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CHAPTER
4
Kraft Pulping and Characterization of Strength Properties of
Fungal Treated and Untreated Bamboo Pulps
4.1 Introduction
Kraft pulping is one of the major chemical pulping processes used for production
of pulp from complex wood based raw materials (Grace and Malcolm, 1989;
Gullichsen and Fogetholm, 2000). In order to make paper from wood or annual plants,
the fibers are released either mechanically or chemically (Sjostrom and Westermark,
1993; Biermann, 1996) and among all pulping methods, kraft pulping is the most widely
used process. About 95% chemical pulp worldwide is produced using this method (FAO,
1998; Sixta, 2006; Sjodahl, 2006). This process depends largely on chemical
components, chemical concentration, chemical charge, chip cleanliness, dimensions, time
of cooking, temperature, pressure and proper combination of chemicals and energy is
vital for uniform cooking (Smook, 1992). Global environmental concerns for abatement
of pollution from pulp and paper mills have resulted in exploration of alternative methods
leading to better delignification by using environmentally compatible chemicals and
micro-organisms. Biological processes offers potential opportunities for making the
industry more environment friendly as removal of lignin can be achieved by use of white
rot fungi to degrade the complex recalcitrant lignin molecules in the lignocellulosic raw
materials. White rot fungi alter the lignin polymers in the cell walls of the wood, which
therefore "softens" the wood chips (Hunt et al., 2004; Talaeipour et al., 2010; Kasmani
et al., 2011). The main challenge in the biological delignification is long duration of
fungal development on the wood substrates and less delignification. The reason ascribed
for slow growth of fungi is that the fungal hyphae can not penetrate to the core of chips
and only surface phenomenon occurs during fungal treatment stage. When the chips are
exposed for longer duration it has been observed that cellulose degradation starts, which
is required for growth of the fungi (Krik et al., 1980; Zodrazil and Brunnert, 1981;
Odier and Monties, 1983). Therefore for growth of the fungi without significant
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cellulose/ hemicellulose degradation, it is necessary that proper substrate modification
should be made to grow fungi within minimum time periods. In view of this bamboo
chips were mechanically destructured for opening the fiber structure, thereby increasing
the surface area and reducing the density. The bamboo chips subjected to mechanical
destructuring were treated with white rot fungi for effective biodelignification and these
pretreated samples were subsequently cooked for different time periods to find out the
effect of biodelignification on strength properties of the pulp. The present chapter is
focused on the chemical kraft pulping process of fungal treated bamboo destructured and
non destructured samples.
4.1.1 Kraft Pulping
C.F. Dahl is usually credited with the development of the kraft process in 1879.
He first substituted the make-up chemical, sodium carbonate, often used to replace the
alkali consumed in the soda cooking, by sodium sulphate. In 1884, Dahl obtained a
patent for this process. It was found that the addition of sulphide (obtained in the
recovery boiler from the sulphate) to the cook accelerated the delignification and gave a
stronger pulp than the soda process. The active chemicals in the kraft process are
hydroxide and hydrogen sulfide ions in the form of NaOH and Na2S, also known as white
liquor. White liquor is reacted with the raw materials in a large pressure vessel called a
digester. The white liquor and the chips are heated to a cooking temperature of about
1600C and are allowed to cook at that temperature for about two hours. This cooking
temperature and time is usually maintained for hardwood fibers. For non wood fibers,
usually lower temperature and cooking time is required. During the pulping, the
hydroxide and hydrosulfide anions react with the lignin, causing the polymer to fragment
into smaller water/alkali-soluble fragments (Hamidi, 2006).
4.1.2 Kraft Pulping Chemistry
During kraft cooking, the lignin, which essentially glues the fibers together, is
degraded by the active cooking species, the hydroxide and hydrogen sulphide ions. The
degradation products are dissolved and the fibers are separated from each other. The de-
polymerization of lignin in an alkaline process is mainly due to the cleavage of β-aryl
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ether linkages. The cleavage of the β-O-4 linkages is increased by reactions involving
hydrogen sulphide ions, and this in turn increases the rate of delignification in the kraft
cook. After degradation, the lignin is dissolved in the cooking liquor. Depending on the
sodium hydroxide ion concentration and on other parameters affecting the solubility, the
lignin can precipitate back onto the fibers. Alkalinity is the most important driving force
for kraft pulping reaction and large amount of chemical is needed to carry the cooking
reaction to completion (Christensen, 1991). Sulphidity enhances the rate of
delignification without affecting the carbohydrates. The initial pH lies between 13 to 14
due to sodium hydroxide, which decreases with time as the organic acids are liberated
from wood during cooking (Islam, 2004).
The delignification process during kraft cooking is known to be divided into three
dominating phases (Fig. 4.2) in the production of pulp for bleached grades. These phases
are known as the initial, bulk and residual delignification phases (Clayton, 1963; Olm
and Tistad, 1979; Wilder and Daleski, 1965; Kleinert, 1966; LeMon and Teder,
1973). Mainly low molecular weight lignin dissolves during the initial phase. As the kraft
cook continues, lignin fractions of higher molecular weight are dissolved (Gellerstedt et
al., 1984; Soderhjelm, 1986). According to the studies of Wilder and Daleski (1965)
23% of the lignin in the wood chip is removed during the first five minutes of pulping at
1500C thereafter the delignification slows down remarkably (Chakar and Ragauskas,
2004). Most of the delignification process, accounting for about 70% of the lignin, occurs
during the slower bulk phase. The residual phase, which is less selective towards lignin
degradation, starts to dominate after about 90-95% delignification. The further pulping
could result in significant degradation of carbohydrates. The remaining or residual lignin,
typically 4–5% (by weight) at the end of a conventional softwood kraft cook, is removed via
bleaching techniques. It has been suggested that the poor selectivity in the residual
delignification phase may be attributed to: (i) the low reactivity of the residual lignin towards
the pulping chemicals results in more resistance to delignification; (ii) the residual lignin
being chemically linked to carbohydrates is resistant to delignification (Hamidi, 2006).
The carbohydrate degradation is, however, better divided into two different
phases (Lindgren, 1997) involving peeling, chain cleavage and dissolution of short
carbohydrate chains. A significant part, 40-70% of the hemicelluloses in softwood mainly
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glucomannan is dissolved during the first phase (Aurell and Hartler, 1965). The
removal of glucomannan is independent of the alkali concentration while the degradation
of xylan increases by 50% when the hydroxide concentration is increased from 1.0 to 1.5
mol/dm3 (Aurell, 1963). The selectivity of the kraft cook, i.e. the carbohydrate yield at a
given lignin content in the pulp, decreases when the slow residual phase delignification
starts to dominate, since the carbohydrate degradation rate is the same as when the faster
bulk delignification phase is dominating.
4.1.3 Black Liquor
Black liquor, the spent pulping liquor, is a dark viscous liquid that is separated
from the pulp after the cooking process. Black liquor contains dissolved lignin and other
alkali soluble organic matters as well as inorganic components of white liquor. Black
liquor is concentrated and incinerated in a specially designed recovery boiler to recover
cooking chemicals and generate steam from combustion of organic matters. Modern
recovery boilers produce steam at high pressure (45 to 60 kg/cm2) and this steam is used
to generate electricity by passing through steam turbines (Testova, 2006). The steam
extracted from the turbines at lower pressures (10 kg/cm2) is used to meet the process
heating requirements in pulp mill. A modern pulp mill is self sufficient in terms of the
steam and power needs provided it has an efficient chemical recovery island. The physic-
chemical properties of black liquor are very important from the economical point of view
of the mill. The inorganic and organic constituents present in the black liquor determine
suitability of the pulping method for further processing in a recovery island. The changes
in composition of the raw material after fungal treatment can significantly change the
characteristics of the black liquor, therefore it is necessary that evaluation of black liquor
characteristics should be studied to find out the effect of fungal pretreatment on various
black liquor properties.
4.2 Pulping After Biological Pretreatment: Related Literature Review
A large number of research group have carried out studies on pulping and
bleaching of fungal treated lignocellulosic raw materials. A systematic literature search
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was carried out to review various studies carried out in this field and a brief review of
literature is presented below.
Akamatsu et al. (1984) demonstrated that poplar chips treated with 10 species of
fungi reduced refining energy during thermomechanical pulping: three fungi (Trametes
sanguinea, T. coccinea, and Coriolous hirsutus) improved breaking length and tear
strength properties.
Akhtar et al. (1992a) have shown that fungal treatment of aspen and loblolly pine
with Ceriporiopsis subvermispora prior to refiner mechanical pulping shows promising
results in terms of electrical energy saving, improving paper strength properties and
reducing the environmental impact of pulping. They found that aspen wood required 47%
less energy. Burst and tear indices increased by 22% and 19% respectively. With loblolly
pine, energy saving amounted to 37%, burst and tear indices increased by 41% and 45%
respectively. Fungal treatment caused 6% weight loss in aspen and 5% in loblolly pine.
Beth wall et al. (1993) found that pretreatment of wood with white rot fungus,
Phanerochaete chrysosporium could successfully biopulp softwood, save 33% energy
and improved 39% tear index. Subsequently, Pilon et al. (1982) reported an increase in
paper strength properties when refiner mechanical pulp was treated with Polyporus
versicolor.
In a study by Akhtar et al. (1992b) loblolly pine chips were treated with five
different strains of the white-rot fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (FP-90031-sp, FP-
105752, L-14807, L-15225, and FP-104027) for four weeks prior to refiner mechanical
pulping. Weight loss of the chips during fungal treatment ranged from 4% to 7%. The
electricity consumed during fiberizing and refining of the treated chips was 21-37% less
than control chips. All five fungal strains improved burst (33-46%) and tear indices (47-
60%) over the untreated control. Fungal treatment had no effect on tensile properties.
Hand sheets prepared from treated pulps had lower brightness and light scattering
coefficient. Treatment had no apparent effect on opacity. Based on energy savings and
improvement in strength properties, strain FP-90031-sp appeared to be superior to the
other strains.
Pretreatment of aspen wood chips with three different strains of the white-rot
fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (FP-90031-sp, L-6133-sp, and CZ-3) for four weeks
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prior to refiner mechanical pulping saved electrical energy (40-48%) and improved burst
(23-40 %), tear (13l–l62%), tensile (17–27%), and tensile energy absorption (13–25%)
indices. All strains decreased density (12–14%), brightness (18–21%), and light
scattering coefficient (34–37%) over the untreated control. Based on energy savings and
strength improvements, strain CZ-3 appeared to be superior to the other (Akhtar, 1994).
Two strain of Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (CZ-3 and SS-3) were used for
treatment of loblolly pine chips prior to sodium and calcium based sulfite pulping. Scott
et al. (1998) found that during sodium-bisulfite pulping, the fungal pretreatments reduced
the kappa number by 27% with slightly lower pulp yield compared to the control.
However during calcium based sulfite pulping, strains CZ-3 and SS-3 reduced kappa
number by 48% and 21% but had the same pulp yield as that of the control.
Mosai et al. (1999) has shown that among 10 fungal species and strains,
Ceriporiopsis subvermispora SS-3 was found most promising for studies of biosulfite
pulping of E. grandis. After 10 days treatment, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora SS-3
decreased kappa number by 29% and increased brightness by 12% with 5% lost of pulp
yield. When the inoculation time was reduced to 5 days, 5% reduction of kappa number,
11% increase in brightness and no loss of pulp yield were observed.
Sabharwal et al. (1996) investigated that Ceriporiopsis subvermispora saves
electrical energy (8-10%) during biomechanical pulping and also improves strength
properties in non woody plant such as jute and kenef.
Biomechanical pulping of loblolly and red pine logs pretreated with Phlebiopsis
gigantea were investigated by Blanchette et al. (1998) and Behrendt et al. (2000).
Results showed that P. gigantea was able to colonize 90 to 100% of the freshly cut logs
after 8 weeks. Up to a 59% decrease in resinous wood extractives was observed in
loblolly and red pine logs inoculated with P. gigantea as compared to non-inoculated
logs. Simon’s staining was used to evaluate cell wall changes in mechanically refined
pulp fibers during biological pulping processes, and showed 55 to 77% of the fibers from
treated logs stained, while 25 to 58% of the fibers from aged control logs stained. Refined
wood from inoculated logs required less energy (9 to 27%) to reach a freeness of 100
CSF (control). Pretreatment of red pine logs with P. gigantea also resulted in a 17%,
20%, and 13% increase in burst, tear, and tensile strength properties respectively.
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Suitability of 278 strains of South African wood decay fungi for the pretreatment
of softwood chips for kraft pulping was assessed on the basis of kappa number, yield and
strength properties of pulp. A number of these strains were more efficient in reducing
kappa number than the frequently used strains of Phanerochaete chrysosporium, and
Ceriporiopsis subvermispora. Six strains of Stereum hirsutum and a strain of an
unidentified species were able to reduce the kappa number significantly without a
significant influence on the pulp yield (Wolfaardt et al., 2004).
The soda–AQ pulps were made from the reed by Fu et al. (2004) after
pretreatment by white rot fungi Panus conchatus, Cyathus stercoreus and Pleurotus
florida respectively. The results showed that kappa number of the pulps decreased from
11% and 24%, the brightness increased from 10% and 33% and the viscosity increased
from 8% and 5% respectively by Pleurotus florida and Panus conchatus. The alkali
consumptions were decreased substantially and pulp yields were increased by 6% and
30% respectively. But it was reversed for the pulp from reed treated by Cyathus stercoreus.
Cyathus stercoreus was preferential to degrade cellulose, which was not good for
biopulping.
Scott et al. (1995) examined the effect of fungal pretreatment prior to sodium and
calcium based sulfite pulping. The pretreatment involved a 2-week incubation of the
chips with two strains of Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (CZ-3 and SS-3). The results from
this experiment indicated that during sodium bisulfite pulping kappa number reduced
27% with slightly lower pulp yield but during calcium based sulfite pulping strains CZ-3
and SS-3 reduced the kappa number by 48% and 21%.
Young et al. (2003) treated poplar wood chips in a rotary bioreactor for 10 days
with the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium KCCM 34740 prior to kraft
cooking. It was observed that fungal pretreatment increased pulp yield and reduced the
kappa number of the hardwood pulps. Additionally, lower initial pulp freenesses were
observed. They also observed that the energy required for beating (to achieve target
freeness) was significantly lower in fungal pretreated wood, without any deleterious
influence on paper quality. These findings clearly suggested that fungal pretreatment of
hardwood chips with P. chrysosporium KCCM 34740 could reduce the chemical loading
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and energy consumption during kraft pulping, and concurrently reduce the energy
required during pulp refining.
Alkaline sulfite/anthraquinone pulping of pine wood chips biotreated with
Ceriporiopsis subvermispora was studied by Mendonça et al. (2004). Pine wood chips
were treated for 30 days with Cemporiopsis subvermispora in bioreactors. The biotreated
wood chips and undecayed controls were subjected to modified alkaline
sulfite/anthraquinone (ASA) cooking at 170°C or 175°C applying varying cooking times
ranging from 30 to 270 min. In all cases, the residual lignin content of the pulps prepared
from biologically pretreated wood chips was lower than that of the control pulp. With
increasing cooking time, however, the differences in kappa number became smaller.
Wood chips cooked for a short time required mechanical refining for fiber liberation. A
disk-refining step resulted in pulps with low reject content (0.4%) and high screened
yield (56-60%). In this case, the use of biotreated wood chips provided pulps with
significantly lower kappa numbers than for the control pulp (71 and 83, respectively).The
pulp from biologically pretreated wood fibrillated rapidly, reaching 20°SR in only 38 min
beating time in a Jokro mill, while the control pulp required 56 min. to reach the same
beating degree. Although easier to beat, the biopretreated pulps showed tensile and burst
indices similar to those of the control samples. However, their tear indices were always
lower. Easier delignification after wood biotreatment was not observed for the reactions
performed at long cooking times. Oxygen delignification of biotreated and conventional
ASA pulps with low kappa numbers reduced kappa number and improved brightness
considerably with the biotreated pulps being favored by a better preservation of viscosity.
Bio-modification of eucalyptus chemithermomechanical pulp with different white
rot fungi was investigated by Yang et al. (2007). In this work eucalyptus CTMP was
treated with three different types of white rot fungi Phanerochaete chrysosporium (P.c-
1767), Trametes hirsute 19-6 (T.h-19-6) and Trametes hirsute 19-6w (T.h-19-6w), under
a stationary culture condition. Pulp total weight loss, lignin loss, cellulose loss were
determined to compare the different enzymes secreted by the three fungal strains. Pulp
physical strengths, optical properties and bleachability after the fungal treatment were
investigated to compare the effect of fungal treatment on the pulp quality improvement.
The results have shown that lignin reduction by both T.h-19-6 and T.h-19-6w was about
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twice as much as that by P.c-1767. However, the selectivity of T.h-19-6w towards lignin
over cellulose was only 0.82, while that of T.h-19-6 was as high as 4.43. After Trametes
hirsute 19-6 treatment, pulp tensile, tear and internal bonding strength increased by about
27%, 38% and 40% respectively.
Myers et al. (2000)
biopulped small-diameter softwood and aspen, for
comparative purposes, using wild-type isolates of Ceriporiopsis subvermispora and
Phanerochaete chrysosporium and a genetically altered strain of Phanerochaete
chrysosporium. Results showed that refiner mechanical pulping of pine and aspen chips
treated with wild-type or genetically modified strains generally saved electrical energy,
improved pulp properties, and improved paper strength properties. Genetic manipulation
of P. chrysosporium substantially enhanced biopulping performance relative to the
parental wild-type strain.
In a study by Sabharwal et al. (1996) untreated and fungal treated jute and kenaf
bast was studied for the production of mechanical pulp. They determined energy
consumption at each stage of refining under various freeness levels. The investigation
showed 8-10% considerable energy saving and improved strength properties compare to
refining mechanical pulping.
Idarraga et al. (2001) reported that white rot fungi improved 22-66% mechanical
properties of biologically pretreated sisal and reduced 39% energy consumption.
Bajpai et al. (2004) studied the pretreatment of wheat straw with lignin-degrading
fungi and its effect on chemical pulping. Ceriporiopsis subvermispora strains, which
preferentially attack the lignin, were used for biochemical pulping of bagasse. Treatment
of depithed bagasse with different strains of C. subvermispora reduced the kappa number
by 10-15% and increased unbleached pulp brightness by 1.1-2.0 ISO points on chemical
pulping at the same alkali charge. Bleaching of biopulps at the same chemical charge
increased final brightness by 4.7-5.6 ISO points and whiteness by 10.2-11.4 ISO points.
Fungal treatment did not result in any adverse effect on the strength properties of pulp.
Agricultural residues such as rice, wheat and barley straw were pretreated with
white rot fungi, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora prior to biochemical pulping by Yaghoubi
et al. (2008). Biological treatment of rice, wheat and barley straw samples resulted in
decrease of the kappa number of these straws by 34%, 21% and 19%, respectively, as
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compared with control samples. The tensile strength and burst factor of hand sheets
produced from rice straw were increased by 51% and 33% as compared with the control
straws. The tensile strength and burst factor of hand sheets produced from wheat straws
were improved by 67% and 36%, these variables for barely straws were 36.7% and 45%,
respectively. They said, although the delignification of wheat and barley straws were not
as efficient as chemical process, but the quality of papers produced by biochemical
pulping of straws were excellent.
Many research groups around the world have studied white rot fungi for
biological delignification in the pulp and paper industry. Studies have been shown that
pretreatment of wood chips with lignin degrading fungi ameliorates some of the problems
associated with pulping processes. A proper penetration or diffusion of alkali into wood
chips is essential for all alkaline pulping processes. The diffusion of alkali in the wood
components results in swelling and softening of the wood and subsequently the chemical
reaction of alkali. Traditionally, in alkaline chemical pulping impregnation is conducted
at temperatures above 1000C. If the time of impregnation is short, this leads to mostly
unreacted chips. In the present chapter impregnation with fungus and variation of the
cooking time has been presented to study the effect in terms of some parameters viz.
kappa number, pulp yield, energy requirement chemical consumption to indicate the
effectiveness of fungal pretreatment and subsequent pulping on pulp properties.
4.3 Materials and Methods
Production of pulp from chemical pulping process generally utilizes conventional
ways to digest raw material under specified chemical charge, bath ratio, time and
temperature. In the present study the bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) samples were
biologically pretreated with and without destructuring the chips, prior to chemical
pulping process. The details of the materials, procedures and test methods used are
discussed below. Fig. 4.1 shows the overall cooking procedure with instruments.
4.3.1 Preparation of Biologically Pretreated Samples
As discussed in the preceding chapter, better delignification with consideration of
minimum cellulose loss, was found with T. versicolor in comparison to S. commune and
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F. flavous. Therefore bamboo destructured and non destructured samples were pretreated
with Trametes versicolor at optimum conditions for determining the subsequent pulping
parameters. Treatment of the samples was performed in conical flasks (1000 ml) for both
the samples. Each conical flask contained 50 g (O.D. basis) sample either destructured or
non destructured with 60% moisture level in non destructured and 80% moisture level in
destructured sample, 4% molasses concentration with pH 5.5 was added to both the raw
materials and mixed well to obtain uniform samples. Each flask was sterilized by
autoclave at 1210C for 20 min. After sterilization samples were inoculated with a
mycelium suspension of Trametes versicolor. The rate of mycelium application was same
as before i.e. 0.003 g (O.D. basis). After receiving inocula, the conical flasks were mixed
well for uniform inoculation. Each flask with sufficient aeration was placed in an
incubator at 250C for 21 Days. Thus all the incubation conditions were kept, as optimized
earlier. Untreated samples were taken as control.
4.3.2 Cooking Liquor Preparation (White Liquor)
The cooking liquor was prepared in the laboratory from NaOH and industrial
grade Na2S. The detailed method of preparation of NaOH and Na2S solutions is presented
below.
4.3.2.1 Preparation and Analysis of Sodium Hydroxide Solution
Laboratory grade sodium hydroxide pellets were dissolved in distilled water.
After the solution cooled down, the clear liquid was decanted and titrated as briefed
below:
10 ml solution of NaOH was pipetted into a 250 ml conical flask. 20 ml 10%
BaCl2 solution was added to it and total volume was made up to 250 ml by distilled
water. After the precipitate had settled, 50 ml of the solution was pipette out and titrated
against standard 1N HCl using phenolphthalein as indicator. Consumption of HCl was
noted.
HCl consumption (ml) x N x 31
Concentration of NaOH as Na2O (g/l) =
Sample Taken (ml)
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4.3.2.2 Preparation and Analysis of Sodium Sulfide Solution
Laboratory grade sodium sulfide (Na2S) was dissolved in distilled water with
continuous stirring. After the solution cooled down, the clear liquid was decanted and
titrated as follows:
10 ml of sodium sulfide solution was made up to 250 ml in a volumetric flask. 10
ml of this solution was pipetted into a conical flask containing 20 ml of 0.1N iodine
solution and 20 ml of 2N H2SO4 and was titrated with standard 0.2N Na2S2O3 solution.
The volume of Na2S2O3 consumed was noted (x ml). A blank titration with 10 ml of
iodine and 20 ml of 2N H2SO4 solution was also carried out. The volume of Na2S2O3
solution consumed for 10 ml of iodine solution was also noted (y ml).
Y ml Na2S2O3 = 10 ml I2
10 X
X ml Na2S2O3 =
Y
(20 – 10 X)
I2 consumed by Na2S =
Y
(20 – 10 X) × 2.5 × 3.1 × N
Concentration of Na2S (as Na2O) g/l =
Y
Where N = Normality of the iodine solution
4.3.2.3 Preparation and Analysis of White Liquor
In the laboratory the cooking liquor or white liquor is usually prepared by
dissolving separately calculated amount of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide in
water, and then mixing the two in appropriate amount to get a white liquor of the desired
sulfidity. The sulfidity of the liquor is usually kept around 25%.
The white liquor was thus prepared from the solution prepared as A and B.
Volumes equivalent to 750 g of NaOH as Na2O and 250 g of Na2S as Na2O were mixed
together and the total volume made up to 10 liters. This solution was stored in a plastic
container. The white liquor was analyzed as follows:
25 ml of the white liquor was pipetted into a 250 ml volumetric flask. 70 ml 20%
BaCl2 solution was added to it and total volume was made up to 250 ml by distilled
water. After the precipitate had settled, 50 ml of the solution was pipetted and titrated
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against standard 1N HCl using phenolphthalein as indicator. Consumption of HCl was
noted (A ml). A few drops of methyl orange were then added to the solution and the
titration continued till the red color appeared. The consumption of HCl was noted (B ml).
Total active alkali as Na2O g/l = B × 6.2
Na2S as Na2O g/l = 2 (B - A) × 6.2
2 (B - A) × 100
Sulfidity % =
B
4.3.3 Cooking Process and Conditions
The treated and untreated bamboo non destructured and destructured samples
were cooked by kraft pulping process in a laboratory digester consisting of six autoclaves
rotating in an electrically heated poly-ethylene glycol (PEG) bath. Glycol bath is a large
vessel with an electric heater, glycol circulation pump and a rotating shaft. The shaft has
two vertical disks with special housings for the autoclaves, which are installed at an angle
of approximately 25°C to the shaft. All six autoclaves can be run simultaneously. The
bath can be charged with a lesser number of the autoclaves, but balance should be
maintained. When the shaft is rotating the autoclaves are immersed into glycol in turns.
At the same time mixing occurs inside the autoclaves. The glycol bath has a range of
working temperatures between 80°C and 170° C.
Before cooking the moisture contents of the treated and untreated bamboo
samples (non destructured and destructured) were carefully determined using a
representative samples. A known weight of bamboo samples (200g O.D.) was charged in
each autoclave with appropriate amount of white liquor of 25% sulfidity and 16% active
alkalinity at a liquid to raw material ratio of 4:1. The autoclaves were then tightly closed
and placed into the heated glycol bath and the rotation was started. Calculation of H-
factor was started when the content of autoclaves heated up. The schedule of digester
heating consisted of 30 minutes for heating from ambient temperature to 100°C, 90
minutes for heating from 100°C to 160°C. The cooking time at 160°C was 30 minutes, 60
minutes, 90 minutes and 120 minutes respectively. Table 4.1 shows the cooking
conditions of treated/untreated non destructured and destructured bamboo samples.
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Table 4.1: Cooking Conditions for Treated/Untreated Non Destructured and
Destructured Bamboo Samples.
Cooking Conditions
Amount of samples (O.D.) 200 g
Liquor to samples ratio 4:1
Cooking temperature 1600C
Cooking time from 1000C to 160
0C 90 minutes
Cooking time at 1600C 30 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes, 120 minutes
Sulfidity, (%) 25
Active alkali, (%) 16
4.3.3.1 Washing
After each cooking, the autoclaves were cooled by spraying cold water on
autoclaves for 5 min. Black liquor was collected from the autoclaves and pulps were
taken out and washed in a cylindrical vessel with wire at the bottom. Washing was
carried out with warm water and followed by mechanical disintegrator to disintegrate the
pulp samples. The washing process continued until the color of the water remained
unchanged. After washing the pulps were centrifuged until water came out and then
homogenized. Dry matter contents were determined and the total yield of pulps was
determined.
4.3.3.2 Pulp Yield Determination
The pulp yield was determined by weighing the wet pulps (W) and taking two
representative samples each of 50 g for determining the dryness. The samples were
weighed and dried in an oven at 105°C for overnight. The dried samples were weighed
and the yield was determined as follow:
A × 100
Dryness % =
B
W × Dryness of pulp
Total pulp yield % =
O.D. weight of sample taken
A = O.D. weight of pulp taken for dryness
B = A.D. weight of the pulp taken for dryness (50 g)
W = Total A.D. weight of the pulp.
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4.3.3.3 Screening
After calculating yield, pulps from each experiment were disintegrated for 10 min
before screening. Pulps were screened on flat 0.20 mm slotted screen, in order to separate
the undesired materials from the pulps. Pulps were centrifuged and homogenized. The
rejects were collected to determine the percentage of pulps reject and screened pulps
yield.
O.D. weight of reject × 100
Rejects % =
Amount of raw material cooked (O.D. Basis)
4.3.3.4 Kappa Number
The kappa number is defined as the number of milliliters of 0.1 N KMn04 solution
consumed by per gram of moisture free pulp under standardized conditions. It shows the
degree of delignification of pulp and is proportional to the lignin content of pulp. The
kappa number of pulps was measured by using TAPPI standard method T236 cm-76. The
method is briefly described below.
10 g of each pulp (dry weight) was mixed and made into a pad by filtering on a
Buchner funnel, avoiding any loss of fibers. The pads were air dried and torn into small
pieces. Small torn pieces from the samples were weighed to 2.0 g. The test specimen was
disintegrated in 500 ml or less of distilled water until free of fiber bundles. The
disintegrated test specimen was transferred to a 2000 ml reaction beaker with proper
rinsing adding enough distilled water to bring the total volume to 700 ml. The
temperature of distilled water was 25.0±0.2°C. 100 ml potassium permanganate solution
(0.1N) and 100 ml of the sulfuric acid solution (4N) was pipetted in a 250 ml beaker. The
mixture was brought to 25°C quickly and was added immediately to the disintegrated test
specimen, simultaneously started a stopwatch. The beaker was rinsed using not more than
5 ml of distilled water and added to the reaction mixture. The total volume was made to
1000ml.
At the end of exactly 10 min., the reaction was stopped by adding 20 ml of the
potassium iodide solution (1.0N) from a graduated cylinder and immediately after
mixing, the free iodine was titrated with the sodium thiosulfate solution (0.2N), adding a
139
few drops of the starch indicator towards the end of reaction. A blank determination was
carried out using exactly the same method as above without taking any pulp sample.
p × f
K = and
w
(b-a) N
p =
0.1
K = Kappa number
f = Factor for correction to a 50% permanganate consumption, dependent on the value of
p.
w = Weight of moisture free pulp, (g)
p = Amount of 0.1N permanganate actually consumed by the specimen, (ml)
b = Amount of the thiosulfate consumed in blank titration (without adding pulp), (ml)
a = Amount of the thiosulfate consumed by the test specimen, (ml)
N = Normality of the thiosulfate solution.
4.3.4 Hand Sheets Preparation and Testing
Hand sheets were prepared of both treated and untreated bamboo pulps with the
help of laboratory sheet former. The following steps were conducted for preparation and
testing of pulp sheets.
4.3.4.1 Pulp Beating
Beating of pulps was performed in a PFI mill. The advantage of this kind of
equipment is the small amount of pulp needed for the beating procedure. PFI mill
consists principally of a roll with bars, housing with smooth surface and a loading device
to provide the pressure. Both roll and housing rotate in the same direction, but at different
peripheral speeds, beating is thus provided by the shear force. The pulps in amount of 30
g and concentration of 10% were placed in the gap between the roll and the housing and
were spread evenly on the wall of the housing. The number of the revolutions of the PFI
mill were counted and used to control the process. After the 5000 revolutions the beating
was discontinued by removing the beating pressure. The motors were switched off and
140
the roll and beater housing were stopped. Cover and the roll were removed. The stocks
were transferred into measuring cylinder of at least 2 liters in volume. The stocks were
diluted with water to 2000 ml. The pulps suspensions were homogenized by
disintegrating it at 10000 revolutions in the disintegrator.
4.3.4.2 Determination of Drainability
Drainability or beating degree of pulp can be determined using Canadian Standard
Freeness Method (CSF). A CSF tester is a vessel with a drainage chamber, screen plate
and rate measuring funnel. Drainage chamber is a metal cylinder. The upper end of this
cylinder is closed by similar lid, attached to the shelf bracket in which the cylinder is held
when in use. The hinge and latching mechanisms provides an air tight closure by means
of a rubber gasket on the inside of lid. An air cock in the center of upper lid allows the
admission of air into the cylinder. The rate measuring funnel has two outlets. One of
them is placed axially directly in the bottom, while the other outlet is shifted to a side.
The suspensions of 3 g O.D. pulps with 1000 ml water were let to drain through
the drainage chamber. The volumes of water that leaves the vessel through the side outlet
were measured. The higher drainage rate, the more water leaves the vessel through the
side outlet, the lower the value of beating degree.
4.3.4.3 Sheet Preparation
Laboratory sheets were prepared in a laboratory sheet former, where pulp
suspension was drained through a wire. The sheet former was connected to a vacuum
system to provide better water removal. After formation the sheets were separated from
the wire and pressed with dry blotter on one side of a sheet and smooth metal plate on the
other with pressure of 410±10 kPa for totally 7 minutes in two stages. First stage pressing
was completed in 5 minutes and second stage pressing was completed in 2 minutes after
pressing the sheets were dried on the metal plates at room temperature for a day. The
target basis weight of the sheets was chosen to be 60 g/m2.
The hand sheets of each condition were measured for strength properties such as
basis weight or grammage, tensile index, tear index, and burst index.
141
4.3.4.4 Sheet Testing
Tear Strength: The tear strength of the sheets was determined using L &W Tear tester
(ISO 1924-2; 1994(E)) to measures the internal tearing resistance of paper sheets. The
results were reported as tear index obtained by dividing the tearing resistance measured
in units of millinewtons (mN) by the grammage of the paper in units of grams per square
meter (g/m2).
Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of the sheets was determined using L &W Tensile
tester (ISO 1974; 1990(E)).
Bursting Strength: The bursting strength of the sheets was determined using Bursting
strength tester (ISO 2758; 2001(E)). As it is more meaningful to compare bursting
strength of papers of differing grammages in terms of burst index, therefore burst index
was obtained by dividing the bursting strength in kPa by the grammage of the paper in
g/m2.
4.3.5 Black Liquor Analysis
4.3.5.1 Residual Active Alkali
It is the measure of free NaOH + Na2S content remaining in the black liquor after
pulping. Certain level of residual active alkali is essential to keep the black liquor
colloidally stable. Liquor with low levels of RAA may precipitate at low solid
concentration during evaporation, which eventually will increase the black liquor
viscosity.
25 ml of black liquor were pipetted into 250 ml volumetric flasks. 20 ml of 20%
BaCl2 were added and stirred; the contents of flasks were diluted to the mark, mixed well
and allowed to settle. 50 ml of the supernatant liquid from each volumetric flask was
pipetted to 150 ml beaker equipped with magnetic stirrer. 5 ml of 40% neutral
formaldehyde was added and titrated immediately with 0.1N HCl to a pH about 7.0.
142
Mill equivalent of acid × 0.1 × 31
R.A.A. g/l as Na2O =
ml of black liquor taken
4.3.5.2 Total Solids in Black Liquor
Total solids of black liquor represent the sum of total dissolved solids and total
suspended solids present in the black liquor. The given method can be used to calibrate
routine control parameters in chemical recovery. This method measures the solids
remaining after removal of water and other non aqueous volatile materials normally lost
in evaporation section. 10 ml black liquor were placed in pre weighted china dishes and
kept in the oven at 1050C for overnight.
W2 - W1 x 100
Total solid % =
Sample weight
W1 = Empty weight of china dish
W2= O.D. weight of china dish with sample
4.4 Results and Discussion
4.4.1 Effect of Cooking Time on Pulp Characteristics
Table 4.2 summarizes the results of kraft pulping experiments that were
conducted to investigate the effect of cooking time at 16% chemical charge as Na2O, 1:4
bath ratio and 25% sulfidity at 160°C temperature, in treated and untreated bamboo
samples (destructured and non destructured). The effect of pulping time on pulp yield and
kappa number in each sample was studied and evaluated for best pulping conditions.
4.4.1.1 Kappa Number and Pulp Yield
The kappa number is an index used by the pulp and paper industry to express the
residual lignin content in unbleached pulp after cooking. Lignin is responsible for the
brown coloration of paper and residual lignin is removed in the subsequent bleaching
stage to obtain desired brightness. Therefore, the lignin content must be well known, so
that only a minimum amount of bleach chemicals are used. Higher the lignin content
143
more is the kappa no. The pulp having high lignin content is termed as hard cooked pulp
and the pulp with low lignin content as soft cooked pulp. The hard cooked pulp requires
more bleaching chemicals to attain particular brightness compared to soft cooked pulp.
Table 4.2 shows the effect of cooking time on kappa number, reject (%) and pulp yield
(%) of treated/untreated bamboo non destructured and destructured samples.
Table 4.2: Effect of Cooking Time on Pulp yield, Kappa number and Reject of
Bamboo Treated and Untreated Samples.
S. No. Pulp Samples Cooking Time
(minutes)
Pulp Yield (%) Kappa Number Rejects (%)
1 NDC* 1
NDC 2
NDC 3
NDC 4
30
60
90
120
46.97
46.18
45.32
44.57
25.10±0.12a
18.29±0.31b
15.26±0.21c
13.89±0.26d
0.4415
0.1080
0.0820
0.0548
2 DC **1
DC 2
DC 3
DC 4
30
60
90
120
49.94
49.83
47.43
46.24
22.86±0.23a
17.65±0.20b
14.68±0.29c
12.54±0.31d
0.2398
0.1008
0.0982
0.0840
3 NDT #1
NDT 2
NDT 3
NDT 4
30
60
90
120
46.72
45.20
44.96
40.13
19.67±0.34a
15.58±0.36b
13.31±0.21c
12.74±0.25d
0.1661
0.0915
0.0221
0.0560
4 DT##1
DT 2
DT 3
DT 4
30
60
90
120
47.19
46.53
45.03
43.92
14.88±0.07a
12.16±0.14b
10.25±0.28c
9.86±0.03d
0.1417
0.0525
0.0194
0.0165
* NDC- Non destructured control, **DC- Destructured control, #NDT- Non destructured treated and ##DT- Destructured treated.
The results in Table 4.2 show that with increase in cooking time, kappa number
and yield of pulp is reduced in case of both treated and untreated samples. In case of non
destructured control (NDC) the lowest kappa number (13.89) was obtained after pulping
upto 120 minutes, whereas with destructured control (DC) sample it reduced to 12.54
kappa number after 120 minutes of cooking. After fungal treatment non-destructured and
destructured samples (NDT & DT) showed further reduction in kappa number & yield.
Kappa number obtained in case of NDT was 12.74 and for DT 9.86 after 120 minutes of
144
pulping. ANOVA showed significant difference between kappa number reduction with
varying cooking time in NDC, DC, NDT and DT pulp samples. Results of DMRT
revealed significant difference (p<0.05) between all the treatments means. Table 4.3
shows results of ANOVA main effects and interaction of samples and cooking time on
kappa number reduction. The main effects and interaction between samples and cooking
times were significant. The pulping results indicated that highest pulp yield was obtained
after 30 minutes cooking, however kappa number was found to be high in this case.
Reduction in kappa number observed after 60 and 90 minutes was relatively rapid
however reduction in pulp yield observed was in the range of 1-2%. The screening rejects
were also high after 30 minutes of cooking. The investigation has shown that rate of
delignification in destructured treated sample (DT) was high which was represented by
decrease in kappa number. The relative rate of delignification for the samples can be
presented as shown below:
Non-destructured control sample (NDC) ˃ destructured control sample (DC) ˃
non destructured treated sample (NDT) ˃ destructured treated sample (DT).
Table 4.3: ANOVA Results for Kappa Number Reduction.
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Sample 273.709 3 91.236 1.509E3 .000
Cooking Time 498.071 3 166.024 2.746E3 .000
Sample * Cooking Time 43.128 9 4.792 79.253 .000
Error 1.935 32 .060
Total 12416.522 48
4.4.1.2 Optimization of Pulping Conditions for Uniform Pulp Properties from Un-
treated / Treated, Non Destructured and Destructured Bamboo Samples
The commercial kraft cooking conditions in paper mills for bamboo chips are 90
minutes heating at 160°C maintaining the constant H-factor. By maintaining these
conditions during the pulping of non destructured treated sample (NDC), pulp of kappa
number 15.26 was obtained. Kappa number of pulp was therefore set at 15 as target value
for optimization of the pulping conditions and in order to obtain uniform pulp quality.
145
The results obtained after pulping of various samples at different conditions were
analyzed and it was observed that the kappa number close to the targeted kappa number
was obtained after pulping of destructured control pulp (DC), non destructured treated
pulp (NDT) and destructured treated pulp samples after 90 minutes, 60 minutes and 30
minutes at 1600C respectively, without affecting the yield at the same chemical charge. In
this study, it was observed that without fungal treatment, rejects were around 0.8% but it
decreased to less than 0.11% after the fungal treatment.
The yield and kappa number in the non destructured control (NDC) and non
destructured treated (NDT) samples were studied by increasing the cooking time. In this
case a sharp decrease in kappa number was observed in treated samples with
simultaneous lowering of reject % with increasing cooking time period. This can be
explained by facilitating swelling and loosening of cell wall structures after pretreatment.
The cell porosity occurs early in the colonization process by lignin-degrading fungi
(Nishida et al., 1988; Akhtar et al., 1992a&b; Fujita et al., 1993). Also, these fungi
remove and/or modify lignin in wood cell walls that might be removed easily during kraft
pulping (Reddy, 1984; Messner et al., 1998). This higher porosity leads to the
production of lower amount of rejects. Scott et al. (1995) reported that fungi treatment
can reduce the yield slightly. This decrease may be due to both the dissolution of lignin
and the concurrent attack on the carbohydrates (Messner et al., 1998).
After destructuring of the treated sample, pulping results indicated that cooking
for 30 min. at top temperature (1600C) is the most optimum cooking time for DT
samples. At optimum cooking time period kappa number was 10.22 point less in DT
when compared with NDC pulp. The destructured samples (DT) would reduce pulping
energy requirement (both electrical and thermal energy) needed for the cooking of raw
material without affecting the pulp properties. In case of destructured samples saving of
heat energy was observed after fungal treatment as the heating time required for pulping
reduced from 90 min. to 30 min., thereby resulting in saving of 60 min. heating at 1600C
temperature. Fig. 4.3 and 4.4 show the effect of cooking time on kappa number and pulp
yield (%) for NDC, DC, NDT and DC respectively. It is evident that the kappa number
below target value 15 is obtained by pulping of the treated destructured samples without
higher rejects and at reasonable yield.
146
4.4.2 Analysis of Black Liquor after Different Cooking Times
Physico-chemical properties of spent pulping liquor represent the effect of
pulping conditions on delignification and indirectly on the pulp properties. Experiments
were conducted to investigate the effect of cooking time on physico-chemical properties
of black liquor after pulping with 16% charge as Na2O, 1:4 bath ratio and 25% sulfidity
at 1600C temperature. The black liquor samples collected after the pulping of NDC, DC,
NDT and DT for different pulping durations were analyzed to represent the effect of
variables. Results of black liquor characteristics after different cooking time periods are
presented in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Spent Black Liquor Characteristics of Non Destructured Control,
Destructured Control, Non Destructured Treated and Destructured Treated
Bamboo Samples at Different Cooking Time Periods.
S.
No.
Pulp
Samples
Cooking
Time
(minutes)
pH Residual Active
Alkali
(g/l)
Total
solids
(%)
Alkali
Consumption
(%)
1 NDC 1
NDC 2
NDC 3
NDC 4
30
60
90
120
13.71
13.59
13.55
13.50
8.92
6.57
6.13
5.89
16.284
16.620
16.651
16.739
77.70
83.57
84.67
85.27
2 DC 1
DC 2
DC 3
DC 4
30
60
90
120
13.74
13.61
13.52
13.51
7.56
6.63
6.26
6.20
16.641
14.964
15.069
15.555
81.10
83.35
84.35
84.50
3 NDT 1
NDT 2
NDT 3
NDT 4
30
60
90
120
13.77
13.66
13.57
13.53
9.48
8.18
7.93
6.51
15.813
15.802
17.131
16.060
76.3
79.55
80.17
83.72
4 DT 1
DT 2
DT 3
DT 4
30
60
90
120
13.83
13.80
13.78
13.58
10.04
9.17
7.99
6.26
13.456
13.646
13.566
14.424
74.9
77.07
80.02
84.35
4.4.2.1 Residual Active Alkali (RAA)
An important parameter of the chemical recovery process control is the
concentration of residual active alkali, which is an indication of pulping process
147
effectiveness. According to some published studies, low and well controlled residual
alkali guarantees greater carbohydrate concentration, resulting in process yield benefits
(Ahmed et al., 1999; Anon, 1988) and final product strength (Akhtar et al., 1992a).
Table 4.4 shows a declining pattern in residual active alkali with increase in cooking time
in all the pulp samples. Similar pattern was observed in pH values. Sufficient residual
active alkali must be present at the end of the cook to avoid precipitation of lignin
structures dissolved in the liquor. Precipitated lignin structures affect pulp bleachability
since they are difficult to remove during the bleaching operation. The analysis of residual
active alkali indicates that highest level in treated destructured samples ensures a uniform
alkali profile upto 30 minutes. This in turn results in better pulp properties after 30
minutes of pulping.
4.4.2.2 pH
The liquor pH has to be sufficiently high to guarantee proper wood delignification
and avoid lignin precipitation at the end of the cook. According to Fujita et al. (1993)
and Reddy (1984) under normal pulping conditions, lignin precipitation begins at pH
below 12 and is considerable at pH below 11. The pH in none of the pulping experiments
was lower than 12 and the raw material was therefore properly delignified.
4.4.2.3 Black Liquor Solids
Liquor solids concentration is very important for chemical recovery process. It
depends on various washing conditions. The quantity and concentration of organic and
inorganic solids, particularly in the bulk and residual delignification steps also have
diverse effects on process performance and final product quality. In the laboratory, ideal
conditions were maintained to obtain the black liquor soilds. It is observed that the solids
profile did not undergo abrupt alterations.
4.4.2.4 Alkali Consumption
As can be observed in the Table 4.4, alkali consumption is directly proportional to
the cooking time i.e. consumption increases with the increase in time. In case of treated
samples it is observed that the alkali consumption is lower than the untreated samples.
148
Analysis of alkali consumption was made under the optimum pulping conditions of 30
minutes in all the four samples. The alkali consumption was compared after 30 minutes
pulping in NDC and DT samples. The alkali consumption decreased from 77.70% to
74.9% in case of DT, thus showing a total saving of 2.8% in alkali consumption for
treated destructured samples.
4.4.3 Properties of Pulp Sheets
Unbleached pulps obtained from pulping of NDC, DC, NDT and DT were beaten
and used to prepare paper sheets to evaluate the properties. The properties of pulp sheets
for NDC, NDT and DC & DT were compared to find out the variation in Freeness, Tear
Index, Tensile Index and Burst Index of unbleached sheets.
Table 4.5: The Strength Properties of Unbleached Pulp Sheets Made from Non
Destructured Control, Destructured Control, Non Destructured Treated and
Destructured Treated Bamboo Samples.
S.
No.
Pulp
Samples
Kappa
Number
Basis
Weight,
g/m2
Freeness,
CSF, ml
Tensile
Index, N.m/g
Tear Index,
mNm2/g
Burst Index,
K.Pa.m2/g
1 NDC 1
NDC 2
NDC 3
NDC 4
25.10
18.29
15.26
13.89
69.39
65.52
66.73
66.53
360
360
340
320
64.69
76.00
79.72
74.42
20.91
20.98
20.90
19.83
4.88
5.28
5.45
4.91
2 DC 1
DC 2
DC 3
DC 4
22.86
17.65
14.68
12.54
69.00
66.70
62.30
65.00
350
340
340
310
74.50
73.60
72.20
66.00
12.17
12.14
10.88
10.58
5.17
4.49
4.92
4.46
3 NDT 1
NDT 2
NDT 3
NDT 4
19.67
15.58
13.31
12.74
76.70
62.90
63.50
70.10
330
320
320
310
65.30
70.40
77.80
69.80
20.49
18.90
16.91
16.78
4.94
5.05
5.92
5.34
4 DT 1
DT 2
DT 3
DT 4
14.88
12.16
10.25
9.86
64.65
63.22
64.27
65.52
310
310
300
300
68.76
68.28
68.59
68.37
8.16
7.05
7.49
6.74
4.74
5.25
4.85
4.50
149
Table 4.5 lists the basis weight (g/m2), freeness (CSF, ml), Tensile Index (N.m/g),
Tear Index (mNm2/g) & Burst Index (K.Pa.m
2/g) and corresponding kappa number of the
sheets prepared from treated and untreated bamboo pulps. The freeness of pulps in case
of non-destructured and destructured samples untreated and treated with fungi were
determined after 5000 revolutions in the PFI mill. Fig. 4.5 shows that the freeness
decrease is observed in case of the treated samples and as a result the better sheet
properties will be obtained due to less cutting of the fibers to achieve the lower CSF
values.
4.4.3.1 Tensile Index
Tensile properties describe the dimensions and strength of the individual fibers,
their arrangement, and the extent to which they are bonded to each other. Papers made
with long fibers generally have higher tensile strength properties than paper made of
short fibers. However, the extent of inter fiber bonding is considered the most important
factor contributing to tensile strength properties. The variation in tensile index for NDC
& NDT and DC & DT are presented in Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.6. The results were analyzed
and are discussed below.
To study the effect of cooking time periods on tensile properties of NDC and
NDT, the tensile index of these samples were plotted against cooking time and are shown
in Fig. 4.6. In NDC maximum tensile index obtained was 79.72 N.m/g after 90 minutes
of cooking time. In case of NDT a sharp increase in tensile index was observed when
cooking time was extended upto 90 minutes. The tensile index increased from 65.30 to
77.80 N.m/g. However reduction in tensile index was observed after 90 minutes of
cooking time. The values decreased from 77.80 N.m/g to 69.80 N.m/g after 120 minutes
of cooking.
In case of DC and DT, a different pattern of tensile index with cooking time was
observed. In DC, the tensile index has dropped from 74.50 to 66.00 N.m/g after cooking
from 30 minutes to 120 minutes. Whereas in case of DT pulps, tensile did not show much
difference with increase in cooking time from 30 to 120 minutes. Tensile properties
observed were lower in case of DT than DC. This is mainly due to exposure of the fibers
to cooking chemicals for longer time leading to reduction in kappa number. If a
150
comparison is made between NDC and DT at 30 minutes of cooking time, a sharp
increase in tensile index of DT is observed, when compared with NDC.
4.4.3.2 Tear Index
Internal tearing resistance is a measure of the force perpendicular to the plane of
the paper necessary to tear a single sheet through a specified distance after the tear has
already been started. Edge-tearing strength is a measure of the force needed to initiate a
tear. The force needed to initiate a tear may be several times the force needed to
propagate the tear once it is started. Tear index is obtained by dividing the tearing
resistance measured in units of milli newtons (mN) by the grammage of the paper in
units of grams per square meter (g/m2) (Casey, 1996). The variation in Tear Index
shown in Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.7, for NDC & NDT and DC & DT samples is explained
below:
Tear index of NDC did not show a much difference with increase in cooking time
from 30 to 120 minutes. In NDC maximum tear index obtained was 20.98 mNm2/g after
60 minutes of cooking time. Tear index of NDT show a drop in tear properties at all the
four cooking time periods. There was a decrease of 3.71 mNm2/g in tear of NDT after
pulping the samples upto 120 minutes (from 20.49 mNm2/g to 16.78 mNm
2/g). Tear
index of NDC when compared with NDT, showed a drop in tear properties at all the four
cooking time periods.
In case of DC and DT, when the tear values were compared, a different pattern
was observed with change in cooking time. In DT pulps, highest tear index observed was
after 30 minutes of cooking time i.e. 8.16 mNm2/g. However a drop in tear values was
then observed with increase in cooking time. After 120 minutes of cooking the tear index
declined to 6.74 mNm2/g at kappa number 9.86. Whereas in DC pulp, tear index showed
a decreasing pattern from 30 to 120 minutes of cooking time. If a comparison is made
between DC and DT, tear index of DC pulps are better than DT pulps. At the same time
when the tear values are compared with corresponding kappa number, the drop is
comparatively more than DC. This is mainly due to exposure of the fibers to cooking
chemicals for longer time leading to reduction in kappa number.
151
Tear index of NDC when compared with DT, showed more drop in tear properties
at all the four cooking time periods. In NDC, maximum tear index obtained was 20.98
mNm2/g after 60 minutes cooking. However, maximum tear index observed was 8.16
mNm2/g in case of DT after 30 minutes cooking. The tear index was lower in DT pulp
sheets than NDC pulp sheets. It can be explained by comparing the kappa number of both
the pulps. Kappa number of DT pulp after 30 minutes cooking was 14.88 compared to
25.10 in NDC pulp. The low kappa number in DT pulp indicates that the pulp fibers have
been degraded slightly more, than NDC pulps, due to harsh treatment of cooking
chemicals in which the treated fibers are exposed after fungal treatment.
4.4.3.3 Burst Index
Bursting strength is perhaps the most commonly measured strength property of
paper. The test apparently originated from the old time practice of the papermaker who,
in a hands-on quality control evaluation of paper strength, would attempt to push his
thumb through the sheet (Anon, 1988). It is more meaningful to compare bursting
strength of papers of differing grammages in terms of burst index. Burst index is obtained
by dividing the bursting strength in kPa by the grammage of the paper in g/m2. The
variation in burst index shown in Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.8, for NDC & NDT and DC & DT
samples is explained below:
Burst index observed in NDC after 30 minutes of cooking time was 4.88
K.Pa.m2/g whereas this value increased to 4.94 K.Pa.m2/g in the case of NDT. At all the
cooking time periods, non destructured treated pulp (NDT) showed higher burst index
than non destructured control pulp (NDC). The properties had improved in both NDC and
NDT samples with increase in cooking time. In case of NDC the burst index increased
from 4.88 K.Pa.m2/g to 5.45 K.Pa.m
2/g after extending the cooking time from 30 to 90
minutes respectively. However reduction in burst index properties was observed after 90
minutes of cooking time. The values decreased from 5.45 K.Pa.m2/g to 4.91 K.Pa.m
2/g
after 120 minutes in NDC. In case of NDT burst index increased from 4.94 K.Pa.m2/g to
5.92 K.Pa.m2/g after extending the cooking time from 30 to 90 minutes. The burst index
decreased from 5.92 K.Pa.m2/g to 5.34 K.Pa.m
2/g. Similar pattern was observed without
152
much difference in NDC and NDT. At the same time kappa number reduction was more
in NDT than NDC.
In the case of DC and DT, when the burst values are compared, a different pattern
is observed with change in cooking time. In DC pulp, highest burst observed was 5.17
K.Pa.m2/g after 30 minutes of cooking time. Whereas in DT pulp, highest burst observed
was 5.25 K.Pa.m2/g after 60 minutes of cooking time. However a drop in burst values
was then observed with increase in cooking time in both the pulp samples. This is mainly
due to exposure of the fibers to cooking chemicals for longer time.
Burst index of NDC when compared with DT at 30 minutes of cooking time
period, reduction in burst properties was observed in DT. At the same time kappa number
observed was 25.10 in NDC and 14.88 in DT respectively. Comparison of burst index of
NDC and DT shows that the drop in burst, is relatively much less than the drop observed
in kappa number in the respective treated samples
4.5 Conclusion
Investigation has been carried out in order to characterize the pulp of treated and
untreated samples in two forms of bamboo i.e. destructured and non destructured. To
evaluate the effect of pulping time during the cooking process, the samples were
extracted at four different times i.e. 30 min., 60 min., 90 min. and 120 min. Other
conditions during the pulping experiments were 16% charge as Na2O, 1:4 bath ratio and
25% sulfidity at 1600C temperature.
Results of the experiments were investigated to study the effect of cooking time
on various samples (NDC, NDC, NDT and DT) to extract significant amount of lignin
from wood at different time periods keeping the temperature constant at 1600C. The
investigations have shown that delignification rate of destructured treated (DT) samples
was high which was represented by decrease in kappa number. The relative rate of
delignification for the samples was found to be as follows;
Non-destructured samples ˃ destructured samples ˃ non destructured treated samples ˃
destructured treated samples
In order to optimize the pulping conditions for obtaining uniform pulp quality, the
kappa number was set at 15 as a targeted value, on the basis of cooking conditions
153
maintained at mills. The usual kraft cooking conditions in paper mills for bamboo chips
are 90 min. heating at 160°C. It was observed that the kappa number close to the targeted
kappa number in fungal treated destructured pulp (DT) samples was obtained after
pulping at 30 minutes, without affecting the yield at the same chemical charge. Results
indicated that cooking for 30 min. at top temperature (1600C) is the most optimum
cooking time for DT samples. In case of the destructured samples, less pulping energy is
required (both electrical and thermal energy) for the cooking of raw material without
affecting the pulp properties. In case of destructured samples saving of heat energy was
observed after fungal treatment as the heating time required for pulping reduced from 90
min to 30 min., thereby resulting in saving of 60 min. heating at 1600C temperature. The
strength properties of the pulp samples did not show much difference. However, a sharp
decline was observed in kappa number of treated destructured samples (DT) when
compared with untreated non destructured samples (NDC). This shows requirement of
minimum amount of harsh chemical treatments in the subsequent bleaching stages.
154
Fig. 4.1: Cooking Procedure for Treated and Untreated Bamboo Samples.
Treated and Untreated
Destructured Sample
Treated and Untreated
Non Destructured Sample
Cooking with Six Bomb Oil
Bath Digester
Washing of Pulp Screening of Pulp
Beating of Pulp CSF of Pulp Laboratory Sheet
preparation
Unbleached Sheet Beating of Pulp
155
Fig. 4.2: The Amount of Lignin that Reacts According to the Initial, Bulk and
Residual Phase Delignification (Lindgren and Lindstrom, 1996).
Fig. 4.3: Effect of Cooking Times on Kappa Number of Non Destructured Control,
Destructured Control, Non Destructured Treated and Destructured Treated
Bamboo Samples.
156
Fig. 4.4: Effect of Cooking Times on Total Yield% of Non Destructured Control,
Destructured Control, Non Destructured Treated and Destructured Treated
Bamboo Samples.
Fig. 4.5: CSF in Relation to Cooking Time (minutes).
157
Fig. 4.6: Tensile Index in Relation to Cooking Time (minutes).
Fig. 4.7: Tear Index in Relation to Cooking Time (minutes).
158
Fig. 4.8: Burst Index In Relation to Cooking Time (minutes).
159
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