Chapter 4 Child Development Table of Contents Exit.

Chapter 4

Child Development

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Heredity

Developmental Psychology: The study of progressive changes in behavior and abilities

Heredity (Nature): Transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to their children through genes

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular structure, shaped like a double helix that contains coded genetic information

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Genes

Genes: Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary informationDominant: The gene’s feature will appear

each time the gene is presentRecessive: The gene’s feature will appear

only if it is paired with another recessive gene

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Fig. 3.1 This image, made with a scanning electron microscope, shows several pairs of human chromosomes. (Colors are artificial.)

© Biophoto Associates/Science-Source/Photo Researchers

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Fig. 3.2 (Top left) Linked molecules (organic bases) make up the “rungs” on DNA’s twisted “molecular ladder.” The order of these molecules serves as a code for genetic information. The code provides a genetic blueprint that is unique for each individual (except identical twins). The drawing shows only a small section of a DNA strand. An entire strand of DNA is composed of billions of smaller molecules. (Bottom left) The nucleus of each cell in the body contains chromosomes made up of tightly wound coils of DNA. (Don’t be misled by the drawing: Chromosomes are microscopic in size and the chemical molecules that make up DNA are even smaller.)

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Fig. 3.3 Gene patterns for children of brown-eyed parents, where each parent has one brown-eye gene and one blue-eye gene. Since the brown-eye gene is dominant, 1 child in 4 will be blue-eyed. Thus, there is a significant chance that two brown-eyed parents will have a blue-eyed child.

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Temperament and Environment

Temperament: The physical “core” of personality; includes sensitivity, irritability, distractibility, and typical mood Easy Children: 40 %; relaxed and agreeable Difficult Children: 10 %; moody, intense, easily

angered Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15 %; restrained,

unexpressive, shy Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific

category

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Environment

Environment (“Nurture”): All external conditions that affect a person and perhaps his/her development

Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences; also, a time when certain events must occur for normal development to take place

Congenital Problem: A problem or defect that occurs during prenatal development; “birth defect”

Genetic Disorder: Problem caused by inherited characteristics from parents; e.g., cystic fibrosis

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Teratogens

Anything capable of causing birth defects (e.g., narcotics, radiation, cigarette smoke, lead, and cocaine)Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Caused by

repeated heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Infants:

Have low birth weight, a small head, body defects, and facial malformations

Lack Cupid’s Bow, the bow-shaped portion of the upper lip (look in the mirror to see)

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How to Minimize Prenatal Risks

Maintain good nutrition during pregnancy

Learn relaxation and stress reduction techniques to ease transition to motherhood

Avoid teratogens and other harmful substances

Get adequate exercise during pregnancy

Obtain general education about pregnancy and childbirth

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Childbirth

Medicated Birth: Traditional; mother is assisted by physician and given drugs for pain

Prepared Childbirth: Parents learn specific behavioral techniques to manage pain and facilitate labor. Lamaze method is most famous

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Deprivation and Enrichment

Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, or love

Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately made more complex and intellectually stimulating and emotionally supportive

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CNN - Miscarriage Depression

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The Mozart Effect: Real or Nonsense?

Rauscher & Shaw (1998) claimed that after college students listened to Mozart they scored higher on a spatial reasoning test

Original experiment done with adults; tells us nothing about infants

What effect would listening to other styles of music have?

Most researchers unable to duplicate the effect

Conclusion: Those who listened to Mozart were just more alert or in a better mood

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Newborns (Neonates) and Their Reflexes

Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant’s palm, she’ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are automatic responses; i.e., they come from nature, not nurture)Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find nipple or foodSucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movementsMoro Reflex: If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion

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Fig. 3.5 Infant imitation. In the top row of photos, Andrew Meltzoff makes facial gestures at an infant. The bottom row records the infant’s responses. Videotapes of Meltzoff and of tested infants helped ensure objectivity. (Photos courtesy of Andrew N. Meltzoff.)

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Fig. 3.7 Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris & Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a child’s behavior differs some from the average.

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Maturation

Definition: Physical growth and development of the body, brain, and nervous system

Increased muscular control occurs in patterns; order of maturation is almost universal Cephalocaudal: From head to toe Proximodistal: From center of the body to the

extremities

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Fig. 3.8 Psychologist Carolyn Rovee-Collier has shown that babies as young as 3 months old can learn to control their movements. In her experiments, babies lie on their backs under a colorful crib mobile. A ribbon is tied around the baby’s ankle and connected to the mobile. Whenever babies spontaneously kick their legs, the mobile jiggles and rattles. Within a few minutes, infants learn to kick faster. Their reward for kicking is a chance to see the mobile move (Hayne & Rovee-Collier, 1995).

© Michael Newman/PhotoEdit

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Emotional and Social Development

Basic Emotions: Anger, fear, joy; appear to be unlearnedSocial Smile: Smiling elicited by social stimuli; not exclusive to seeing parentsSelf-Awareness: Awareness of oneself as a person; can be tested by having infants look in a mirror and see if they recognize themselvesSocial Referencing: Observing other people to get information or guidance

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Fig. 3.9 The traditional view of infancy holds that emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement. (After K.M.B. Bridges, 1932. From “Emotional Development in Early Infancy.” Reprinted by permission of the Society for Research in Child Development.)

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Fig. 3.10 Infants display many of the same emotional expressions as adults do. Carroll Izard believes such expressions show that distinct emotions appear within the first months of life. Other theorists argue that specific emotions come into focus more gradually, as an infant’s nervous system matures. Either way, parents can expect to see a full range of basic emotions by the end of a baby’s first year. Over the first 2 years, children become increasingly active in initiating emotional exchanges with parents (Grolnick, Cosgrove, & Bridges, 1996).

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Imprinting (Lorenz)

Definition: Rapid, relatively permanent type of learning that occurs during a limited time period early in lifeLorenz (an ethologist) studied natural behavior patterns of animalsHatched baby geese in an incubator; when geese were born, first moving object they saw was LorenzThey followed him around and acted as though he were their mother!

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Mary Ainsworth and Attachment

Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left alone or is with a stranger; generally appears around 8-12 monthsQuality of Attachment (Ainsworth) Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond Insecure-Avoidant: Anxious emotional bond; tendency to

avoid reunion with parent or caregiver Insecure-Ambivalent: Anxious emotional bond; desire to be

with parent or caregiver and some resistance to being reunited with Mom

Contact Comfort (Harlow): Pleasant and reassuring feeling babies get from touching something warm and soft, especially their mother

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Fig. 3.11 In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely attached. About 1 child in 3 is insecurely attached. (Percentages are approximate. From Kaplan, 1998.)

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Fig. 3.12 An infant monkey clings to a cloth-covered surrogate mother. Baby monkeys becomes attached to the cloth “contact-comfort” mother but not to a similar wire mother. This is true even when the wire mother provides food. Contact comfort may also underlie the tendency of children to become attached to inanimate objects, such as blankets or stuffed toys. However, a study of 2- to 3-year-old “blanket-attached” children found that they were no more insecure than others (Passman, 1987). (So, maybe Linus is okay after all.)

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Play and Social Skills

Solitary Play: When a child plays alone even when with other children

Cooperative Play: When two or more children must coordinate their actions

Affectional Needs: Needs for love and affection

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Optimal Caregiving

Proactive Maternal Influences: A mother’s warm, educational interactions with her childGoodness of Fit (Chess & Thomas): Degree to which parents and child have compatible temperamentsPaternal Influences: Sum of all effects a father has on his child

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Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 1991)

Authoritarian Parents: Enforce rigid rules and demand strict obedience to authority. Children tend to be self-absorbed as adults and have higher rates of drug abuse and violenceOverly Permissive: Give little guidance. Allow too much freedom, or don’t hold children accountable for their actions. Children tend to be dependent and immature and frequently misbehaveAuthoritative: Provide firm and consistent guidance combined with love and affection. Children tend to be competent, self-controlled, independent, and assertive

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CNN – Brain Conference

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Types of Child Discipline

Power Assertion: Using physical punishment or a show of force, e.g., removing toys or privilegesWithdrawal of Love: Withholding affectionManagement Techniques: Combine praise, recognition, approval, rules, and reasoning

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Spanking

Gershoff (2002): Parents should minimize or avoid entirely

No long-term damage if backed up by supportive parenting

Frequent spanking leads to increased aggression and to an increase in behavioral problems

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Language Acquisition

Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants; typically starts at 6-8 weeksBabbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds (e.g., babababa); uses consonants B, D, M, and G; starts at 7 months Single-Word Stage: The child says one word at a timeTelegraphic Speech: Two word sentences that communicate a single idea (e.g., Want cookie)

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Fig. 3.14 Mother-infant and father-infant interactions. These graphs show what occurred on routine days in a sample of 72 American homes. The graph on the left records the total amount of contact parents had with their babies, including such a actions as taking to, touching, hugging, or smiling a the infant. The graph on the right shows the amount of care-giving (diapering, washing, feeding, and so forth)done by each parent. Note that in both cases mother-infant interactions greatly exceed father-infant interactions. (Adapted from Belsky et al., 1984)

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Noam Chomsky and the Roots of Language

Biological Disposition: Presumed readiness of ALL humans to learn certain skills such as how to use language Chomsky: Language patterns are inborn

Parentese (Motherese): Pattern of speech used when talking to infants Marked by raised voice; short, simple sentences

and repetition

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Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series of stages during their cognitive development; like Freud, he was a Stage Theorist

Transformations: Mentally changing the shape or form of a substance; children younger than 6 or 7 cannot do this

Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to new situations

Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to accommodate new information or experiences

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Jean Piaget and the First Stage of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory input and motor responses are coordinated; most intellectual development here is nonverbalObject Permanence: Concept that objects

still exist when they are out of sight

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Jean Piaget and the Second Stage of Cognitive Development

Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years): Children begin to use language and think symbolically, BUT their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric Intuitive: Makes little use of reasoning and

logicEgocentric: Child is unable to

accommodate viewpoints of others

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Jean Piaget and the Third Stage of Cognitive Development

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11Years): Children become able to use concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that remain simplified and concrete, not abstract Conservation: Mass, weight, and volume remain

unchanged when the shape of objects changes

Reversibility of Thought: Relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed

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Fig. 3.17 Children under age 7 intuitively assume that a volume of liquid increases when it is poured from a short, wide container into a taller, thinner one. This boy thinks the tall container holds more than the short one. Actually each holds the same amount of liquid. Children make such judgments based on the height of the liquid, not its volume.

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Jean Piaget and the Last Stage of Cognitive Development

Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and Up): Thinking now includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideasAbstract Ideas: Concepts and examples

removed from specific examples and concrete situations

Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or projections

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Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factorsChildren’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable peopleZone of Proximal Development: Range of tasks a child cannot master alone even though they are close to having the necessary mental skills; they need guidance in order to complete the taskScaffolding: Framework or temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding, or supporting, their attempts to solve a problem or to discover principles Scaffolding must be responsive to a child’s needs

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Effective Parenting

Have stable rules of conduct (consistency)

Show mutual respect, love, encouragement, and shared enjoyment

Have effective communication I-Message: Tells children the effect their behavior

had on you (Use this) You-Message: Threats, name-calling, accusing,

bossing, criticizing, or lecturing (Avoid this)

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Consequences

Natural Consequences: Effects that naturally follow a particular behavior; intrinsic effects

Logical Consequences: Rational and reasonable effects

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How Has New Knowledge About Genetics Affected Parenthood?Artificial Insemination: Medically engineered conception. Sperm cells from an anonymous donor are used to

impregnate a woman Test-Tube Babies: Occurs through in vitro fertilization

Fertilization of an ovum outside a woman’s body Used for infertile couples Child will share both mother’s and father’s genes

Human Genome Project: A map of the entire set of human genesGenetic Counseling: Examines family history of each future parent and thus calculates risk of a genetic disorder

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Fig.3.20 During in vitro fertilization, ova from the woman or a donor are mixed with sperm from the man or donor. In the advanced techniques shown here, a sperm cell is placed inside an ovum. If both the egg and sperm are donated, both nominal parents are genetically unrelated to the “test-tube” baby.

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How Has New Knowledge About Genetics Affected Parenthood? (cont.)

Amniocentesis: Sample of amniotic fluid is taken from mother’s womb; can identify fetal sex and detect some genetic defects Usually done at 15th week of pregnancy Can detect Down’s Syndrome

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS): Performed between 6th and 8th week of pregnancy Small piece of placenta is taken for analysis

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The Future

Eugenics: Selective breeding for desirable characteristics

Cloning: Production of an entire organism from a single cellNot likely to happen for many yearsThe Rael’s were a hoax

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