CIS 302 Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design Managing the Information Systems Project 2.3
CIS 302Introduction to Systems
Analysis and Design
Managing the Information Systems Project
2.32.3
Learning Objectives
Discuss skills required to be an effective project manager
Describe skills and activities of a project manager during project initiation, planning, execution and closedown
Explain Gantt and Pert chartsReview commercial project
management software packages
2.42.4
Managing the Information Systems Project
Focus of project management To ensure that information system projects
meet customer expectations Delivered in a timely manner Meet constraints and requirements
2.52.5
Project Manager Systems Analyst responsible for
Project initiation Planning Execution Closing down
Requires diverse set of skills Management Leadership Technical Conflict management Customer relations
2.62.6
Managing the Information Systems Project
Project Management Process
Project Planned undertaking of related activities to reach
an objective that has a beginning and an end
Four Phases Initiation Planning Execution Closing down
2.72.7
Initiating the Project
1. Establish project initiation team
2. Establish relationship with customer
3. Establish project initiation plan
4. Establish management procedures
5. Establish project management environment and workbook
2.82.8
Planning the Project
1. Describe project scope, alternatives and feasibility
Scope and Feasibility Understand the project What problem is addressed What results are to be achieved Measures of success Completion criteria
2.92.9
Planning the Project
2. Divide the project into manageable tasks
• Work breakdown structure• Gantt chart
3. Estimate resources and create a resource plan.
4. Develop a preliminary schedule• Utilize Gantt and PERT charts
2.102.10
Planning the Project
5. Develop a communication plan Outline communication processes among
customers, team members and management Types of reports Frequency of reports
6. Determine project standards and procedures Specify how deliverables are tested and
produced
2.112.11
Planning the Project
7. Identify and assess risk Identify sources of risk Estimate consequences of risk
8. Create a preliminary budget9. Develop a statement of work
Describe what the project will deliver
10.Set a baseline project plan Estimate of project’s tasks and resources
2.122.12
Executing the Project
1. Execute baseline project plan Acquire and assign resources Train new team members Keep project on schedule
2. Monitor project progress Adjust resources, budget and/or activities
2.132.13
Executing the Project
3. Manage changes to baseline project plan
Slipped completion dates Changes in personnel New activities
4. Maintain project workbook
5. Communicate project status
2.142.14
Closing Down the Project
1. Termination Types of termination
Natural Requirements have been met
Unnatural Project stopped
Documentation Personnel Appraisal
2.152.15
Closing Down the Project
2. Conduct post-project reviews Determine strengths and weaknesses of
Project deliverables Project management process Development process
3. Close customer contract
2.162.16
Representing and Scheduling Project Plans
Gantt Charts Useful for depicting simple projects or parts
of large projects Show start and completion dates for
individual tasks
PERT Charts Show order of activities
2.172.17
Comparison of Gantt and PERT Charts
Gantt Visually shows
duration of tasks Visually shows time
overlap between tasks
Visually shows slack time
PERT Visually shows
dependencies between tasks
Visually shows which tasks can be done in parallel
Shows slack time by data in rectangles
2.192.19
Gantt and PERT Charts -- How to Proceed
Steps1. Identify each activity
Requirements Collection Screen Design Report Design Database Design User documentation Software programming Installation and testing
2.202.20
Gantt and PERT Charts -- Continued
2. Determine time estimates and expected completion times for each activity.
3. Determine sequence of activities
4. Determine critical path Sequence of events that will affect the final
project delivery date
2.212.21
Commercial Project Management Software
Many systems are available
Three activities required to use: Establish project start or end date Enter tasks and assign task relationships Select scheduling method to review project
reports
2.222.22
Summary
Skills of an effective project managerActivities of project manager Initiation Planning Execution Closedown
Gantt and PERT ChartsCommercial PM Software
2.232.23
Project Management:An Overview
Managing Operations
Agenda
Focus What is a Project? What is Project Management? Project Management Skills Why is Project Management Needed? Checklist for a Doomed Project Leading Contributors to Project Success The Cost of Failure: An Example
Objectives
Define a project.Describe the phases of a project.Define project management.List project management skills.Recognize the need for good project management.Identify various reasons for project success and failure.
Course Focus
We will focus on: IT project management, Skills needed to succeed and, The use of those skills for you career enhancement skills
As a program Manager, technical or business skills alone will not carry the day. You must have a combination of knowledge to be successful in this endeavor. This course will continue to expand and enhance your existing skills in those areas.
Why Businesses Exist.
First and foremost, businesses exist to maximize the value of their owners equity.
Non-profits may have a definition of “value” that is not based on monetary worth, but they do what they do to increase that value.
Successful businesses never loose this focus nor deviate from it in the development and execution of their business plans.Methodologies may vary but the goal is constant.
DO NOT FORGET THIS!
Vision and Strategies
Executives are tasked to develop Vision The Project manager is the tool to implement that Vision. What is the goal? Is it a strategic business goal or tactical objective?
Strategic considerations for the creation of Vision are many. The project manager must be given clear directions as to what that Vision is and a clear understanding of what the end result is.
The Project(s) must be defined.
So what makes a Project?Specific objectives – defines concisely what you are trying to do and what you will deliver….in detail. This will be to solve some problem.Schedule – define specifically the duration of the effortBudget – Identify what will be your budget and all variables and what you can and cannot control.Resources – Identify who will do the work and commitments that those resources will be available.
So what makes a Project?One-time series of efforts rather than ongoing. To build a web site is usually considered a project
that consists of multiple tasks. Sample Tasks requiring business leadership
Mission statement, Marketing plan, User thread definition, Finance, Business case analysis, others.
Sample Tasks requiring technical leadership Content creation, page design, software selection,
hardware selection, labor estimating, others.
Characteristics of a Project
Sequence or phases of activitiesUnique (Non-repetitive)Simple and/or ComplexInter-related activitiesSpecific GoalSpecific Time-frameSpecified BudgetDefined Specifications
Project Stages
ScopeDefinition
Scope Definition – Requirements & Business Analysis
Planning
Planning – Involves creating detailed, step by step plans
ExecutionExecution – Execute the plan and only the plan.
Closure
Closure – Project review with a detailed lessons learned.
Feedback
Feedback
Feedback Loops – During the Execution, as problems come up, take the issues back to the scope and planning stages as needed.
Who are the Project Players?The Sponsor – The individual who has requested that the project be undertaken. They usually get or provide the funding and face the executives.
(Remember the golden rule: he who has the gold, rules)
The Stakeholders – Those who are affected by the project and its implementation,The Project Manager – The individual responsible for the management of the project.Project Team – The grunts. Individuals tasked to perform the work identified in the project plan.
Why is Project Management Needed?
To avoid High Failure rates and High Costs to the
Enterprise. 30% of IT projects never reach fruitful conclusion Waste–$75 billion annually 51% exceed budget by 189% and deliver only
74% functionality
The Project Manager is tasked to avoid these problems.On time, on budget, to specification
Leading Contributors to Project Success
Effective Project ManagementFormal guidelinesAccountable sponsorsProject management skillsMeasurement systemsFormal prioritiesRegular communicationClear trackingAutomated tools
Why Projects
Fail
Lack of Scope Control
Poor requirements Definition
Schedule/Cost overruns
Leading Contributors to Project Failure
Undisciplined project managementPoor requirements gathering in the initial stages of a project.Poor communications between the IT and business side leading to different expectations.Uncontrolled changes in project scope…. scope creep.
The Project Manager
As a project manager, your execution of corporate strategy is accomplished by the efficient execution of individual projects.There are tactical and political issues with each project. You will need to face them and overcome those challenges.The primary skill that you will use is communications to those above you and those below you.Communication requires that you listen as well as speak.
The Project Manager
The key difference between a Program Manager and a Project Manager is usually a matter of scope and duration, depending on the corporation.
A Program Manager usually has duties that are more comprehensive than managing, building and delivering a single or integrated solution.
Program Management often entails managing and transitioning a series of projects from inception to operational support and management. This could cover all aspects of a product line or service, from marketing to ILS and everything in between.
The Project Manager
A Project Manager is usually tasked with a more limited scope of work with a more finite duration. That duration is scheduled and not
necessarily subject to market forces as is the case with a complete product line or program.
The following slides discuss Project Management though references will be made to Program Management in this context.
Project Management
FunctionsStaffing & Planning - A primary function of the Project Manager is to perform:
staffing analysis, staffing acquisition (via HR or subcontracts) and/or requirements analysis and;
plan the performance and execution of the project.
Organizing & Scheduling – Once the staffing and planning functions are identified, it is the project managers responsibility to organize those individuals into teams and schedule their work. This includes coordinating their work assignments with other Project and managers.
Project Management
FunctionsDirecting & Controlling –day to day operational direction is usually needed and required.
As the project evolves, these skills become increasingly important.
Tools and techniques- The organization, scheduling and controlling, as well as performance capturing and knowledge management functions are the responsibility of the Project Manager.
Providing feed back to executive management is key to the overall strategic implementation process.
Planning & Leadership Model
VISION
STRATEGIES
TASKS
PROJECTSA project is a definable delegatable achievement and the key to entrepreneurial rather than bureaucratic behavior.
Listen > Learn > Help > Lead
Appreciative understanding
Leadership Model
Feedback for Improvement
Staffing and Planning
Develop a Plan Base the plan on System
Development/Life Cycle (SDLC) and other process Activities
Solicit Resources to Deliver System
Planning Considerations: What is required? What resources are needed? What is the duration? What are the dependencies?
Organizing and Scheduling
Identify the Roles and Responsibilities.Communicate with the Project Team - must understand tasks & dependencies.Identify the Deliverables.Prepare a Schedule to Match the Deadlines. Add resources Move deadlines Adjust scope
Directing and Controlling
PM acts as a Director or Leader
Makes Key Decisions
Motivates, Rewards - Traits of a Leader
Advises, Coordinates, Delegates & Appraises
Controls the Project...from Orientation to termination
Directing and Controlling
Manage the ProjectStatus reports and reviews - project walk-throughAssess skills needed
Lead the Project TeamInvolve team in planningTrack project using formal and informal methodsSet performance objectives and develop staff
The Project Manager Skills
A Project Manager is usually associated with having the following skills: Detail Oriented. Methodical. Able to multi-task Able to understand technical, business and
financial issues. Cognizant of political realities of the project.
Project Management for Information SystemsSo, what is a project?
A project has specific objectives, start and end dates, and a budget; requires resources; and has a definite life cycle.
Who is a project manager? Someone who manages the project, ideally, from conception
to completion.
Common project management software tool include. Microsoft Project [http://www.microsoft.com/office/project/default.htm]
Primavera [http://www.primavera.com/] Others
Project Management Certification Testing
As a word of caution. For those who plan to eventually get certified as a project manager, there are some differences in what the answer the certifiers want on a test and the realities of the working world.PMI and Gartner think that companies always have the project manager engaged during the first phases of a project (Requirements gathering). Don’t bet on it. Requirements gathered and requirement realities my be two different things entirely. Don’t be complacent.
Project Management for Information Systems
An IT project is different from non-IT project management because of the following:
the work is harder to specify, Requirements are more difficult to gather and, designers are often the implementers.
The two key factors that can make a project successful are;
Regular communication with all participants and sponsors and,
Tracking resources and their tasks
Most Projects Fail
30% of IT projects never reach fruitful conclusion.
$75 billion is wasted annually.
51% of projects exceed budget by 189% and deliver only74% functionality.
Reasons for this include: Undisciplined project management. Poor communication between IT and business side. Other reasons?
Don’t Forget
E-business isn’t just technology!
Simply having a working site doesn’t mean the project was a success.
Need to consider: Market reaction. Response to customer needs. On-time delivery, within budget and quality
objectives. Other ideas?
Summary
Program management
Components of a project
The interrelation of tasks
Break
Project Management
Scope Management
Week 4 - Learning ObjectivesScope Management
You should be able to:
Discuss the relationship between scope and project failure
Explain how projects are initiated and selected
Define activities, inputs, and outputs of scope initiation, planning, definition, verification
Prepare a project charter
Prepare a WBS
Scope Management
Processes needed to ensure that: project includes all required work project includes only required work
Product scope features and functions of product deliverables measured against product requirements
Project scope work that must be done to deliver them measured against project plan
Scope Management Processes
Project Initiation commitment to next phase
Scope Planning written scope statement
Scope Definition: WBS
Scope Verification: formal acceptance
Scope Change Control
Scope Initiation
New project, or, commitment to next phase of existing project
Inputs: product description/business need strategic plan/goals project selection criteria & methods expert judgment, historical information
Strategic Planning, Leading toProject Selection
Business strategy and goals
IT systems help companies compete
Identify and prioritize opportunities
Business Goals
Selected Projects
PotentialProjects
Business Needs
Methods for Project SelectionOrganizational Need Perspective
Perceived need? Likelihood of funding? Willingness to support?
Source, time, impact, priority problem opportunity directive
Financial Perspective
Financial Perspective
Cost/benefit analysis NPV - net present value ROI - return on investment Payback analysis
Limitations: difficulty of estimating
Weighted scoring model incorporates multiple criteria
Weighted Scoring Model
Determine criteria
Weight criteria by importance
Score each project on each criterion
Multiply scores by weights
Get overall score for each project
Select project with highest score
“What-if” analysis may be helpful
Scope Initiation Outputs
Project Charter Conceptual baseline
Project Manager selectedConstraints factors that will limit the team’s options e.g., fixed budget e.g., contractual provisions
Assumptions
Project Charter
Formalizes existence of project
Provides direction on objectives
Signoff by key project stakeholders
Charter Components:title, date
project manager
scope statement
summary of approach
roles and responsibilities matrix
sign-off
comments (assumptions, constraints)
Scope Planning
Inputs to planning = outputs of initiation description and charter constraints and assumptions product description and analysis cost/benefit analysis
Scope Planning Outputs
Written Scope Statement justification: business need product description project deliverables quantifiable criteria for success
Common understanding of project
Scope Definition
Decomposition of project into more manageable components sufficiently detailed for tasks, estimation
Helps improve estimation accuracyDefines a baseline for measurement and controlClarifies responsibilities
Work Breakdown StructureAnalysis of work needed to complete project
Hierarchical breakdown of tasks
Provides basis for planning and change control
Can be organized around products or phases
Work package is lowest, detailed level
Requires involvement of project team and customers
Helps identify needed coordination
Approaches to Preparing a WBS
Use formal templates if availableUse previous similar projects’ WBSTop-down
iteratively add levels of detail
Bottom-up team members identify detailed tasks tasks are aggregated and summarized creates buy-in by project team
Combination
WBS Principles
A unit of work appears only once
Each unit of work responsibility is assigned to one person
Clear scope of each unit of work
WBS reflects how work will be done serves project team first
Must be flexible to accommodate changes
Scope Verification
Formal acceptance by stakeholdersInputs: Work results from execution of project plan Product documentation
InspectionOutputs: documented level of completion documented acceptance
Scope Control and Project Failure
Project failure often due to scope getting out of control Did not understand requirements Or, allowed requirements to grow
On average, project scope increases 4-fold
“Requirements (scope) creep” users see potential for automation, ask for more users want new system for current jobs
Reducing IT Project Scope Creep
User involvement project selection: ensure sponsor easy access to project information users as member(s) of project team regular meetings with users co-location with users focus on completion dates prototyping, use cases, JAD, CASE
Project Considerations
Is infrastructure setup part of your project?Assumptions What are you counting on? These can be critical to identify Resources expected: equip/people, approvals Availability of partners, connections Delineate key limits:
System load: expect an maximum of 100 users
Estimation
“Predictions are hard, especially about the future”, Yogi Berra
2 Types: Lucky or Lousy?
Planning, Estimating, Scheduling
What’s the difference?
Plan: Identify activities. No specific start and end dates.
Estimating: Determining the size & duration of activities.
Schedule: Adds specific start and end dates, relationships, and resources.
Project Planning: A 12 Step Program
1) Set goal and scope
2) Select lifecycle
3) Set org./team form
4) Start team selection
5) Determine risks
6) Create WBS
7) Identify tasks
8) Estimate size
9) Estimate effort
10)Identify task dependencies
11)Assign resources
12)Schedule work
How To Schedule
1. Identify “what” needs to be done Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
2. Identify “how much” (the size) Size estimation techniques
3. Identify the dependency between tasks Dependency graph, network diagram
4. Estimate total duration of the work to be done The actual schedule
WBS & Estimation
How did you feel when I asked “How long will your project take?”
Not an easy answer to give right?
At least not if I were are real customer on a real project
How can you manage that issue?
Partitioning Your Project
You need to decompose your project into manageable chunks
ALL projects need this step
Divide & Conquer
Two main causes of project failure Forgetting something critical Ballpark estimates become targets
How does partitioning help this?
Work Breakdown Structure: WBS
Hierarchical list of project’s work activities2 Formats
Outline (indented format) Graphical Tree (Organizational Chart)
Uses a decimal numbering system Ex: 3.1.5 0 is typically top level
Includes Development, Mgmt., and project support tasks
Shows “is contained in” relationshipsDoes not show dependencies or durations
WBS
Contract WBS (CWBS) First 2 or 3 levels High-level tracking
Project WBS (PWBS) Defined by PM and team members Tasks tied to deliverables Lowest level tracking
A Full WBS Structure
Up to six levels (3-6 usually) such as
Upper 3 can be used by customer for reporting (if part of RFP/RFQ)Different level can be applied to different uses
Ex: Level 1: authorizations; 2: budgets; 3: schedules
WBS Chart Example
WBS Outline Example0.0 Retail Web Site1.0 Project Management2.0 Requirements Gathering3.0 Analysis & Design4.0 Site Software Development
4.1 HTML Design and Creation4.2 Backend Software
4.2.1 Database Implementation4.2.2 Middleware Development4.2.3 Security Subsystems4.2.4 Catalog Engine4.2.5 Transaction Processing
4.3 Graphics and Interface4.4 Content Creation
5.0 Testing and Production
WBS TypesProcess WBS
a.k.a Activity-oriented Ex: Requirements, Analysis, Design, Testing Typically used by PM
Product WBS a.k.a. Entity-oriented Ex: Financial engine, Interface system, DB Typically used by engineering manager
Hybrid WBS: both above This is not unusual Ex: Lifecycle phases at high level with component or feature-specifics
within phases Rationale: processes produce products
Process WBS
WBS Types
Less frequently used alternatives Organizational WBS
Research, Product Design, Engineering, Operations
Can be useful for highly cross-functional projects
Geographical WBS Can be useful with distributed teams NYC team, San Jose team, Off-shore team
Work PackagesGeneric term for discrete tasks with definable end resultsTypically the “leaves” on the treeThe “one-to-two” rule
Often at: 1 or 2 persons for 1 or 2 weeks
Basis for monitoring and reporting progress Can be tied to budget items (charge numbers) Resources (personnel) assigned
Ideally shorter rather than longer Longer makes in-progress estimates needed These are more subjective than “done” 2-3 weeks maximum for software projects 1 day minimum (occasionally a half day) Not so small as to micro-manage
WBS
List of Activities, not Things
List of items can come from many sources SOW, Proposal, brainstorming, stakeholders, team
Describe activities using “bullet language” Meaningful but terse labels
All WBS paths do not have to go to the same level
Do not plan more detail than you can manage
WBS & Methodology
PM must map activities to chosen lifecycleEach lifecycle has different sets of activitiesIntegral process activities occur for all
Planning, configuration, testing
Operations and maintenance phases are not normally in plan (considered post-project)Some models are “straightened” for WBS
Spiral and other iterative models Linear sequence several times
Deliverables of tasks vary by methodology
WBS Techniques
Top-DownBottom-UpAnalogyRolling Wave 1st pass: go 1-3 levels deep Gather more requirements or data Add more detail later
Post-its on a wall
WBS Techniques
Top-down Start at highest level Systematically develop increasing level of
detail Best if
The problem is well understood Technology and methodology are not new This is similar to an earlier project or problem
But is also applied in majority of situations
WBS Techniques
Bottom-up Start at lowest level tasks Aggregate into summaries and higher levels Cons
Time consuming Needs more requirements complete
Pros Detailed
WBS Techniques
Analogy Base WBS upon that of a “similar” project Use a template Analogy also can be estimation basis Pros
Based on past actual experience Cons
Needs comparable project
WBS Techniques
Brainstorming Generate all activities you can think of that
need to be done Group them into categories
Both Top-down and Brainstorming can be used on the same WBSRemember to get the people who will be doing the work involved (buy-in matters!)
WBS – Basis of Many Things
Network scheduling
Costing
Risk analysis
Organizational structure
Control
Measurement
WBS Guidelines Part 1
Should be easy to understandSome companies have corporate standards for these schemesSome top-level items, like Project Mgmt. are in WBS for each project
Others vary by project
What often hurts most is what’s missing Break down until you can generate accurate time & cost estimatesEnsure each element corresponds to a deliverable
WBS Guidelines Part 2
How detailed should it be? Not as detailed as the final MS-Project plan Each level should have no more than 7 items It can evolve over time
What tool should you use? Excel, Word, Project Org chart diagramming tool (Visio, etc) Specialized commercial apps
Re-use a “template” if you have one
Estimations
Very difficult to do, but needed oftenCreated, used or refined during
Strategic planning Feasibility study and/or SOW Proposals Vendor and sub-contractor evaluation Project planning (iteratively)
Basic process1) Estimate the size of the product2) Estimate the effort (man-months)3) Estimate the schedule NOTE: Not all of these steps are always explicitly performed
Estimations
Remember, an “exact estimate” is an oxymoron
Estimate how long will it take you to get home from class tonight On what basis did you do that? Experience right? Likely as an “average” probability For most software projects there is no such ‘average’
Most software estimations are off by 25-100%
Estimation
Target vs. Committed Dates Target: Proposed by business or marketing Do not commit to this too soon! Committed: Team agrees to this After you’ve developed a schedule
Estimation Methodologies
Top-down
Bottom-up
Analogy
Expert Judgment
Priced to Win
Parametric or Algorithmic Method Using formulas and equations
Top-down Estimation
Based on overall characteristics of project Some of the others can be “types” of top-down (Analogy, Expert
Judgment, and Algorithmic methods)
Advantages Easy to calculate Effective early on (like initial cost estimates)
Disadvantages Some models are questionable or may not fit Less accurate because it doesn’t look at details
Bottom-up Estimation
Create WBS
Add from the bottom-up
Advantages Works well if activities well understood
Disadvantages Specific activities not always known More time consuming
Expert Judgment
Use somebody who has recent experience on a similar projectYou get a “guesstimate”Accuracy depends on their ‘real’ expertiseComparable application(s) must be accurately chosen
Systematic
Can use a weighted-average of opinions
Estimation by Analogy
Use past project Must be sufficiently similar (technology, type, organization) Find comparable attributes (ex: # of inputs/outputs) Can create a function
Advantages Based on actual historical data
Disadvantages Difficulty ‘matching’ project types Prior data may have been mis-measured How to measure differences – no two exactly same
Priced to Win
Just follow other estimates
Save on doing full estimate
Needs information on other estimates (or prices)
Purchaser must closely watch trade-offs
Priced to lose?
Algorithmic Measures
Lines of Code (LOC)Function pointsFeature points or object pointsOther possible
Number of bubbles on a DFD Number of of ERD entities Number of processes on a structure chart
LOC and function points most common (of the algorithmic approaches)
Majority of projects use none of the above
Code-based Estimates
LOC Advantages Commonly understood metric Permits specific comparison Actuals easily measured
LOC Disadvantages Difficult to estimate early in cycle Counts vary by language Many costs not considered (ex: requirements) Programmers may be rewarded based on this
Can use: # defects/# LOC Code generators produce excess code
LOC Estimate Issues
How do you know how many in advance?
What about different languages?
What about programmer style?
Stat: avg. programmer productivity: 3,000 LOC/yr
Most algorithmic approaches are more effective after requirements (or have to be after)
Code Reuse & Estimation
Does not come for free
Code types: New, Modified, Reused
If code is more than 50% modified, it’s “new”
Reuse factors have wide range Reused code takes 30% effort of new Modified is 60% of new
Integration effort with reused code almost as expensive as with new code
Effort Estimation
Now that you know the “size”, determine the “effort” needed to build it
Various models: empirical, mathematical, subjective
Expressed in units of duration Man-months (or ‘staff-months’ now)
COCOMO
COnstructive COst MOdel Allows for the type of application, size, and “Cost Drivers”Outputs in Person MonthsCost drivers using High/Med/Low & include
Motivation Ability of team Application experience
Biggest weakness? Requires input of a product size estimate in LOC
Estimation Issues
Quality estimations needed early but information is limitedPrecise estimation data available at end but not needed
Or is it? What about the next project?
Best estimates are based on past experiencePolitics of estimation:
You may anticipate a “cut” by upper management
For many software projects there is little or none Technologies change Historical data unavailable Wide variance in project experiences/types Subjective nature of software estimation
Know Your Deadlines
Are they ‘Real Deadlines’? Tied to an external event Have to be met for project to be a success Ex: end of financial year, contractual deadline,
Y2K
Or ‘Artificial Deadlines’? Set by arbitrary authority May have some flexibility (if pushed)
Other Estimation Notes
Remember: “manage expectations”
Parkinson’s Law “Work expands to fill the time available”
The Student Syndrome Procrastination until the last minute (cram)