

Then became member of Senate

Served on Senate for life

One consul could veto another consul’s proposal

Shared religious powers

The Consul’s Limited Power

Limited imperium

Power of life/death while leading army

NOT SO within city of Rome

Appeal cases involving capital punishment

Went to popular assembly

Consulship during Times of War

One consul sent into battle

Other consul stayed in Rome

Otherwise, consuls alternated sole command

Dictator

Julius Caesar:

Rome’s first dictator

During crisis, consul could appoint someone “dictator”

Needed Senate approval

Consul retired so dictator could lead

Dictator served only for six months

Full imperium inside Rome AND outside boundaries

Proconsulship

Longer wars led to invention of office

Extended consul’s imperium beyond end of term

Continued to command army in the field

Caused problems for the republic later

Praetor

Like the consul

Military generals with judicialduties, had imperium

Term lasted for one year

Eventually, eight praetors

Terms sometimes extended for military commands

Censor

Two censors

Elected by the Senate

Must be former consuls, men of integrity

Served for five years

The Censor’s Duties

Classified citizens according to age, property (census)

Classification fixed taxation, status

Compiled roll of senators

Could strike senators from roll (finances/morality)

Most coveted political office

The Senate

Rome’s real governing force

Prominent patricians

Often leaders of clans

Patrons of many clients

Duties of the Senate

Proposed laws

Controlled imperial finances

Held consuls accountable

Assemblies: pass laws, elect magistrates

Curiate Assembly

Popular assembly; voted by curia

Tribal Assembly

Voted by tribe

Centuriate Assembly

Military assembly; voted by century

Centuriate Assembly

Political representation of Roman army

Basic unit of Roman army = century

80-100 fighting men

Classified according to weapons, armor, equipment

Determined by wealth; each man equipped himself

Duties of the Centuriate Assembly

Elect consuls and other magistrates

Voted on bills

Made decision of war and peace

Court of appeal in cases dealing with citizen’s life, property

The Struggle for Equality

Two Primary Struggles

INTERNAL struggle

Between patricians and plebeians

EXTERNAL struggle

Between Rome and everyone else

Greeks, Carthagenians, Macedonians, Gauls/Celts, barbarians

The Senate: Slow to Change

Originally comprised of wealthy, powerful aristocrats

Political power passed to sons

Marriage between powerful families

Senate gradually changed over time; included:

Members of military, representatives of plebeian class

Plebeian Prohibitions

No public office, priesthood, or judges

Did not know the law (unwritten!)

Could not marry patricians

No choice lands (rewards) after Roman conquest

Plebeians fought 200 years for equality, representation

Struggle of the Orders

Plebeians withdrew from cityto Sacred Mount

Formed plebeian tribal assembly

Elected ten tribunes to represent them

Declared tribune inviolate and sacrosanct

Could veto magistrate’s action or bill in assembly/Senate

Service and Representation

Tribunes served for one year

Plebeian assembly voted by tribe

Vote of plebeian assembly – binding on plebeians

Plebeians gave tribunes full protection, total allegiance

Codified Law

The Twelve Tables

Plebeians appointed commission; created Twelve Tables

Codified Roman law

Basis for ALL written Roman law

Held patricians AND plebeians accountable

Other Changes

Important Social Changes

367 B.C. = plebeians elected to consulship

Eventually, plebeians held other offices:

Quaestor, dictator, censor

300 B.C. = plebeians admitted to most important priesthoods

Withdrawing from Rome Again

287 B.C. = plebeians withdrew from city again

Refused to return unless demands met:

Decisions of plebeian assembly bound ALL Romans, not just plebeians

Decisions did not require approval of Senate

Social Equality

A Movement toward Equality?

445 B.C. = plebeians-patricians could marry each other

Two groups combined, formed nobiles

Patricians + wealthy plebeians

Distinction now between nobiles and everyone else

Nobiles had best jobs, wealth, Senatorial power

East and West

Roman Conquest

Conquest of Latins

Some cities near Rome received full citizenship

Others treated as municipalities

Right to intermarry, trade with Romans, self-government

Conditional Roman citizenship:

Move, follow Rome’s foreign policy, provide soldiers

Latins Allied with Rome

Some married Romans, traded with Rome, local autonomy

Forbidden to intermarry, trade with each other

Land taken from some, but not others

All allies provided soldiers

Obey Roman officers, no Roman taxation

Roman Colonies

Via Appia

Some conquered lands colonized

Settled by soldiers

Colonists benefitted

Roman citizenship, local rule, became Roman garrison

Connected by Roman roads

A Cross-Section of a Roman Road

Roman Control

Harsh punishment of rebels

Presence of colonies, roads = few revolts

Roman colonies improved status

Citizenship (biggest prize), protection, wealth

Most allies were loyal

Defeat of the Samnites

Tough mountain people

Some allies rebelled, joined Etruscans, Gauls

295 B.C. = Romans defeated Italian coalition

By 280 B.C. = Rome controlled central Italy

Pyrrhus

Southern Italy: Romans intervened in Greek quarrel

Faced Pyrrhus, king of Epirus

Good general, disciplined army

Experienced mercenaries; new weapon: 20 war elephants

Defeated Romans twice, but suffered great losses

Pyrrhus

After defeating the Roman army, Pyrrhus worried, “If we win one more battle against the Romans we shall be completely ruined.”

This is called a “Pyrrhic victory.”

Greek Defeat

Greeks forced to submit to Rome

By 265 B.C. = Rome ruled all Italy

Po River to the south of Italy

After defeating Pyrrhus, king of Egypt sent message to Rome:

Congratulations; want friendship; recognize Roman dominance

Rome and Carthage

Carthage

Great naval power

Colony in Northern Africa

Founded by Phoenicians

“Carthage” = “New City”

Location good for trade: grain, fruit, vegetables, sheep

Carthaginian Empire

Later expanded to include:

Spain

Sardinia

Corsica

Malta

Balearic Islands

Western Sicily

Conquered Peoples

Carthage reduced conquered people to servitude

Served in Carthaginian army or navy

Paid tribute

Carthage gained access to Spanish silver mines

Hiero’s Attack on Messana

Hiero = Tyrant of Syracuse

Attacked Sicilian city of Messana (near Rome)

Italian mercenary soldiers controlled Messana

Called Mamertines = “Sons of the war god Mars”

Turning to Rome for Help

Hiero defeated the Mamertines

Some Mamertines asked Carthage to intervene

Carthage = “ok”, sent a garrison

One Mamertine faction feared Carthaginian aggression; asked Rome to help

Implications

Romans called the Carthaginians “Phoenicians”

Latin = Poeni or Puni; evolved into Punic

Roman intervention = aggression against Carthage

Rome: “Carthage must not control Sicily”

Agreed to expel Punic garrison

The First Punic War

The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.)

Stalemate

Roman fleet cut off supplies

Besieged Carthaginian cites in western Sicily

Carthaginian navy came; Romans destroyed fleet

War lasted 23 years

The Treaty: 241 B.C.

Two parts:

Carthage gave up Sicily + islands between Italy/Sicily

Pay war indemnity in ten annual installments

Rome got Sicily

Carthage able to pay indemnity

Sicily

A Beautiful Conquest

The Cost to Rome

Rome lost over 100,000 men and 500 warships in the First Punic War.

Second Punic War began only four years later

RebellionSicily became one Roman province.

Sardinia and Corsica became another Roman province.

Sicilian mercenaries demanded that Carthage pay them

Carthage caught off guard

In the confusion, Rome acted:

Seized Sardinia and Corsica

Demanded that Carthage pay additional indemnity

Roman Control of the Islands

Roman governors often served more than a year

Unchecked by colleagues; had full imperium

Population = neither Roman nor allies

Treated as subjects

Did not serve in the army; paid tribute instead

Roman Rule

No chance for citizenship, no loyalty to Rome

Had to pay taxes

Tax collectors originally locals; later Roman allies

Eventually, Roman citizens (below senatorial rank)

Powerful, wealthy because they “squeezed” provincials

Hamilcar Barca

After First Punic War, Rome distracted by:

War with Gauls

War across Adriatic

Gave Carthage time to regroup

Carthage looked to leader, Hamilcar Barca

Hamilcar Barca

Carthaginian governor of Spain

Built Punic Empire in Spain

Improved ports, commerce; exploited mines

Wooed many of the conquered tribes

Built strong, disciplined army

Hasdrubal

Hamilcar’s successor; more successful

Rome worried about Carthaginian expansion

Romans made Hasdrubal promise not to take armyacross Ebro River

The Ebro River in Spain

“Carthage: Do Not Cross the Ebro!”

The Second Punic War

The Second Punic War(218-202 B.C.)

Hasdrubal was assassinated

Army chose his successor: Hannibal

Hannibal

Hannibal was the son of Hamilcar Barca.

He was 25 years old when he came to power.

As a general, Hannibal consolidated and expanded the Punic Empire.

Saguntum: A Spanish Town

Saguntum asked Rome for alliance

Before Hannibal took charge

Rome said “ok”

Saguntum = about 100 miles south of Ebro

Trouble with Saguntines

A Roman alliance with Saguntum violated

the spirit of the Carthaginian treaty. Hannibal took no action at first

Saguntines provoked tribes allied with Hannibal

Believed Rome would help them

Roman : ”Leave Saguntum alone.”

Hannibal ignored warning

Besieged, captured Saguntum

War

Rome demanded surrender of Hannibal.

Carthage refused.

Rome declared war in 218 B.C.

Hannibal’s New Weapon

Hannibal crossed the Alps with 37 war elephants.

Eventually made his way into Italy

Allied himself with Gauls – people who already disliked Romans

Living “Tanks”

Hannibal’s March

Hannibal marched

40,000 troops,

and 37 elephants

over the Alps

into the Roman

homeland.

Hannibal’s Victories

Defeated Romans at TicinusRiver

Defeated joint consular armies at Trebia River

Trapped Roman army at Lake Trasimene

Terrorized Rome for 16 years

Hannibal’s Strategy

Encourage Roman allies to defect

Release Italian prisoners without harm or ransom

Move army south of Rome, encourage rebellion

Roman strategy:

“Fight when army recovers, on favorable ground”

The Battle of Cannae

Hannibal drew Romans into open fight

Romans sent 80,000 men to meet him

30,000 Romans died, many more captured

Worst defeat in Roman history

Roman Losses

Loss of Roman prestige

Allies (southern Italy + Syracuse) joined Hannibal

For 10+ years, Hannibal was victorious

Romans wouldn’t face Hannibal in open field

Hannibal’s Weaknesses

Inadequate troops, supplies to besiege walled cities

No equipment to take the cities by assault

Publius Cornelius Scipio

Roman general; called Africanus

Commanded Roman army in Spain; proconsular imperium

Not yet 25 years old

No high office yet

Almost as talented as Hannibal

Scipio’s Victories

204 B.C. = landed in Africa

Defeated Carthaginians

Forced them to accept peace

Hannibal had to withdraw army from Italy

A Hard Lesson Learned

Hannibal had won every battle,

but lost the war.

Was eventually driven to suicide

Hannibal’s Mistakes

Had not counted on Roman determination

Underestimated allies’ loyalty to Rome

The Battle of Zama: 202 B.C.

Hannibal’s mercenaries

deserted

Rome defeated

Carthage

Carthage became

dependent ally of Rome

Rome ruled seas +

Mediterranean coast

from Italy westward

The Battle of Zama

The Third Punic War

Rome intervened in dispute between Carthage and Roman ally, Numidia

Besieged Carthage for two years, attacked, razed it to the ground in 146 B.C.

Third Punic War

Roman Victory

Territory belonging to Carthage became the new Roman province known as Africa.

The Republic’s Conquest of the Hellenistic World

The East

Rome’s Conquest of the East

Eastern Mediterranean stability challenged when kingdoms expanded:

Philip V of Macedon attacked cities in the:

Aegean, Hellespont, Asia Minor (along the coast)

Antiochus of the Seleucid kingdom attacked:

Syria, Palestine

The Macedonian Wars

Philip V of Macedon

Formed Carthaginian alliance during Second Punic War

Rome saw Philip V as a threat

Alliance provoked conflict with Rome

Result: First Macedonian War

The Outcome

Ended in stalemate

Macedon tried to control parts of Illyria + Greece

Unsuccessful

Second Macedonian War (200 B.C.)

Romans sent Philip an ultimatum:

“Do not attack any Greek city.”

“Pay reparations to Pergamum.”

Tried to provoke Macedon into a fight

Philip refused to obey

Greek Freedom

Flamininus intervened

Talented young Roman general

Ordered Philip to withdraw from Greece

197 B.C. = Defeated Philip in Thessaly

Greek support, ended Second Macedonian War

Flamininus

Freed Greek cities from Philip V

Made cities autonomous

War with Antiochus

Rome withdrew from Greece

Then faced conflict with Antiochus

He was expanding power in Asia

Antiochus

Claimed: “I’m freeing Greeks from Roman domination”

Landed his army on Greek mainland

Roman Victory

Defeated at Thermopylae + Asia Minor ; driven from Greece

Treaty called “Peace of Apamia”

Deprived of elephants, navy; imposed huge indemnity

Romans took no territory

Several Greek cities in Asia became protectorates

Perseus

Perseus: new Macedonian king

Favored democracy in Greek cities

Rome worried about Greek uprisings

Launched Third Macedonian War

Aemilius Paullus

Aemilius Paullus defeated Perseus

Macedon divided into four separate republics

Macedonians forbidden to intermarry

Could not conduct business across boundaries

Leaders of anti-Roman factions punished severely

War to Benefit Rome

Three-day celebration followed

Parade through streets of Rome:

Spoils of war, royal prisoners, wealth

Money relieved Roman tax burden, paid soldiers

War became a means to benefit Rome

Perseus before Aemilius Paullus

The West

Roman Conquest in Iberia

Romans harsh toward “barbarians” in Iberia

Committed atrocities, lied, cheated

Broke treaties to exploit, pacify natives

Became hard to recruit soldiers from there

Numantia

134 B.C. = Scipio Aemilianus took key city: Numantia

Laid siege

Burned Numantia to the ground

Cato the Elder

Roman statesman and orator

Allegedly ended his speeches the same way:

“Besides, I think that

Carthage must be

destroyed.”

Devastating Carthage

146 B.C. = Scipio Aemilianus attacked Carthage

Plowed up its land

Put salt in furrows; symbolized permanent abandonment

Roman Provinces

Carthage became a province of Africa

Now six Roman provinces:

Sicily

Sardinia-Corsica

Macedonia

Hither Spain

Further Spain

Africa

Early Roman Republic

Civilization

Mixed Feelings about the Greeks

Admiration :

Culture + history

Contempt:

Constant squabbling, commercial practices, weakness

Greek Influence

Romans spoke Greek and Latin

Upper classes were bilingual

Romans studied:

Greek law, rhetoric, literature, philosophy

The Odyssey

Livius Andronicus, liberated Greek slave, translated Odyssey into Latin

Young Romans read the epic

Latin made transition: spoken language to literary language

Greek Influences

Religious Beliefs

Greek Influence

Identified Roman gods with Greek gods

Incorporated Greek mythology

Banned Cults

Cybele: 3rd century B.C.

Senate approved public worship of Cybele

“Great Mother goddess”

Fertility cult

Had wild, ecstatic rites (like Bacchants)

Romans outraged; banned cult

Bacchus: 2nd century B.C.

Senate also banned cult of

Dionysus (Bacchus)

Chaldean Astrologers: 2nd century B.C.

Senate tried to ban the Chaldeans

Babylonian astrologers

Did not work

Education

Roman Education: The Basics

Mostly for boys

Fathers taught sons, usually at home

Type of Education:

Conservative (respected tradition), practical

Girls possibly taught to read; limited education

Typical Lessons

Reading: Heroic stories, early Roman history

Writing

Arithmetic

Farming skills

Memorized Twelve Tables

Performed religious rites

Physical training: preparation for service Roman army

Writing Instruments

Four leaves from wooden writing tablet

Students wrote on wooden tablets coated with wax

Stylus pressed letters into wax

Broad, flat end used for erasing

The Goal of Education

Training students to be moral, pious, patriotic, law abiding, respectful of tradition

Greek Influence

Greek teachers introduced study of:

Language, literature, philosophy

“Liberal arts education” = Greek concept

Humanitas: Humanities (history + literature + philosophy)

Educational Goals Changed because of Greek Influence

From practical to broader intellectual training

Included critical thinking, focused on ideas

Development of well-rounded person

The Emergence of Schools

Schools established with Greek influence

Teacher = grammaticus

Taught Greek language + literature

Focused on Greek poets – especially Homer

Elementary Education: Boys (ages 7-12)

Attended school with paedagogus

Greek slave

Helped with physical well-being and manners

Helped boy learn to speak Greek

Wrote with wax tablet and stylus

A Roman Abacus

Students used abacusand pebbles to do simple calculations.

The Next Stage

Next, aristocratic boys studied rhetoric

Art of speaking and writing well

Practical for use in law and politics

“Higher” School: Boys (ages 12-16)

Harsh discipline

“Expanded” education

Grammaticus introduced:

Greek and Latin literature Dialectic Arithmetic Geometry Astronomy Music Sometimes rhetoric

Advanced Studies: Boys (16+)

Instructors usually Greek

Boys studied formal speeches to learn rhetoric

Students wrote, memorized, analyzed speeches

Personalized Instruction

Student might follow famous public speaker

Rich Roman: bring Greek philosopher home

Teach son

Fine-tune Greek language skills

Develop critical thinking skills

Benefits of Education

Eventually, people outside senatorial class received education

Equestrian class, those outside Rome benefitted most

Education for Women

Upper class girls received “boy’s early education”

Probably taught by tutors at home

Did not study with philosophers, rhetoricians

Usually married by that time

A New Life for the Educated Woman

Education helped some women make new life

Some became prose writers; others became poets

This is a fragment of a letter from Claudia Severato Sulpicia Lepidina, inviting her friend to a birthday party.

Slavery

Changes

Originally, few slaves

More common during second century B.C.

Carthage, cities in Spainconquered

250,000 prisoners of war

Became cheaper for Romans to buy slaves

Duties

Domestic servants

Worked in mines in Spain and Sardinia

Artisans

Public clerks

Roman mosaic: 6th century A.D.

Some slaves worked as artisans in small factories and shops

Slaves’ Rights

Could marry, raise families

Some could earn money

Spend as they pleased; purchase freedom (common)

Some descendants of freed slaves became wealthy

Some became Roman citizens

Growing Number of Slaves in Italy

Most Roman landowners employed many slaves

By time of Jesus = 2 to 3 million slaves

About 35-40 percent of total population

Latifundia: Large Plantations

Most slaves worked here

Produced cash crops; owners motivated by money

Hardest work (except mines)

Slaves often worked in chains

Brutal foremen

Lived in underground prisons

Harsh Conditions led to Slave Rebellions

134 B.C. = rebellion in Sicily, lasted for more than 2 years

73 B.C. = rebellion led by Spartacus

• Gladiator, led army of 70,000 slaves

• Repeatedly defeated Romans

• Brutally crushed by Roman general, Crassus

Gladiators

Pictured on a relief from

the first century B.C. The Colchester Vase, made in Roman

Britain, shows gladiators in combat.

Crassus

Roman general who defeated Spartacus and his slave army

Decline in Slavery

Slavery declined but did not disappear

Reasons for decline:

Cost of slaves and general economic decline

More farmers employed coloni (tenant farmers)

Considered “free” but obligated to the land

The Late Republic

Roman Imperialism

Before Punic Wars

Mostly family farms

Grew grain

Relied on clients, tenants, hired workers –not slaves

After Punic Wars

Land devastated

Some farmers/soldiers abandoned farms, moved to Rome

Most worked as tenant farmers

What happened to abandoned farms?

Wealthy landowners often took abandoned land

Created the large latifundia

Grew cash crops (grain, olives, grapes )

Raised cattle

The Rich became Richer

Cheap land

Many slaves available

Small farmers became dependent

More class division

The Gracchi

Social Crisis in Middle of Second Century B.C.

Peasant farmers struggling

Hard to recruit soldiers

Clients fled land; patron’s control diminished

Introduction of secret ballot

Made former clients more independent

Tiberius Gracchus

Tiberius Gracchus: A Powerful Tribune

Land reforms targeted public landacquired, held illegally

Landholders keep up to 300 acres

State reclaims anything over that

Other land redistributed in small lots to poor

Pay rent to state; could not sell the land

Senate’s Reaction

Hostility

Many held vast estates

Others worried about interference with property rights

Some feared Tiberius’ political ambitions

Tiberius’ Fight

Land reform bill submitted for approval

Vetoed by M. Octavius (a tribune)

Tiberius appealed to Senate; opposed him

Submitted bill again; Octavius vetoed it again

A Bold Move

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

With public support, Tiberius had Octaviusremoved from office

Violated Roman constitution

Power Shift

Indicated shift of power AWAY from Senate, TO the people

Rome worried that it would become a democracy like Athens.

Tiberius proposes another bill

Harsher than the first

More appealing to the people

Provided for a commission to carry it out

King Attalus’ Will

King Attalus of Pergamum died, left kingdom to Rome

Tiberius wanted estate’s money to finance commission

Challenged Senate’s control of finances, foreign affairs

Death of Tiberius Gracchus

First internal bloodshed

in Roman history Dangerous to leave tribunate;

ran for office second time

Another strike against tradition

Riot broke out at elections

Mob of senators/clients killed

Tiberius + 300 followers

Threw bodies into Tiber River

Prior to Tiberius’ Tribunate

Political struggles mostly about honor, reputation among leading families

After Tiberius’ Tribunate

Senatorial power challenged

People have more power

Could pursue political career –without aristocratic influence

Politicians could appeal to the people for support

Division of Support

Populares = politicians who sought support of the people

Optimates = “best men,” supported traditional role of the Senate

Not political parties

Gaius Gracchus

Gaius Gracchus: Another Powerful Tribune

Brother of Tiberius

His tribunate more dangerous than Tiberius’

Had support of all tribunes

Meant: no veto of his bills

Recent law: “tribunes can be re-elected”

Programs and Reforms

Revived agrarian commission

Wanted to establish new colonies:

Two in Italy, one on site of Carthage

Passed law stabilizing price of grain in Rome

Gaius Gracchus and the Equestrians

Gaius appealed to equestrians for support

Powerful group

Served in Roman cavalry

Not peasants, not

Senators

Visible minority were

businesspeople

Duties of a Roman Equestrian

Supplied goods,

services to Roman state

Collected taxes

Many were rich

Most voted with the

Senate

Some hoped to become

senators

Gaius Gracchus and Pergamum

Made Pergamum Roman province of Asia

Gave equestrians right to collect taxes there

Result:

Equestrians formally

recognized as a class

Political unit, could

be used against

Senate

Gaius’ Reelection?

Easily won reelection as tribune in 122 B.C.

Wanted to give citizenship to Italians

Common people said “no” – Roman citizenship prized

NOT reelected in 121 B.C.

A Violent End

Hostile consul provoked violence against Gaius Gracchus

Gaius hunted down, killed

Senatorial court condemned, killed 3,000 followers – without trial

Marius and Sulla

Marius

Jugurtha, King of Numidia

Massacred Roman + Italian businessmen in his province

Jugurthine War

Senate reluctant to become involved

Equestrians and people forced Senate to declare war: 111 B.C.

The People Act!

Jugurthine War dragged on

People suspected Senate of taking Jugurtha’s bribes

C. Marius elected to consulship

Assembly (not Senate!) sent him to Numidia to fight Jugurtha

Marius: The New Man

Considered novus homo = “new man”

First in history of family to reach consulship

Wealthy equestrian, not Roman aristocrat

Married to Julius Caesar’s aunt (Julia)

Reputation: outstanding soldier, political maverick

The Capture of Jugurtha

Quickly defeated Jugurtha

BUT Jugurtha escaped – war continued

Marius’ subordinate, L. Cornelius

Sulla, trapped Jugurtha,

ended war

Sulla

Sulla

Highly ambitious

From impoverished, but noble, Roman family

Wanted credit for capturing Jugurtha – denied

Bitter rivalry between Marius and Sulla

Marius’ Contributions to Rome

Marius’ Reelection

Elected to second consulship

Dealt with uprisings among barbaric tribes

Served five consecutive terms

Marius’ Changes to the Army

Began using volunteers

Mostly farmers, rural workers who lost land

Enlisted for long term of service

Saw army as a career choice

Marius’ Mules

Client-patron relationship with their general

Soldiers given:

Food

Clothing

Shelter

Spoils of war

Upon retirement, land

Standardization

Standardized armor, weapons

Changed length of pike

Spear tip crumpled when it hit the ground

Standardized training

Shift in Loyalties

Loyalty to general rather than to the state

Now military leaders could gain political power

The War Against the Italian Allies

Italian Discontent and Drusus

Italian veterans denied land upon retirement

Senate worried about revolt

Senate expelled all Italians from Rome in 95 B.C.

91 B.C.: tribune M. Livius Drusus submitted bill to enfranchise (“give rights to”) Italians

Drusus

Assassinated in 90 B.C.

As a result, Italians revolted

Established separate confederation

• Had its own capital + coinage

Roman Peace

Citizenship for Italian cities that remained loyal

Citizenship for rebels who laid down arms

All Italians became citizens, with full rights/ protections

Italians maintained local self-government

Eventually, little distinction between Romans and Italians

Sulla’s Dictatorship

Sulla

Successful in war against Italian allies

Elected consul for 88 B.C.

Given command of war against Mithridates

Mithridates led major rebellion in Asia

Mithridates

Opposed Roman expansion for 20 years

Wore lion’s head to identify with Hercules

Sulla Marches on Rome

Marius now 70 years old

Got assembly to transfer command to him

In response, Sulla marched SIX legions against Rome

One legion = 6,000 men Six legions = 36,000 men

First time Roman general used army against Romans

The Defeat of Marius

Marius + supporters fled; Sulla then fought Mithradates

Marius joined with consul Cinna – took Rome by force

Labeled Sulla “outlaw”; massacred

senatorial opposition

Died soon after election to seventh consulship

Probably insane when he died

Cinna

Became Rome’s chief leader

Supported by Marius’ men

Rome now in the hands of populares

Sulla’s Victories

Defeated Mithridates in major battle

Not a permanent defeat

Mithridates came back later

Pompey finally defeated him

Sulla Seizes Control

Sulla returned, fought civil war (lasted two years)

Sulla’s allies included Pompey and Crassus

Drove out Marius’ supporters

Had himself appointed dictator

Not in traditional sense, but for constitutional reform

Sulla’s Proscriptions

•Ok to kill “outlaws” – without trial

• Killer (and informer) given reward

• Sulla targeted political/personal opponents

•Confiscated land, property from outlaws

• Built solid military support; shared wealth with soldiers

Sulla’s Government

Optimate — traditional; wanted return to senatorial government

Enrolled 300 new members in the Senate

Equestrians + from upper classes of Italian cities

Office of tribune made political “dead end”

Created new courts

Judge AND jurors were Senators; increased senatorial power

Sulla’s Last Days

Retired to life of ease and luxury in 79 B.C.

Compiled his memoirs in twenty-two books

Died shortly afterward

The Fall of the Republic

Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, and Cicero

The Senate Regains Power

Sulla’s constitution attacked soon after his death

Senate violated procedures meant to protect power

Senate gave command of army to Pompey

28 years old, never elected to magistracy before

Senate appointed Pompey proconsul in Spain

Pompey and Crassus

Pompey the Great

Pompey suppressed rebellion in Spain, returned glorious

Senate wanted Crassus to suppress slave rebellion

Crassus: rich, ambitious senator

Eventually commanded almost all of Italy

Pompey and Crassus Unite

Senate feared Pompey, Crassus; demanded special honors

Both elected to consulship for the year 70 B.C.

Pompey legally ineligible, needed Crassus’s support

Crassus needed Pompey’s help

Joined forced but disliked each other

Support

Gained popular support

Promised to restore full powers of tribunes

Gained equestrian support

Promising to restore equestrians to extortion court juries

Won election; repealed most of Sulla’s constitution

Pompey’s Imperium

Special law gave Pompey imperium for three years

Power to raise troops + money: defeat pirates

Given unprecedented power to fight Mithridates again

Pompey’s Unprecedented Power

Had imperium over all Asia

Could make war and peace at will

His imperium superior to any proconsul in the field

Pompey’s Success

Defeated Mithridates

Cleared seas of pirates

Extended Rome’s frontier to the Euphrates

Organized territories of Asia

More power, prestige, popular support

Pompey’s Pillar

One of the only lasting remains from ancient Alexandria

Remains of Pompey’s Theater

Senate Reaction

Senate worried that:

Pompey would emulate Sulla

Establish his own rule

Crassus

Julius Caesar

Rich, influential; no Senate support

No firm political base of his own

No military glory like Pompey

Allied with popular leader: Gaius Julius Caesar

Aeneas’ Flight from Troy

Descended from old, politically obscure, patrician family

Claimed descent from Aeneas – son of Venus

Worrisome family ties:

Uncle: Marius

First Wife: Cornelia (daughter of Cinna)

Julius Caesar, the General

Ambitious politician

Skilled orator

Allied with populares

Wanted military command to build reputation

Competed with Pompey

Cicero

Opposed Crassus for consulship

Novus homo like Marius, but not a popularis

Leading lawyer in Rome

Noted orator

Cicero’s Political Goals

Protect republic from demagogues + ambitious generals

Unite equestrians + Senate

Senate not happy, but preferred Cicero to Cataline

Dangerous + popular politician; allied with Crassus

Lucius Sergius Catilina or Cataline

•Cicero + Antonius elected consuls

•Cicero discovered Cataline’splot:

• Incite rebellions around Italy

• Hoped to take Rome by force

•Cicero acted quickly, defeated Cataline

Formation of theFirst Triumvirate

Brundisium

62 B.C. = Pompey arrived at Brundisium

Before returning to Rome, disbanded army

Illegal to march army into Rome

Celebrated great triumph

Returned to private life

Pompey’s Return to Rome

Wanted Senate to recognize achievements, grant requests:

Approve organization of Eastern provinces

Allot land to his veterans

Senate feared Pompey; refused requests

An Unlikely Alliance

Frustrated

Formed alliance with Crassus + Julius Caesar

Both were his political enemies

They believed Senate blocked their goals

Caesar’s Dilemma in 60 B.C.

Caesar returned to Rome from Spanish governorship

Wanted “triumph”; wanted to run for consul

Law did not allow both; had to choose:

Stay outside city with army OR canvass for votes

Asked for special dispensation; Senate refused

A Political Miracle

Caesar reconciled Crassus with Pompey

Gained support of both for his own ambitions

Resulted in First Triumvirate

Informal agreement

Each man sought his own, private goals

Julius Caesar & His Government of Rome

Caesar and the Pirate Attack

Wanted to polish rhetoric at skills in Rhodes

Captured by pirates, held for 38 days

Pirates wanted 20 talents (ransom); he suggested 50

Wrote poetry, told pirates he would return, crucify them

Ransomed, raised fleet, pursued pirates, fulfilled promise

Caesar’s Rise to Power

Elected to consulship for 59 B.C.

Fellow consul = Cato’s son-in-law (conservative, hostile to Caesar)

Used triumvir to get command like Pompey’s

Became governor of Illyricum and Gaul (five-year term)

Pompey, Crassus & Caesar

Pompey got what he wanted:

Land bill settling veterans + organization of East

Crassus got what he wanted:

Tax contract to benefit equestrians

Caesar given opportunity to subdue Gauls

Caesar’s Success

Progress: excellent troops + experienced officers

Conquered most of Gaul

Asked for extension of command

Crassus + Pompey fighting, weakening their power

Senate ordered Caesar’s recall

Agreements

Caesar met with Crassus, Pompey; renewed coalition

Gave Caesar another five-year command in Gaul

Crassus and Pompey: consuls again n 55 B.C.

Afterward, each would receive army + five-year command

Gaul

Captured Alesia in 51 B.C.

Marked end of Gallic resistance – and Gallic liberty

Brought Caesar wealth, fame, military power

Commanded 13 loyal legions (78,000 men)

Sketch of the double circumvallation at Alesia

Vercingetorix

Leader of the Celts

The Romans defeat the Celts

Crisis

Crassus died

Trying to conquer Parthians in the East

Successors to Persian Empire

Death of Julia ended alliance with Pompey

Caesar’s daughter – and Pompey’s wife

Rioting in Rome leads to Rivalry

Senate appointed Pompey sole consul; jealous of Caesar

Senate wanted Caesar brought back to Rome

“Become private citizen after proconsulship expires”

“Stand trial for illegalities in Gaul, etc.”

Caesar saw trap, asked to stand trial in absentia

The Rubicon River: 49 B.C.

Senate ordered Pompey to defend state

Ordered Caesar to relinquish command; issued deadline

For Caesar, this meant death or exile

Rome and the Rubicon

Caesar ordered legions to cross Rubicon River

Boundary between his province and Rome

Started a civil war

Caesar as Victor

45 B.C. = Caesar defeated Pompey’s sons in Spain

War was over

Caesar was in charge

Innovations

Spent less than a year in Rome

Tried to improve chaotic society:

Julian calendar

Elevated role of Italians

Increased number of senators to 900, including Italians + Gauls

Granted Roman citizenship freely

Caesar’s Treatment of Senate

Senate continued to play role – only in theory:

Caesar increased its size

Seated more of Caesar’s supporters in Senate

Caesar held military monopoly

Was disrespectful to Senate

Caesar’s Leadership

Appointed dictator for ten years

Next year, appointed dictator for life

Held:

Consulship

Immunity of tribune (although a patrician)

Chief priesthood

Prefect of morals (new position)

Appointed magistrates for next few years

Coin features Julius Caesar

as dictator for life

Conspiracy

Enemies quick to point out Caesar’s abuses

Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus led conspiracy

Included sixty senators in all

The Conspirators

Marcus Brutus Gaius Cassius Longinus

The Ides of March

March 15, 44 B.C.

Caesar entered Senate without bodyguard

Stabbed to death

Conspirators thought of themselves as heroes

No plan of action following Caesar’s death

No Way Back

Republic changed too much to go back

Years of civil war

Led to end of the Republic

The Second Triumvirate and the

Emergence of Octavian

Mark Antony and Octavius

Mark Antony Antony = Caesar’s capable follower

Expected to be named successor

Caesar named Gaius Octavius as heir

18 years old, adopted grandnephew; sickly, inexperienced

Inherited three-quarters of Caesar’s vast wealth

Octavius and the Senate

Caesar Augustus Senate tried to pit Octavian against Antony

Conservatives rejected request for consulship; Octavius rebelled

Took army, marched on Rome

Took adopted name: C. Julius Caesar Octavianus

Historians call him Octavian; he insisted on Caesar

A New Alliance

Lepidus 43 B.C. = Octavian became consul

Labeled conspirators “outlaws”

Needed help to fight Brutus + Cassius’ army

Pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus

Creation of Second Triumvirate

Octavian, Antony, Lepidus took control of Rome

Appointed selves “triumvirs to put the republic in order”

Established Second Triumvirate

Unlike first triumvirate

Legally empowered to rule almost dictatorially

Revenge

Wave of proscriptions started because:

Needed money to pay their troops

Individual greed

Proscriptions worse than Sulla’s

Victory for Second Triumvirate

42 B.C. = Defeated Brutus + Cassius at Philippi

Each of triumvir received a command:

Lepidus = Africa

Antony = the East

Octavian = the West

The Cost of Political Victories

Octavian went to Sicily; defeated Pompey’s son

Confiscated land in Italy to settle 100,000 veterans

Angered many people

Maecenas

Octavian’s advisor, diplomatic agent

Managed relations with Antony, Lepidus

Patron of arts: clients included Horace, Virgil

Praised Octavian’s heritage, traditional Roman values

Octavian associated with Italy, West, order, justice

Antony

Known for reckless living:

Drinking, gambling, scandalous love affairs

Married Octavian’s sister, Octavia (Antony’s fourth wife)

Octavia pregnant; Antony had affair with Cleopatra

Cleopatra VII

Smart, ambitious, beautiful, powerful

Had son with Julius Caesar

She and Mark Antony had three children

Wanted to unite Egyptian wealth and Roman power

Antony’s Ties with Egypt

Antony attacked Parthia (disastrous)

Octavian promised troops, sent none; Antony relied on Egypt

Division arose:

Octavian identified with Italy, Rome, the West

He identified Antony with Egypt, the East

Suggested that Cleopatra controlled Antony

Antony and Cleopatra

Attended public festival in Alexandria

Sat on golden thrones

She was proclaimed “Queen of Kings”

Son by Julius Caesar named “King of Kings”

Parts of Roman Empire promised to her children

Growing Conflict

32 B.C. = Conflict between Octavian, Antony (Lepidus gone)

Antony sought senatorial support

Octavian published the “will of Antony”

Revealed gifts of provinces to Cleopatra’s children

Battle of Actium

31 B.C. = Battle of Actium in western Greece

Octavian won

Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt

Both committed suicide

Octavian Reigns

Civil wars ended

Octavian became absolute ruler of Mediterranean

Faced challenges to restore stability, peace, prosperity