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4 Chapter
IT Infrastructure:Hardware and Software
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IT Infrastructure
• IT infrastructure: provides platform for supporting all
information systems in the business
• Computer hardware
• Computer software
• Data management technology
• Networking andtelecommunications technology
• Technology services
IT Infrastructure Components
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Defining a Computer
Hardware –
– consists of the physical devices associated with acomputer system
– technology for processing, data storage, input & output
Computer -
– Machine that accepts data as input
– Processes data without human intervention usingstored instructions
– Outputs information
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Defining a Computer
Hardware components include:
•Central processing unit (CPU)
•Primary storage•Secondary storage
•Input devices
•Output devices
•Communication devices
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Representing Data
Binary or Machine Language
• The language that all computers use
• Expressed in 0s or 1s only
• Binary utilizes Base-2 math to convert from normalcharacters to binary code (e.g. A = 0100 0001 inbinary)
• Bit (binary digit) – a single 0 or 1, the smallest unit of
information that a computer can process• Byte – a group of 8 bits representing one natural
language character
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Representing Data
Types of Binary Coding
• 8 bit coding schemes:
– ASCII
– EBCIDIC
• 16 bit coding schemes:
– Unicode
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Processing HW: Central Processing Unit
• Central processing unit (CPU) (or
microprocessor) - the actual hardware that
interprets and executes the program (SW)
instructions and coordinates how all the otherhardware devices work together
– Control unit
– Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU)
– Registers
– L1 (Internal) Cache Memory
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Processing HW: Central Processing Unit
– Control unit - interprets software instructions and
literally tells the other hardware devices what to do,
based on the software instructions – Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) - performs
• all arithmetic operations (for example, addition and
subtraction)
• logical operations (such as sorting and comparingnumbers)
• storage and retrieval operations
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Processing HW: Central Processing Unit
– Registers - provide temporary storage where data
resides while it is being processed or manipulated
– L1 (Internal) Cache Memory - a small block of memory used by the processors to store those
instructions used most recently or most often
• incorporated into the microprocessor’s design, right
on the CPU chip
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Processing Issue: Speed
Speed – how fast can we process an instruction?
Measured in fractions of a second:
– Micro- (1 millionth) .000001
– Nano- (1 billionth) .000000001
– Pico- (1 trillionth) .000000000001
– Femto - (1 quadrillionth).000000000000001
– Atto - (1 quintillionth) .000000000000000001
– Zepto - (1 sextillionth .000000000000000000001
– Yocto-(1 septillionth) .000000000000000000000001
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Processing – Performance Factors
• Clock Speed – the speed of the internal clock
(system clock) that sets the pace at which
operations proceed; clock speed is measured in
hertz (MHZ, GHZ)
• Word length – the number of bits that can be
processed by the CPU at one time: 32 bit vs.
64 bit
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Processing – Performance Factors
• Bus – the link between devices connected to
the computer
– Internal or External
– Serial or Parallel
• Bus width – the size of the electrical pathway
along which signals are sent from one part of
the computer to another
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Processing – Performance Factors
• Processor configuration -
– Single processor
– Multiple processors aka “co- processor” – Multicore processor – an integrated circuitwith multiple cores/processors attached(dual core, quad-core, etc)
• Enhanced performance
• Reduced power consumption
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Evolution of Processing Technology
The History of Computer Hardware
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• Personal digital assistant (PDA), smartphones,
e-readers
• Tablet
• Netbook, Laptop
• Desktop
• Workstation
• Minicomputer
• Mainframe computer
• Server • Supercomputer
• Grid Computing
Types of Computers
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• Servers:
• Often a type of midrange computer.
• Support computer network, sharing files and resources.
• Provide hardware platform for e-commerce.
• Types of Servers:
• Application Print
• Database Remote access (RAS)• Disk Web
• Fax File
Types of Computers
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Supercomputer:
• More sophisticated computer used for tasks requiring extremely
rapid and complex calculations with thousands of variables,
millions of measurements• Used in engineering, scientific simulations, military/weapons
research, weather forecasting
• Utilize parallel processing – the ability to run two or more tasks
simultaneously by using multiple processors linked to operate
together
• http://www.top500.org/lists/2012/06
Types of Computers
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Grid computing:
• Power of geographically remote computers connected into single
network to act as “virtual supercomputer”
• Connecting different computers to combine their processing power to
solve a particular problem
• Each participant in a grid is called a “node”
• Advantages:
• Cost savings
• Speed of computation
• Improved reliability - processing on overused nodes can be
switched to idle nodes
• Scalability
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Three Basic Types:
• Centralized – processing is done by one large central
computer • Decentralized – each user, department, division has its own
computer for processing
• Distributed – processing power is distributed among several
locations; multiple computers are linked by a communicationsnetwork for processing
Processing Configurations
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Client/server computing:
• Form of distributed computing
• Splits processing between “clients” and “servers” – each type
assigned certain functions
• Clients: user point of entry; requests services from a server
• Servers: store and process shared data and perform networkmanagement activities in response to client requests
• Servers may be dedicated to special functions (slide 17)
Processing Configurations
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Two-tiered client/server architecture - uses two types of
machines – a client computer networked to a server computer
Processing Configurations
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N-tier or Multitiered client/server architecture
• Balances load of network over several levels of servers (E.g.
Web servers and application servers)
Processing Configurations
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Storage HW: Memory Devices
• Storage Capacity – how much can we store?
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Storage HW: Memory Devices
• Main memory
– Semi-conductor memory chips
– Consists of RAM, ROM and L2 Cache that is directly
accessible to the CPU• Secondary memory
– Nonvolatile
– Holds data when the computer is off or during course
of a program's operation – Serves as archival storage
– Various types
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Main Memory: Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Random access memory (RAM) - the computer’s
primary working memory; used to store program
instructions & data that can be accessed directly by the
CPU via the processor’s high-speed data bus – Provides temporary storage for computer operations
– Stores programs and data currently in use
– CPU can randomly access the data stored in RAM
– Instructions are considered volatile and will be lost when thecomputer is turned off
– Individual RAM chips, SIMM, DIMM
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Main Memory: L2 Cache
• Cache memory - a type of high-speed
memory that the CPU can access more rapidly
than main memory (RAM); used to store
recently accessed or frequently accessed dataand instructions
– L2 (External) cache is a separate chip that is
located on the motherboard very close to the CPUfor easy access
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Main Memory: Read-Only Memory (ROM)
• Read-only memory (ROM)
• Nonvolatile (does not lose its contents when
one switches off the power)
• Stores permanent control instructions: “boot
up” commands – BIOS and the system
clock
• Other forms: PROM, EPROM
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Secondary Memory/Storage
• Secondary memory/storage - consists of equipmentdesigned to store large volumes of data for long-termstorage
• Nonvolatile - is used to permanently storeinformation; comes in many types
• Offers greater capacity & greater economy
• Issues:
– Access method – Storage capacities
– Portability
– Cost
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Storage Access Methods
• Sequential: records must be retrieved in order
– Devices used are called sequential access storage
devices (SASD)
• Direct: records can be retrieved in any order –
also called Random Access
– Devices used are called direct access storage
devices (DASD) – Each storage location has a unique address
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Exhibit 2.3 Examples of Secondary Storage Devices
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Secondary Storage Choices: Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape
– Plastic (mylar) tape on which data is stored
in form of magnetized spots (bits)
– Sequential access only
– Commonly used for back up or storing
archival data
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Secondary Storage Choices: Magnetic Disks
• Magnetic Disks
• Direct (random) or sequential access
• Data is stored in form of magnetized spots (bits)
• Fast data retrieval for individual data items• Each storage location has a unique address identifying the
track and sector
• Disks with multiple platters also need to know which platter
and which side of the platter the data is stored on• Issues
• Capacity
• Portability
• Access time
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Secondary Storage Choices: Magnetic Disks
• Types of Magnetic Disks• Hard Disks – can be internal or external
• Floppy diskettes• ZIP
• RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
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Secondary Storage Choices: Optical Discs
Uses a laser to: write by burning spots into a diskcoated with a metallic substance; read byinterpreting the reflection of the light off theburned-in data spots
– Compact Disk (CD) – original form of opticaldata storage
• CD-ROM (read only); CD-R (write once); CD-RW(can re-write)
– Digital Video Disk (DVD) – optical storageformat used for movies & other video media butcan also be used for data storage; holds over 7times or more a CD’s capacity
• DVD DVD-R DVD-RW Blu-ray
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Secondary Storage Choices: Flash Media
• Flash Memory – a special type of semi-
conductor memory that is portable, non-
volatile and can be electronically erased &
rewritten to – Flash Drives/Jump Drives/USB Drives
– Memory cards or memory sticks – high capacity semi-
conductor storage that holds data such as captured images,
music or text files for a variety of portable devices
including computers, digital cameras, MP3 players, PDAs,
gaming systems
T bl 2 4
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Capacity of Secondary Memory Devices
Table 2.4
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Secondary Storage: Storage Networking
• SAN – Storage area network
• A dedicated high-speed network used to
connect & manage shared storage devices of
different types
– Speeds up data access
– Easy to add to
– Can integrate different types of storage
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Secondary Storage: SAN
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A Storage Area Network (SAN)
Secondary Storage: SAN
Figure 4-4
A typical SAN consists of aserver, storage devices,and networking devices,and is used strictly for
storage. The SAN storesdata on many differenttypes of storage devices,providing data to theenterprise. The SANsupports communication
between any server and thestorage unit as well asbetween different storagedevices in the network.
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• Type/format of data – text, numbers, audio,images, video
• Data - can be human or machine readable
• 2 Step Process
– Data entry - converts human readable data into
machine-readable form
– Data input - transfers the machine-readable datainto the system
• Traditional data entry methods …
Input Hardware
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Input HW: Text & Numbers
• Primary device is keyboard – each key has its
own digital code
• Converts human readable data into machine
readable format and transfers it to the system
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Input HW Issue: Ergonomics
• Ergonomics – the study of designing & positioningcomputer equipment for employee health & safety
• Health Concerns – Stress & anxiety
– Repetitive stress injury (RSI) – Repetitive motion disorders
– Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)
– Eye strain
– Harmful emissions from monitors, cell phones, laserprinters, etc.
• http://datahand.com/overview/photos.htm • www.footmouse.com/
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Input HW: Pointing & Selecting Information
• Input HW that allows you to select items from
menus, to point, & to sketch or draw
– Mouse
– Joystick
– Trackball
– Touchpad
– Stylus & Light Pens
– Touch sensitive screens
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• Devices used to automate the entry of data
– Handheld or Flatbed Scanners
– Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
– Optical Character Recognition (OCR) – Bar Code Scanners
– Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
– Smart Cards
– Cards with RFID Chips
– QR Codes
Input HW: Automated Input Devices
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Radio Frequency Identification: An Overview
• Radio frequency identification (RFID) tag
– Small electronic device consisting of a small chip andan antenna
– Provides a unique identification for the card or theobject carrying the tag
– Don’t have to be in contact with the scanner to beread
– Can be read from a distance of about 20 feet
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What are QR Codes?
• QR Code (Quick Response Code)
– A type of matrix barcode
– Fast readability and large storagecapacity
– Used in a wide range of applicationsincluding commercial tracking,ticketing, product marketing, and in-store product labeling
– Many applications target mobile device
users who can scan the QR Code toaccess a URL or other data
– http://searchengineland.com/what-is-a-qr-
code-and-why-do-you-need-one-27588
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Input HW: Entering Audio Data
• Audio HW includes microphones & speakers• Voice-recognition devices
– Involve converting human speech patterns into digital patterns
– Convenient when need “hands-free” input
– Very easy/user-friendly – Requires large storage capacity
– Still relatively slow & error prone
– Greater accuracy requires “training” the computer to recognizeindividual voice patterns
– Problems with word recognition …. • “Recognize speech/wreck a nice beach”
• “Dr. Wright will write the right prescription and you can take it toRite-Way Pharmacy …”
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Input HW: Entering Audio Data
• Other Audio Input Applications:
– Internet based telephone calls (VOIP)
– Instant Messaging with voice
– On-line video gaming
– Videoconferencing
– Music
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Input HW: Entering Video Data
• Video Input HW includes digital & video
cameras and players
• Business quality videoconferencing cameras &
equipment
• Web cams – lower quality & cost cams used
for Internet chatting or office-to-office
videoconferencing
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• “Dumb” terminals
– Perform data entry & input at the same time
– Are connected by lines or cables to a complete
computer system• Point-of-Sale (POS) Devices
– Terminals used in retail operations to enter salesinformation into the computer system
• Both of these may incorporate other I/Odevices such as keyboards, bar code readers,OCR scanners, printers, monitors
Other Input HW Devices
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• Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Devices
– Special purpose input/output device
– Incorporate other I/O devices such as keypads,
monitors, printers, credit/debit card readers,deposit slots, cash dispensers
• Brain Wave Input
– Also called a neural interface
– Uses biofeedback techniques to learn to controlcertain types of brain waves in order to cause sometype of action to occur
Other Input HW Devices
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Other Input HW Devices
Brain Wave input
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d55CJYtHKAI
Dasher SW (eye movement as input)
– http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/dasher/Demonstrations.ht
ml
Microsoft Surface Computing
- http://news.com.com/1606-2_3-6186146.html
Tongue Drive System -http://www.gatech.edu/newsroom/release.html?nid=110351
http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2008/1112-
tonguedrive_wheelchair.htm
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• Trends in Input HW
– More direct input
– Easy to use – Faster
– More accurate
– Fewer steps
– Less paper
Trends in Input HW
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Output HW • Output may be provided in printed, digital,
visual, audio form
• Should be appropriate media choice for use
• Hard copy vs. Soft copy
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• Display Monitors• Technology used to generate image
– CRT,LCD,LED, plasma
• Screen size, screen shape, colors, energy requirements
• Response time, contrast ratio, degree of viewing angle
• Resolution –
– Pixel – dot or picture element; the more pixels or dots per
square inch, or dpi, the sharper the image
– Dot pitch – the distance between one pixel & another; the
closer the pixels are together the sharper the image
• VRAM – video RAM
– Image data is put into this faster video memory to optimize
speed in getting it displayed
Output HW: Visual
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Output HW: “Hard Copy”
Printers – Issues: – Speed: pages per minute
– Print quality (resolution) – the higher the dpi (dots perinch) the better the print quality
– Graphics/colors/multiple part forms – Photo input slots/photo paper tray
– Size of LCD screen for menu, commands
– Buttons vs. touch screen input
– Built-in wireless access
– “e- printing” from mobile or remote device
Plotters – produce high quality graphics; used for typesof design work
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Output HW: Audio
• Voice Output – voice synthesizers
• Music Output – Speakers
– MP3 Players
Audio Audio is transmitted using a sound card inserted into oneof the motherboard’s slots and is connected to speakers.The computer translates digital code into sound bysending the data to the sound card that interprets thesedata into tones
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Output HW: Scents & more …?
• Scents, Taste, Textures ? Scratch & Sniff web sites ??
• The sense of smell is closely tied to memory & emotion,making scent a powerful way to reinforce ideas.
• We are used to smells/odors informing us about the state of
things in our immediate vicinity … • Scents can be used in a symbolic way – released as cues to
signify an event or condition … – E-commerce
– Education/training
– Travel
– Games/entertainment
– Food/cooking
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Contemporary Hardware Trends
• The emerging mobile digital platform
• New handheld devices like cell phones, netbooks, tablets and e-
readers now present an alternatives to PC’s and larger
computers – providing a new “platform”
• Wireless communications thru 3G/4G cell networks and Wi-Fi
• New software apps
• Nanotechnology
• Technology that builds structures and processes based on the
manipulation of individual atoms and molecules
• Creating computer chips and other devices thousands of times
smaller through manipulating individual atoms, molecules
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Contemporary Hardware Trends
Virtualization - Process of presenting a set of computing
resources so they can be accessed in ways that are
unrestricted by physical configuration or geographic
location
• Server virtualization: running more than one
operating system at the same time on single machine;
“acts” as if one machine is several different ones
• Reduces the number of computers required for
processing, boosts server utilization rates (improve
productivity, lower costs)
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Contemporary Hardware Trends
Cloud Computing:
• A model of computing in which firms and individuals obtain
computing resources over the Internet
• Includes the following characteristics
• On demand self service
• Ubiquitous network access
• Location independent resource pooling
• Rapid elasticity
• Measured service
• Public cloud vs. private cloud
• Utility (on-demand) computing – users pay for computing or
storage resources on an as-needed basis
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Contemporary Hardware Trends
Cloud Computing, cont.
• Different types of services:
• Cloud infrastructure as a service – co’s use processing,
storage, networking resources from cloud providers
• Cloud platform as a service – customers use infrastructure
and programming tools hosted by the vendor to develop
their own applications/software
• Cloud software as a service – SaaS – customers use SW
hosted by the vendor
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Contemporary Hardware Trends
• Green computing
• Practices and technologies for designing, making, using, and
disposing of computer hardware
• Key priority is power reduction
• IT in U.S. provides 2% of U.S. power demand and 2% of
world’s greenhouse gases
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Contemporary Hardware Trends
Autonomic computing:
• Development of systems that can configure themselves,
optimize and tune themselves, heal themselves, protect
themselves from outside intruders
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Computer Software
• Software – “programs”
– the programs that run a computer system
– step by step directions for performing aspecific task
– the instructions that operate the informationsystem
– written in a language the computer canunderstand
• Classified broadly as:
– System software
– Application software
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The Major Types of Software
Figure 4-7
The relationship among thesystem software, applicationsoftware, and users can beillustrated by a series of nestedboxes. System software—
consisting of operating systems,language translators, and utilityprograms—controls access to thehardware. Application software,including programminglanguages and ―fourth-
generation‖ languages, mustwork through the system softwareto operate. The user interactsprimarily with the applicationsoftware.
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System Software
• System software – controls access to the
hardware; the collection of programs that control
the basic functions of computer hardware; controlshow the various technology tools work together
along with the application software
– Operating system software – Utility software
– Language translators
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System Software: Operating System Software
• Operating system (OS)
– Set of programs for controlling and managingcomputer activities
– Provides an interface between a computer and theuser
• GUIs and multitouch
– Increases computer efficiency by helping users sharecomputer resources and performing repetitive tasks
for users
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System Software: Utility Software
• Utility SW - provides additional functionality to theoperating system
• Types of utility software – Crash-proof
– Disk image
– Disk optimization
– Encrypt data
– File and data recovery
– Spam blockers – Virus protection
– Spyware detection
– Uninstallers
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System Software: Language Translators
• Language Translators
– Set of programs for translating programs written inprogramming languages higher than machinelanguage (1st generation languages) into machinelanguage
• Assemblers
• Compilers
• Interpreters
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Programming Language Translating Programs
A type of System SW -
– Assembler - SW program used to convert 2nd generation program instructions (source code) intomachine code (object code) prior to being loaded into acomputer’s secondary storage
– Compiler – SW program used to convert 3rd generationand higher program instructions (source code) intomachine code (object code) prior to being loaded into acomputer’s secondary storage
– Interpreter – SW program similar to a compiler butinstead of translating the entire source code to machinelanguage prior to executing, it reads, translates, andexecutes one line of source code at a time duringoperation
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Application Software
• Application software – Can perform a variety of tasks; used for specific
information processing needs for the user
• Types
– Programming Languages
– Business Systems
– Desktop productivity tools
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Application SW: Programming Languages
Programming Language -
• Set of key words, symbols and rules (syntax) for
constructing statements by which humans can
communicate instructions to be executed by acomputer
• Are used to write program instructions - have evolved
over time, making them more powerful, easier to read
and write, and more natural language-focused
• Different languages have different characteristics
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Application SW: Programming Languages
• The only programming language the computerunderstands is machine language (binary code)
• All other languages must be translated back into
machine language• Programming language translating programs are a
type of systems SW
• 2nd generation languages (assembly languages) use an
assembler
• 3rd & up generation languages use a compiler or an
interpreter
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First Generation Languages
• Machine languages
• Binary code (0s and 1s)
• Machine dependent
• Procedural• Most efficient for the computer
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Second Generation Languages
• Assembly languages (Symbolic languages)
– Symbolic code – uses short code/acronyms
– Machine dependent
– Procedural
– Still fairly efficient for the computer
– Use an assembler (SW program) to translate back
to machine language – Used to write types of Systems Software programs
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Third Generation Languages
• High-level languages – Use English-like statements & commands and standard
mathematical notation/formulas
– Procedural
– NOT machine dependent – Less efficient for the computer, more efficient for the
programmer
– Many choices
• COBOL, Fortran, Basic, C, Pascal, etc. – Use a compiler or an interpreter (SW programs) to
translate back to machine language
F th G ti L
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Fourth-Generation Languages
• Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs) – Very high-level languages, more English-like, easier to
learn
– Enable end users to develop SW applications with little or
no technical assistance – NON procedural - programs tell the CPU the desired
results or outcome, not how to get them (sometimes called“outcome oriented” languages)
– NOT machine dependent
– Examples: SQL, SAS, Focus, Nomad, PowerBuilder
– Use a compiler to translate back to machine language
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Categories of Fourth-Generation Languages
IT Infrastructure: Computer Software
Tool Description Example
PC software tools General-purpose software packages for
PCs
WordPerfect
Microsoft Access
Query language Languages for retrieving data stored in
databases or files
SQL
Report generator Specialized tools for creating highly
customized reports
Crystal Reports
Graphics language Display data from databases in graphic
format
SAS Graph
Systat
Application generator Preprogrammed modules to generateentire applications
WebFOCUSQuickBase
Application softwarepackage
Software programs that eliminate need
for custom, in-house software
Oracle PeopleSoft HCM
mySAP ERP
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Application Software: Business Systems
• Business application SW – Financial planning and accounting
– Project management
– Computer-aided design (CAD) – HR – payroll, benefits
– Operations – inventory management, logistics
– Other functional area business systems
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Application SW: Desktop Productivity Tools
Software packages that support OfficeAutomation & the daily work activities of individuals & groups
– Word Processing SW – Spreadsheet SW
– Data management SW
– Presentation graphics SW – Software Suites
– Web browsers
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Software for the Web:• Java
• HTML (Hypertext markup language)
• HTML5
Web Services
• XML (Extensible markup language)
Software for the Web & Web Services
C apte ast uctu e a d a e a d So t a e
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Software for the Web & Web Services
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• Open Source Software – source code is
available so anyone can make changes – to fix
errors or make improvements
• Linux, Apache
• Cloud Computing – cloud based SW & tools
• Software as a Service (SaaS)
• Google Apps, Office Web Apps
Software Trends
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• Mashups – SW composed ofinterchangeable components that mix freelywith other applications
• Mix and match to create your owncustomized applications
• Apps – small pieces of SW that run on theInternet, on your computer or on your
mobile phone or other device
• Games, music, social networking, news,weather, maps, etc.
Software Trends
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Managing HW and SW Technology
• Capacity planning
• Determining Costs – Total Cost ofOwnership
• Using Technology Service Providers
• Outsourcing
• Using Cloud Services
• Managing SW localization for globalbusiness
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