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8/2/2019 Chapter 3 the Fuel Air and Flue-gas Circuits http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/chapter-3-the-fuel-air-and-flue-gas-circuits 1/23 Chapter 3 The fuel, air and flue-gas circuits Having looked at the steam and water circuits of boilers and HRSGs, we now move on to examine the plant which is involved in the combustion of fuel in boilers. The heat used for generating the steam is obtained by burning fuel in a furnace, or combustion chamber, but to do this requires the provision of air which is provided by a forced-draught (FD) fan (in larger boilers, two such fans are provided). After the fuel has been burned, the hot products of combustion are extracted from the furnace by another fan, the induced- draught (ID) fan, and fed to the chimney. Again, two ID fans are provided on larger boilers. In this chapter we shall examine not only the burners or other equipment used to burn the fuel but also the fans and air heaters. Finally we shall briefly examine how gas turbines are used in combined-cycle plant. 3.1 The furnace In boiler plant the heat used for boiling the water is obtained by burning a fossil fuel (unlike the HRSG, where the heat is delivered by the exhaust of a gas turbine). This process of combustion is carried out in the furnace, and comprises a chemical reaction between the combustible material and oxygen. If insufficient oxygen is available some of'the combustibles will not burn, which is clearly inefficient and polluting. On the other hand, the provision of too much oxygen leads to inefficient operation and to corrosion and undesirable emissions from the stack due to the combination of the surplus oxygen with other components of the flue gases.
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Chapter 3 the Fuel Air and Flue-gas Circuits

Apr 05, 2018

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Page 1: Chapter 3 the Fuel Air and Flue-gas Circuits

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Cha pter 3

T h e f u e l , a i r a n d f l u e - g a s c i r c u i t s

H a v i n g l o o k e d a t th e s te a m a n d w a t e r c ir c ui ts o f b o il er s a n d H R S G s , w e

n o w m o v e o n to e x a m i n e t h e p l an t w h i c h is i n v o lv e d in t h e c o m b u s t i o n o f

fue l in b o i le rs .

T h e h e a t u s e d fo r g e n e r a t i n g t h e s te a m is o b t a i n e d b y b u r n i n g f ue l i n a

f u r n a c e , o r c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r , b u t t o d o t h i s r e q u i r e s t h e p r o v i s i o n o f

a i r w h i c h is p r o v i d e d b y a f o r c e d - d r a u g h t ( F D ) f a n ( in l a r g e r b o i le r s , t w os u c h fa n s ar e p r o v i d e d ) . A f t e r t h e fu e l h a s b e e n b u r n e d , t h e h o t p r o d u c t s o f

c o m b u s t i o n a r e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e fu r n a c e b y a n o t h e r f an , t h e i n d u c e d -

d r a u g h t ( I D ) f an , a n d f e d t o t h e c h i m n e y . A g a i n , t w o I D f an s a r e

p r o v i d e d o n l a r g e r b o il er s.

I n t h is c h a p t e r w e sh a ll e x a m i n e n o t o n l y th e b u r n e r s o r o t h e r

e q u i p m e n t u s e d to b u r n t h e fu e l b u t a l so th e f an s a n d a ir h e a t er s . F i n a l l y

w e sh a ll b r i e fl y e x a m i n e h o w g a s t u r b in e s a r e u s e d i n c o m b i n e d - c y c l e

p l a n t .

3 .1 T h e f u r n a c e

I n b o i l e r p l a n t t h e h e a t u s e d f o r b o i l in g t h e w a t e r is o b t a i n e d b y b u r n i n ga fo ssil f u e l ( u n l ik e t h e H R S G , w h e r e t h e h e a t is d e l i v e r e d b y t h e e x h a u s t

o f a g a s t u r b in e ) . T h i s p r o c e ss o f c o m b u s t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e f u r n a c e ,

a n d c o m p r i s es a c h e m i c a l r e a c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e c o m b u s t i b le m a t e r ia l a n d

o x y g e n . I f i n s u ff ic i e n t o x y g e n is a v a i l a b l e s o m e o f ' t h e c o m b u s t i b l e s w il l n o t

b u r n , w h i c h is c l e a r l y i n e ff ic i e n t a n d p o l lu t i n g . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e

p r o v i s i o n o f t o o m u c h o x y g e n l e a d s to in e ff ic ie n t o p e r a t i o n a n d t o

c o r r o s i o n a n d u n d e s i r a b l e e m i ss io n s f r o m t h e s ta c k d u e t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n

o f t h e s u r p l u s o x y g e n w i th o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e f lu e g a se s.

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26 Po w er-pla nt ontrol and instrumentation

T h e o x y g e n f o r c o m b u s t i o n is p r o v i d e d i n ai r , w h i c h c o n t a in s a r o u n d

2 1 % o f t h e g as . H o w e v e r , a i r a l s o c o n t a i n s a r o u n d 7 7 % n i t ro g e n , a n d t h e

c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e ss r e su l t s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f n i t r o g e n d i o x id e (NO2)a n d n i t r i c o x i d e ( N O ) . T h e s e g a se s ( p lu s n i t r o u s o x id e , N z O ) a r e c o l le c -

t iv e l y c a l l e d n i t r o g e n o x i d e s, o r N O x f o r s h o r t , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e o f t e nb l a m e d f o r v a r io u s d e t r i m e n t a l e ff e cts o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a h i g h l ev e l o f

a t t e n t i o n m u s t b e g iv e n t o m i n i m i s i n g t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h i g h c o m b u s t i o n e ff ic ie n cie s i n v a r i a b l y c o r r e s p o n d w i t h

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h le v els o f n i t r o g e n o x i de s , a n d t h e r e f o r e N O x

r e d u c t i o n i n v o lv e s c a r e fu l d e s i g n o f t h e b u r n e r s s o a s to y i e ld a d e q u a t e

c o m b u s t i o n e ff ic ie nc y w i t h m i n i m a l s m o k e a n d c a r b o n m o n o x i d e g e n e ra -

t i o n .

3 . 1 .1 F i r i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s

T h e c o m b u s t i o n o f o il , g a s o r p u l v e r i s e d c o al is p e r f o r m e d i n b u r n e r s .

T h e s e m a y b e a r r a n g e d o n o n e w a ll o f t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r ( w h ic h is

t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d ' f r o n t - f ir e d ' ) , o r o n f a c i n g w a l l s ( ' o p p o s e d f ir e d ') o r a t t h e

c o r n e r s o f i t ( 'c o r n e r - f i r e d ' o r ' t a n g e n t i a l ' ) , a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f c o m -

b u s t i o n w i l l b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n e a c h c a s e . T h e b u r n e r s m a y b e p r o v i d e d

w i t h i n d iv i d u a l ly c o n t r o l le d f u el a n d a i r s u p pl i e s , o r c o m m o n c o n t r o l m a y

b e a p p l i e d f o r a l l t h e b u r n e r s , o r t h e y m a y b e o p e r a t e d i n g r o u p s , e a c h

g r o u p h a v i n g d e d i c a t e d a n d s e p a r a t e l y c o n t r o l l e d s u p pl ie s o f f ue l a n d a ir .

C o m b u s t i o n o f r a w c o a l o r o t h e r s o l i d f ue ls s u c h a s m u n i c i p a l w a s te ,

c l i n i c a l w a s t e o r r e f u s e - d e r i v e d f u e l s i s o f t e n c a r r i e d o u t i n f l u i d i s e d b e d s ,

o r o n s t o k e rs c o n s i s t in g o f m o v i n g g r a t e s o r p l a t f o r m s .

T h e m e t h o d s o f c o n t r o l l i n g th e s e v a r io u s a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e v e r y

d i ff e re n t . W i t h f r o n t- f i re d o r o p p o s e d - f i r e d b o il er s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e

f lu e g a s es a n d t h e r e s u l t in g h e a t t r a n s f e r t o t h e v a r i o u s b a n k s o f s u p e r -

h e a t e r t u b e s i s a d j u s t e d b y b r i n g i n g b u r n e r s i n t o s e r v i c e o r t a k i n g t h e m

o u t o f s e rv ic e , a n d t h is m a y b e d o n e i n d i v i d u a l l y o r in b a n k s . T h i s m e t h o d

p r o v i d e s a s t e p - f u n c t io n t y p e o f c o n t r o l a n d f in e a d j u s t m e n t o f s t e a m t e m -

p e r a t u r e is p r o v i d e d b y s p r a y - w a t e r a t t e m p o r a t i o n .

C o r n e r - f i r e d ( t a n g e n t ia l ) b o i l er s a r e a r r a n g e d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h eb u r n i n g f u e l c i r c u la t e s a r o u n d t h e f u r n a c e , f o r m i n g a l a r g e s w i r l in g b a ll o f

b u r n i n g f u e l a t t h e c e n t re . W i t h th is t y p e o f b o i le r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s

u s u a l l y e m p l o y t i l t i n g m e c h a n i s m s t o d i r e c t t h e f i r e b a l l t o a h i g h e r o r

l o w e r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e f u r n a c e , a n d t hi s h a s a s i g n i f ic a n t e ff e ct o n t h e

t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e v a r i o u s b a n k s o f s u p e r h e a t e r t u b e s, a n d t h e re f o re o n

s t e a m t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e m a x i m u m d e g r e e o f t i l t t h a t is a v a i l ab l e w i t h in

t h e b a s ic d e s i g n i s t y p i c a ll y - t -3 0 ° , a l t h o u g h t h e d e g r e e o f m o v e m e n te m p l o y e d in p r a c t i c e i s u s u a l ly r e s t ri c te d d u r i n g c o m m i s s io n i n g .

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The u el, air and lue-gas circuits 27

T h e d o w n s i d e o f t il ti ng is th a t b u r n e r s - - w i t h t h e ir fu el a n d a i r

s u p pl ie s, ig n i te r s, f l a m e m o n i t o r s e t c . - - a r e c o m p l e x t h in g s , a n d t il t in g

t h e m r e q u i r e s v e r y c a r e f u l e n g i n e e r i n g i f i t is to b e s u cc e ss fu l . A l s o, t h e

t il ti n g m e c h a n i s m s m u s t b e r i g o r o u s l y m a i n t a i n e d i f t h e y a r e t o c o n t i n u e

t o o p e r a t e e f fe c t iv e l y o v e r a n y l e n g t h o f ti m e .T h e c o n t r o l sy s te m s t h a t r e g u l a t e b u r n e r t il ti n g m e c h a n i s m s m u s t

e n s u r e t h a t e x a c t l y t h e s a m e d e g r e e o f t il t is a p p l i e d t o t h e b u r n e r s a t a ll

f o u r c o r n e r s o f t h e f u r n a c e , s i n ce a n y m i s a l i g n m e n t w i ll c a u s e t h e f i r eb a l l

t o c i rc u l a t e h e l ic a l ly r a t h e r t h a n a s r e q u i r e d .

3 .2 T h e a i r a n d g a s c i r c u i t s

T h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c es s re q u i r e s t h e p r o v i s io n o f f u el a n d a i r in t h e

c o r r e c t r a t i o t o e a c h o t h e r . T h i s i s k n o w n a s t h e s t o i c h i o m e t i c r a t i o , a n d

u n d e r t his c o n d i t i o n e n o u g h a i r is p r o v i d e d t o e n s u r e c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n

o f a l l t h e f u e l, w i t h n o s u r p l u s o r d e f i ci t. H o w e v e r , t h i s is a t h e o r e t i c a l

i d e a l , a n d p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m a y n e c e s s i t a t e o p e r a t i n g a t a f u e l / a i r

r a t i o t h a t is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r ic v a l u e . I n a d d i t i o n , i t m u s t b eu n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e e f f ic i e n c y o f t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s w i ll a l so b e

a f fe c t ed b y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e a i r p r o v i d e d .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s w e s h a l l s e e h o w a i r i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e

f u r n a c e a t t h e r i g h t co n d i t io n s o f f lo w a n d t e m p e r a t u r e , s t a r t in g w i t h t h e

a u x i l i a ry p l a n t t h a t w a r m s t h e a i r a n d m o v i n g o n to t h e t y p e s o f f a n

e m p l o y e d i n t h e d r a u g h t p l an t .

3 . 2 .1 T h e a i r h e a te r

I n a s i m p l e - c y c l e p l a n t , a i r is d e l i v e r e d to t h e b o i l e r b y o n e o r m o r e F D

f an s a n d t h e p r o d u c t s o f c o m b u s t i o n a r e e x t r a c t e d f r o m it b y I D fa ns .

F i g u r e 3 . 1 s h o w s t h i s p l a n t i n a s i m p l i f i e d f o r m , a n d i l l u s t r a t e s h o w t h e

h e a t r e m a i n i n g i n t h e e x h a u s t g a se s l e a v in g t h e f u r n a c e is u se d to w a r m

t h e a i r b e i n g f e d t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h i s f u n c t i o n is a c h i e v e d i n

a n a i r h e a t e r , w h i c h c a n b e e i t h e r r e g e n e r a t i v e , w h e r e a n i n t e r m e d i a t em e d i u m is u s e d to t r a n s fe r t h e h e a t f r o m t h e e x h a u s t g a s es t o t h e i n c o m i n g

a i r , o r r e c u p e r a t i v e , w h e r e a d i r e c t h e a t t r a n s f e r i s u s e d a c r o s s a d i v i d i n g

p a r t i t i o n .

O n e v a r i e t y o f r e g e n e r a t i v e a i r h e a t e r is th e L j u n g s t r 6 m t y p e , w h e r e

m e t a l p la te s m o u n t e d o n a r o t a t in g f r a m e a r e p a ss e d t h r o u g h t h e h o t g as es

a n d t h e n t o th e i n c o m i n g a ir .

F r o m a c o n t r o l e n g i n e e r' s p o i n t o f v ie w , a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a ti o n ist h e e f f ic i en t c o m b u s t i o n o f t h e f ue l, a n d h e r e i t is n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r t h e

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28 Pow er-plant control and instrumentation

Induced-draught fan

Exhaustgases to

chimney

Forced-draught fans¢-

~ . j - /

Induced- S

draught fan

Figure 3.1 D raug ht-plant arrangement

Exhaustgases tochimney

lo s se s a n d l e a k a g e s t h a t o c c u r i n a n a i r h e a t e r . F i g u r e 3 . 2 s h o w s h o w

v a r i o u s l e a k a g e s o c c u r i n a t y p i c a l a i r h e a t e r : a c r o s s t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l ,

r a d i a l a n d a x i a l s e a l s , a s w e l l a s a t t h e h u b . T h e s e l e a k a g e s a r e m i n i m i s e d

w h e n t h e p l a n t i s f ir st c o n s t r u c t e d , b u t b e c o m e g r e a t e r a s w e a r o c c u r s

d u r i n g p r o l o n g e d u s a g e. W h e n t h e s h e e r p h y s i c a l siz e o f t h e a ir h e a t e r i sc o n s i d e r e d ( F i g u r e 3 .3 ) it w i ll b e a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e s e l e a k a g e s c a n

b e c o m e s ig n i fi ca n t.

3.2 .2 Typ es o fa n

I n a d d i t io n t o t h e F D a n d I D f an s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , a n o t h e r a p p l i c a ti o n

f o r l a r g e f a n s i n a p o w e r - s t a t i o n b o i l e r i s w h e r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o v e r c o m et h e r e s is t a n c e p r e s e n t e d b y p l a n t i n th e p a t h o f t h e f l u e g a s e s t o th e s t a c k .

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A i r P r e h e a t e r L e a k a g e

Th e fu e l , a ir and lue-gas c ircuits 29

Figure 3.2 A ir heater leakage

© Ho w den Sirocco Ltd . Re prod uced w ith permiss ion

Circ

/ea~

Figure 3.3 A n air heater being l i f ted into position© H ow den Sirocco Ltd . Rep rodu ced with permiss ion

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30 P o w e r - p l a n tcontrol an d instrum entation

I n s o m e ca s es , e n v i r o n m e n t a l l e g is l at io n h a s e n f o r c e d t h e f it ti n g o f f lu e -

g a s d e s u l p h u r i s a t i o n e q u i p m e n t t o a n e x i s t in g b o i le r . T h i s i n v o lv e s t h e u s e

o f a b s o r b e r s a n d / o r b a g f il te rs , p lu s t h e a t t e n d a n t d u c t in g , a ll o f w h i c h

p r e s e n t a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s ta n c e t o t h e f l o w o f g a se s . I n t h is c a s e t h is r e s i s ta n c e

w a s n o t a n t i c i p a t e d w h e n t h e p l a n t w a s o r i g i n a ll y d e s i g n e d , s o i t isn e c e s s a r y t o f it a d d i t i o n a l f a n s to o v e r c o m e t h e d r a u g h t lo ss es . T h e s e a r e

c a l l e d ' b o o s t e r f an s '.

W h a t e v e r t h e i r f u n c t i o n , a s f a r a s t h e f a n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e c o n c e r n e d ,

t w o t y p e s a r e f o u n d i n p o w e r - s ta t i o n d r a u g h t a p p li c at io n s : c e n tr if u g a l

( F i g u r e 3 . 4 ) a n d a x i a l - f l o w ( F i g u r e 3 . 5 ) . I n t h e f o r m e r , t h e b l a d e s a r e s e t

r a d i a l l y o n t h e d r i v e s h a f t w i t h t h e a i r o r f l u e g a s d i r e c t e d t o t h e c e n t r e

a n d d r i v e n o u t w a r d s b y c e n t r i fu g a l f o r c e. W i t h a x i a l- f lo w fa ns , th e a i r o rg a s is d r a w n a l o n g t h e l in e o f t h e s h a f t b y t h e s c r e w a c t i o n o f t h e b l a d e s .

W h e r e a s t h e b l a d e s o f a c e n t r if u g a l f a n a r e f ix e d r ig i d ly t o t h e s h af t, t h e

p i t c h o f a x i a l -f l o w f a n b l a d e s c a n b e a d j u s t e d . T h i s p r o v i d e s a n e f fi ci en t

m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f a n 's t h r o u g h p u t , b u t r e q u i re s c a r e f u l d e s i g n o f

t h e a s s o c i a te d c o n t r o l s y s t e m b e c a u s e o f a p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n a s 's ta ll ',

w h i c h w ill n o w b e d e s c r ib e d .

Figure 3.4 Centri fugal a n© How den Sirocco Ltd. Reproduced w ith permission

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The fu el , air and lue-gas circuits 31

Figure 3.5 Axialz[low a n

© How den Sirocco Ltd. R eproduced with permission

3 . 2 . 2 . 1 T h e s t a l l c o n d i ti o n

T h e a n g u l a r r e la t io n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a ir fl ow i m p i n g i n g o n t h e b la d e o f

a f a n a n d t h e b l a d e i t s e l f is k n o w n a s t h e ' a n g l e o f a t t a c k ' . I n a n a x i a l - f lo w

f a n , w h e n t h is a n g l e e x c e e d s a c e r t a i n l im i t , t h e a i r f l o w o v e r t h e b l a d e

s e p a r a t e s f r o m t h e s u r f a c e a n d c e n t r if u g a l f o r c e t h e n t h r o w s t h e a ir

o u t w a r d s , t o w a r d s t h e r i m o f t h e b l a d es . T h i s a c t i o n c a u s e s a b u i l d - u p o f

p r e s s u r e a t t h e b l a d e t ip , a n d t hi s p r e s s u r e in c r e a s e s u n t i l i t c a n b e r e l ie v e d

a t t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t i p a n d t h e c a s i n g . U n d e r t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f t h e f a n b e c o m e s u n s t a b l e , v i b r a t i o n s et s i n a n d t h e f lo w s t a rt s

t o o s c i ll a te . T h e r is k o f s t a ll i nc rea s e s i f a f a n is ov e r s i zed o r i f t he s ys t emres i s t ance i nc rea s e s exces si ve ly .

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32 Power-plantcontrol and instrumentation

F o r e a c h s e t t i n g o f t h e b l a d e s t h e r e is a p o i n t o n t h e f a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

b e y o n d w h i c h s t a ll w i ll oc c u r . I f t he se po i n t s a r e l i nke d , a ' st a ll l ine ' is

g e n e r a t e d ( F i g u r e 3 .6 ) a n d i f t h is is b u i l t i n t o t h e p l a n t c o n t r o l s y s t e m

( D C S ) it c a n b e u s e d to w a r n t h e o p e r a t o r t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n is i m m i n e n t

a n d t h e n t o a c t i v e l y s h if t o p e r a t i o n a w a y f ro m t h e d a n g e r r e g io n . T h ea c t u a l s t a l l - l i n e d a t a f o r a g i v e n m a c h i n e s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d b y t h e f a n

m a n u f a c t u r e r .

3.2 .2 .2 Cen tr i fugal - fan surge

T h e s ta l l c o n d i t i o n a f f e c ts o n l y a x i a l - f lo w f an s . H o w e v e r , c e n t r i f u g a l t~ n s

a r e s u b j e c t to a n o t h e r f o r m o f i n st ab i li ty . I f t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d n e a r t h e

p e a k o f t h e ir p r e s s u r e / f l o w c u r v e a s m a ll m o v e m e n t e i t h e r w a y c a n c a u s et h e p r e s s u r e t o i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e u n p r e d i c t a b l y . T h e p o i n t a t w h i c h th is

p h e n o m e n o n o c c u r s i s k n o w n a s t h e ' s u r g e l i m i t ' a n d i t i s t h e m i n i m u m

f lo w a t w h i c h t h e f a n o p e r a t i o n is s t a b le .

g

I I I I I I I I I IV o l u m e t r i c f ! C :~

1 . . . . I

! 0 ~

Figure 3.6 The stall line o f an axial-flow a n

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The uel , air and lue-gas circuits 33

T h e s y s t em d e s i g n e r n e e d s t o b e a w a r e o f t h e r is k o f s u r g e o c c u r r i n g ,

s in c e i t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o a d a p t t h e c o n t r o l - s y s t e m d e s ig n . H o w e v e r ,

t hi s is g e n e r a l l y n o t a p r o b l e m i f t h e f a n is p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o

t h e o v e r a l l p l a n t. D u r i n g t h e i n it ia l d e s i g n o f t h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m , d i a l o g u e

w i t h t h e p r oc e ss e n g i n e e r o r b o i le r d e s i g n e r w i ll sh o w w h e t h e r o r n o t s u r g ep r o t e c t i o n w i ll b e r e q u i r e d .

3 .2 .3 F ina l e lements o r draugh t contro l

R e f e r e n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e to t h e u s e o f p i t c h - c o n t r o l i n a x i al -f lo w

f an s to r e g u l a t e t h e t h r o u g h p u t o f t h e m a c h i n e . O t h e r m e a n s o f c o n t r o l li n g

f lo w a r e d a m p e r s , v a n e s o r s p e e d a d j u s t m e n t . E a c h o f t h e se d e v ic e s h a s i ts

o w n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s , a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f

t h e c o n t r o l l i n g d e v i c e w h i c h i s t o b e u s e d i n a g i v e n a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l b e a

t r a d e - o f f b e t w e e n t h e t e c h n i ca l f e a tu r e s a n d t h e co st.

3.2 .3 .1 T yp es o f damper

T h e s im p l e s t f o r m o f d a m p e r c o n s is ts o f a h i n g e d p l a t e t h a t is p i v o t e d a t

t h e c e n t r e s o t h a t i t c a n b e o p e n e d o r c l o se d a c ro s s t h e d u c t . T h i s p r o v i d e s

a f o r m o f d r a u g h t c o n t r o l b u t i t is n o t v e r y l i n e a r a n d i t is m o s t e ff e ct iv e

o n l y n e a r t h e c lo s ed p o si ti on . O n c e s u c h a d a m p e r is m o r e t h a n a b o u t 4 0 -

6 0 % o p e n it c a n p r o v i d e v e r y l it tl e a d d i t io n a l c o n t r o l. A n o t h e r f o r m o f

d a m p e r c o m p r i s es a s et o f l in k e d b l a d e s a c ro s s t h e d u c t ( li ke a V e n e t i a n

b lin d ). S u c h m u h i b l a d e d d a m p e r s a r e n a t u r a l l y m o r e e xp e n si ve a n d m o r e

c o m p l e x t o m a i n t a i n t h a n s i n g l e - b l a d e d v er si o ns , b u t t h e y o f fe r b e t t e r

l i n e a ri t y o f c o n t r o l o v e r a w i d e r r a n g e o f o p e r a t io n .

T h e t as k o f d e s ig n i n g a c o n t r o l s y s te m fo r o p t i m u m p e r t b r m a n c e o v e r

t h e w i d e s t d y n a m i c r a n g e w i ll b e s im p l i fi e d if t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

c o n t r o l l e r o u t p u t s ig n a l a n d t h e r e s u l t a n t f lo w is l in e a r. A l t h o u g h i t is

p o ss ib le t o p r o v i d e t h e r e q u i r e d c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o n t r o l s y s te m ,

t hi s w ill u s u a l ly o n l y b e e ff e c ti v e u n d e r a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l . U n d e r m a n u a l

c o n t r o l a s e v e r e ly n o n l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c a n m a k e i t d if fi c ul t f o r t h eo p e r a t o r t o a c h i e v e p re c i se a d j u s t m e n t .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o l i n e a r i s e t h e c o m m a n d - f l o w r e l a t i o n s h i p u n d e r b o t h

m a n u a l a n d a u t o m a t i c c o n t ro l b y t h e d es ig n o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l li n k a g e

b e t w e e n t h e a c t u a t o r a n d t h e d a m p e r . H o w e v e r , t h i s r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l

d e s ig n o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l a s s e m b li es a n d t h e s e d a y s it is g e n e r a l l y c o n s id -

e r e d s i m p l e r t o b u i l d t h e r e q u i r e d c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n i n t o t h e D C S . T h i s

a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s a p a r t i a l a n s w e r , b u t it s h o u l d n o t b e f o r g o t t e n t h a ts u c h a s o l u t io n i s o n l y e f f ec t iv e u n d e r a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l.

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34 Power-plant ontrol and instrumentation

3.2 .3 .2 Vanecontrol

T h e s e c o n d f o r m o f c o n t r o l is b y t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f v a n e s a t t h e f a n i nl et .

T h e s e v a n e s a r e c l e a r l y vi si bl e n e a r t h e c e n t r e o f F i g u r e 3 .7 ( w h i c h s h o w s a

c e n t r i f u g a l f a n d u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r e ) . S u c h v a n e s a r e o p e r a t e d v i a a

c o m p l e x l i n k a g e w h i c h r o t a t e s a l l t h e v a n e s t h r o u g h t h e s a m e a n g l e i n

r es p o n se to t h e c o m m a n d s ig n a l f r o m t h e D C S .

3.2 .3.3 Variable-speed drives

F i n al ly , c o n t r o l o f f a n t h r o u g h p u t c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y t h e u s e o f v a r i a b le -

s p e e d m o t o r s ( o r dr iv e s ). T h e s e m a y i n v o l v e th e u s e o f e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l -

le rs w h i c h a l t e r t h e s p e e d o f t h e d r i v i n g m o t o r i n r e sp o n s e to d e m a n d

s ig n a ls f ro m t h e D C S o r t h e y c a n b e h y d r a u l i c co u p l i n g s o r v a r i a b le - s p e e d

g e a r b o x e s , e i t h e r o f w h i c h a l l o w s a f ix e d - s p e ed m o t o r t o d r i v e t h e f a n a t

t h e d e s i r e d s p e e d . V a r i a b l e s p e e d d r i v e s o ff e r s i g n i fi c a n t a d v a n t a g e s i n t h a t

t h e y a l l o w t h e f a n t o o p e r a t e a t t h e o p t i m u m s p e e d f o r t h e r e q u i r e d

t h r o u g h p u t o f a i r o r g as , w h e r e a s d a m p e r s o r v a n e s c o n t r o l t h e fl ow b y

r e s t r ic t i n g it , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e f a n is a t t e m p t i n g t o d e l i v e r m o r e f l ow

t h a n is r e q u i r e d .

Figure 3.7 A centrifugal an during manufacture© Ho wden Sirocco Ltd. Reproduced w ith permission

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Th e u el, air and lue-gas circuits 35

3 .3 F u e l s y s t e m s

F o s s i l f u e l s t h a t a r e b u r n e d i n b o i l e r s c a n b e u s e d i n s o l i d , l i q u i d o r

g a s e o u s f o r m , o r a m i x t u r e o f t h es e . N a t u r a l l y , t h e h a n d l i n g s y s t e m s f o r

t h e s e t y p e s o f f ue ls d i f f e r w i d e ly . M o r e o v e r , t h e v a r i e t y o f fu els b e i n gb u r n e d is e n o r m o u s . S o l id f ue ls e n c o m p a s s a w i d e s p e c t r u m o f c o a ls a s w e l l

a s w o o d , t h e w a s t e p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r i a l p r oc e ss es , m u n i c i p a l a n d c l in i c a l

w a s t e a n d r e f u s e - d e r iv e d fu els . ( T h e l as t a r e p r o d u c e d b y s h r e d d i n g o r

g r i n d i n g d o m e s t ic , c o m m e r c i a l a n d i n d u s tr ia l w a s te m a t e r ia l .) L i q u i d

fu e ls c a n b e h e a v y o r l i g h t oil, o r t h e p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t . G a s c a n

b e n a t u r a l o r m a n u f a c t u r e d , o r t h e b y - p r o d u c t o f r ef in e ri es .

E a c h o f t h e s e f ue ls r e q u i r e s s p e c ia l is e d h a n d l i n g a n d t r e a t m e n t , a n dt h e c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n h a s t o b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e fu e l a n d t h e

p l a n t t h a t p r o c e s se s i t.

3 . 3 .1 C o a l i r i n g ( p u l v e r is e d u e l )

A l t h o u g h c o a l c a n b e b u r n e d i n s o l i d f o r m o n g r a t e s , i t i s m o r e u s u a l t o

b r e a k i t u p b e f o re f e e d i n g it to t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h e t r e a t m e n t

d e p e n d s o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o a l. S o m e c o a ls le n d t h e m s e lv e s t o b e i n gg r o u n d d o w n t o a v e r y fi n e p o w d e r ( c a ll e d p u l v e r i s ed f u el ( P F ) ) w h i c h is

t h e n c a r r i e d t o t h e b u r n e r s b y a s t r e a m o f a ir . O t h e r c o a ls a r e f e d t o

i m p a c t m i ll s w h i c h u s e f la ils o r h a m m e r s t o b r e a k u p t h e m a t e r i a l b e f o r e i t

is p r o p e l l e d t o t h e b u r n e r s b y a n a i r s t r e a m . T h e t y p e o f m i l l t o b e u s e d o n

a p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t w i ll b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p r o c e ss e n g i n e e r s a n d i t is t h e

t as k o f t h e c o n t r o l e n g i n e e r t o p r o v i d e a s y s t e m w h i c h is a p p r o p r i a t e . T o

d o th is i t is n e c e ss a r y t o h a v e s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w t h e r e l e v a n t t y p eo f m i l l o p e r a t e s .

V a r i o u s t y p e s o f p u l v e r is e d - fu e l m i ll w ill b e e n c o u n t e r e d , b u t t w o a r e

m o s t c o m m o n l y us e d : t h e p r e s s u ri s ed v e r t i c a l- s p i n d l e b a ll m i ll a n d t h e

h o r i z o n t a l - t u b e m i ll .

3.3.1.1 Vert ical-spindle ba l l m il ls

F i g u r e 3 . 8 s h o w s t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f a t y p i c a l b a l l m i l l, s u c h as t h eB a b c o c k ' E ' m i l l . I n t h i s d e v i c e , t h e c o a l t h a t i s d i s c h a r g e d f r o m t h e

s t o r a g e h o p p e r s is f e d d o w n a c e n t r a l c h u t e o n t o a t a b le w h e r e i t is c r u s h e d

b y r o t a t i n g s t ee l b a ll s. A i r is b l o w n i n t o t h e c r u s h e d c o a l a n d c a r r i e s it , v i a

a d j u s t a b l e c l a s si fi e r b l a d e s , to t h e P F p i p e s t h a t t r a n s p o r t i t t o t h e

b u r n e r s .

T h e a i r t h a t c a r r ie s t h e f in e p a rt i c le s o f c o a l t o t h e b u r n e r s i s s u p p l i e d

f r o m a f a n c a l l e d a ' p r i m a r y - a i r f a n ' . T h i s d e l i v e r s a i r t o t h e m i l l , w h i c ht h e r e f o r e o p e r a t e s u n d e r a p r e s s u r e w h i c h is s l ig h t ly p o s it iv e w i t h r e s p e c t

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36 Power-plantcontrol and instrumentation

Se~

P F o u t l e t

Coa l in le t

P F o u t le t

Class i f ie r

~tat ionary

" inding r in g

~r imary a i r

in le t

G e a r b o x

Figure 3.8 Pressurisedball mill

t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e o u t s id e . B e c a u s e o f th is a n d b e c a u s e o f its o t h e r c o n -s t r u c t i o n a l f e a t u r e s , t h i s t y p e o f m i l l is p r o p e r l y c a l l e d a ' v e r t ic a l - s p i n d l e ,

p r e s s u r i s e d b a l l m i ll '. T h e a i r - s u p p l y s y s t e m f o r th i s t y p e o f m i l l is

d i sc usse d i n m or e de t a i l i n Se c t i on 3 .3 .1 .3 .

3 .3 .1 .2 H orizo n ta l tube m i l l s

I n a t u b e m i l l ( F i g u r e 3 .9 ) t h e c o a l is f e d i n t o a c a g e t h a t r o t a t e s a b o u t a

h o r i z o n t a l a x is , a t a s p e e d o f 1 8 t o 3 5 r p m . T h i s c a g e c o n t a i n s a c h a r g e o ff o r g e d - st e e l o r c a s t a l lo y b a l ls ( e a c h o f w h i c h i s b e t w e e n 2 5 m m a n d

1 00 m m i n d i a m e t e r ) w h i c h a r e c a r r i e d u p t h e s id e s o f t h e c a g e b y t h e

r o t a ti o n , u n t i l t h e y e v e n t u a l l y c a s c a d e d o w n to th e b o t t o m , o n l y to b e

c a r r i e d u p a g a i n . T h e c o a l is p u l v e ri s ed b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t

w i t h t h e s e b a ll s, a t t r i t i o n o f a d j a c e n t p a r t ic l e s a n d c r u s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e

b a ll s a n d t h e c a g e a n d b e t w e e n o n e b a ll a n d a n o t h e r.

I n th is t y p e o f m i ll t h e c r u s h e d m i x t u r e is d r a w n o u t o f t h e c a g e b y af a n , w h i c h is c a l l e d a n e x h a u s t e r . B e c a u s e o f t hi s c o n f i g u r a t i o n , t h e t u b e

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Fuel to b urnersExhausters

The fu el , air and lue-gas circuits 37

Fuel to burners

Coa l from feede r

A

Rotating drum containing

coa l and ba l l charge

Figure 3.9 Ho rizontal tube mill

m i l l r u n s u n d e r a n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e , w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h e f i n e c o a l d u s t

f r o m e s c a p i n g ( a s i t t e n d s t o d o w i t h a p r e s s u r i s e d m i l l ) • H o w e v e r , t h e

e x h a u s t e r s h a v e t o h a n d l e t h e d i r t y a n d a b r a s i v e m i x t u r e o f c o a l a n d a i r

t h a t c o m e s t h r o u g h t h e m i ll a n d t h e y t h e r e fo r e re q u i r e m o r e f r e q u e n t

m a i n t e n a n c e t h a n t h e fa n s o f a p r e s s u r i s e d b a l l m i ll , w h o s e f u n c t i o n i s

m e r e l y t o t r a n s p o r t a i r f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e t o t h e m ill.

3.3• 1.3 A ir supply system s o r m ills

A s s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e c r u s h e d c o a l i n a p r e ss u r i s e d b a l l m i l l is p r o p e l l e d t o

t h e b u r n e r s b y a s t r e a m o f w a r m a ir . F i g u r e 3 .1 0 s h o w s t h e a r r a n g e m e n t

f o r d o i n g th is : c o o l a i r a n d h e a t e d a i r a r e m i x e d t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i re d t e m -

p e r a t u r e . T h i s t e m p e r a t u r e h a s t o b e h ig h e n o u g h t o p a r t i a l l y d r y t h e c o a l,

b u t i t m u s t n o t b e s o h i g h t h a t t h e c o a l c o u l d o v e r h e a t ( w i t h t h e r is k o f t h e

c o a l / a i r m i x t u r e i g n i t in g i n s id e th e m i ll o r e v e n e x p l o d i n g w h i l e i t is b e i n gc r u s h e d ) • T h e w a r m a i r is t h e n f e d t o t h e m i l l ( o r a g r o u p o f m i lls ) b y

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38 Pow er-plant control and instrumentation

Hot ai r

~r

PF out le t

Temper ing

a ir

Primaryair fan

Mil l

Figure 3 .1 0 Pr imary air a n sys tem or a bal l mi ll

m e a n s o f y e t a n o t h e r f an , c a l le d a 'p r i m a r y a i r f an '. I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d

t h a t t h e c o o l e r o f t h e t w o a i r s t r e a m s is c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d t o as

' t e m p e r i n g a i r ' sin c e, b e c a u s e i t is o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e F D f a n e x h a u s t it

m a y a l r e a d y b e sl ig h t ly w a r m , a n d its f u n c t i o n is t o t e m p e r t h e m i x t u r e .F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 s h o w s t h e s y s t e m t h a t i s u s e d w i t h a t u b e m i ll. H e r e , h o t

a i r a n d c o l d a ir a r e a g a i n m i x e d t o o b t a i n t h e c o r re c t t e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h e

a i r s t r e a m b u t , b e c a u s e t h e m i ll in th is c a se o p e r a t e s u n d e r s u c t i o n c o n d i -

t i o n s a p r i m a r y a i r f a n i s n o t n e e d e d , a n d t h e c o l d a i r i s o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y

f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T h e w a r m e d a ir m i x t u r e i s a g a i n f e d t o t h e m il l as

' p r i m a r y a i r ' b u t i n a d d i t i o n a s t r e a m o f h o t a i r is f e d t o th e f e e d e r f o r

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d d r y i n g p u r p o se s .

3 . 3 . 2 O i l- f ir i n g s y s te m s

I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h c o a l, o il in v o l v e s t h e u s e o f m u c h le ss c a p i t a l p l a n t.

O n t h e f a c e o f i t, it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t a ll t h a t i s r e q u i r e d is t o e x t r a c t t h e

o i l f r o m its s t o r a g e t a n k a n d p u m p i t t o t h e b u r n e r s . B u t i n r e a l i ty l if e is

m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n t h a t !

P r o p e r i g n i t io n o f o il d e p e n d s o n t h e f ue l b e i n g b r o k e n i n t o s m a l ld r o p l e t s ( a t o m i s e d ) a n d m i x e d w i t h a ir . T h e a t o m i s a ti o n m a y b e a c h ie v e d

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Th e fu e l , a ir and lue-gas c ircuits 39

H o t a lr

Feede r

R a w c o a l a n d h o

W a r m a ir

A m b i e n t

a ir

Figure 3 .1 1 Su ct ion m i l l a ir supply sys tem

b y e x p e l l in g t h e o i l t h r o u g h a s m a l l n o z z l e ( a ' p re s s u r e j e t ' ) , o r it m a y b e

a c h i e v e d b y t h e u s e o f c o m p r e s s e d a i r o r s t e a m .

T h e f u e l o il i ts e l f m a y b e l i g h t ( s u c h a s d ie s e l o i l o r g a s o i l) , o r i t m a y

b e e x t r e m e l y v is c ou s a n d t a r- l ik e ( h e a v y fu e l o il, c o m m o n l y 'B u n k e r C ' ).

T h e h a n d l i n g s y s t e m m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e d e s ig n e d t o b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e l iq u id . W i t h t h e h e a v i e r g r a d e s o f o il, p r e w a r m i n g is

n e c e s s ar y , a n d t o p r e v e n t i t c o o l i n g a n d t h i c k e n i n g t h e f u e l is c o n t i n u a l l y

c i r c u l a t e d t o t h e b u r n e r s v i a a r e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m ( s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y

i n F i g u r e 3 .1 2). T h e l a t t e r p r o c e s s is s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o a s ' sp i ll -b a c k '.

W h e n a b u r n e r i s n o t f i r i n g , t h e o i l c i r c u l a t e s t h r o u g h t h e p i p e w o r k r i g h t

u p t o t h e s h u t - o f f v a l v e , w h i c h i s m o u n t e d a s c lo s e t o t h e o i l g u n a s

possible .

F r o m t h e p o i n t o f t h e C & I e n g i n e e r, t h e c o n t r o l sy s te m s in v o l v ed w i t h

o il fi ri n g m a y i n c l u d e a n y o r a ll o f t h e f o ll o w in g : c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t e m p e r a -

t u r e o f t h e fu el , t h e p r e s s u r e o f t h e a t o m i s in g m e d i u m , a n d t h ee q u a l i s a t i o n o f th e f u e l p r e s su r e s a t v a r i o u s l e ve ls o n t h e b u r n e r f ro n t .

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40 Pow er-p lant control and instrumentation

L p C ,u m p

F-GO i l

h e a t e r

H P

p u m p

Rec i r cu l a t i on

J B u r n e r 1%

- ~ B u r n e r 2

Figu re 3 .1 2 Sim plified oil pum ping, heating and recirculation system

~ * B u r n e r 3

~ . B u r n e r 4

3 . 3 . 3 G a s - fi r in g s y s te m s

A l t h o u g h i n h e r e n t l y s i m p l e r t h a n e i t h e r oi l o r c o a l - fi r ed s y st em s , g a s-

f ir e d b o il e rs h a v e t h e i r o w n c o m p l e x i ti e s . A n y e s c a p e o f g a s, p a r t i c u l a r l yi n t o c o n f i n e d a r e a s , p r e s e n t s c o n s i d e r a b l e h a z a r d s , a n d g r e a t c a r e m u s t

t h e r e f o r e b e t a k e n t o g u a r d a g a i n s t l e a k a g e , fo r e x a m p l e , f r o m f l an g e s a n d

t h r o u g h v a l v e s. B u t n a t u r a l g a s is c o l o u rl e ss , a n d a n y e s c a p e w i ll t h e r e f o r e

be inv i s ib l e . A l so , i t i s no t s a f e to r e ly on odour to de tec t l e akages . B y the

t i m e a n o d o u r h a s b e e n d e t e c t e d s u ff ic ie n t g a s m a y h a v e a l r e a d y e s c ap e d

t o p r e s e n t a h a z a r d . I t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y f o r g a s- l ea k d e t e c t o r s t o b e

f i t t e d a l o n g t h e i n l e t p i p e w o r k w h e r e v e r l e a k a g e c o u l d o c c u r , a n d t oc o n n e c t t h e s e t o a c o m p r e h e n s i v e , c e n t r a l a l a r m s y st em .

I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t g a s f r o m s e e p i n g i n t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n

c h a m b e r t h r o u g h l e a k i n g v alv es . I f g a s d o e s e n t e r u n d e t e c t e d i n to t h e

f u r n a c e d u r i n g a s h u t - d o w n p e r i o d , i t c o u l d c o l le c t i n s u ff ic i en t q u a n t i ti e s

to b e i g n i te d e i t h e r b y a n a c c i d e n t a l s p a rk o r w h e n a b u r n e r is i g n it ed . T h e

r e s u lt in g e x p lo s io n w o u l d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y c a u s e m a j o r d a m a g e a n d c o u l d

e n d a n g e r l i v e s . ( I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h i s r i s k i s p r e s e n t w i t h p r o p a n e

i g n i t e r s s u c h a s t h o s e u s e d w i t h f u el s o t h e r t h a n o il.)

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T h e f u e l , a i r a n d l u e - g a s c i rc u it s 41

P r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t l e a k a g e i n t o t h e f u r n a c e t h r o u g h t h e f u e l - s u p p l y

v a l v e s is a c h i e v e d b y t h e u s e o f ' d o u b l e - b l o c k - a n d - b l e e d ' v a l v e a s s e m b l ie s

w h i c h p r o v i d e a s e c u r e s e a l b e t w e e n t h e g a s i n l e t a n d t h e f u r n a c e . T h e

o p e r a t i o n o f t h is s y s t e m ( se e F i g u r e 3 .1 3) is t h a t b e f o r e a b u r n e r is i g n i t e d

b o t h b l o c k v a lv e s a re c l o s ed a n d t h e v e n t is o p e n . I n t his c o n d i t io n a n y g a sw h i c h m a y o c c u p y t h e v o l u m e b e t w e e n t h e t w o b lo c k v a lv e s is v e n t e d t o a

s a f e p l a c e a n d i t c a n t h e r e f o r e n e v e r d e v e l o p e n o u g h p r e s s u r e t o l e a k p a s t

t h e s e c o n d b l o c k v a l v e. W h e n s t a r t - u p o f t h e b u r n e r is r e q u i r e d , a s e q u e n c e

o f o p e r a t i o n s o p e n s t h e b l o c k v a lv e s in s u c h a w a y t h a t g a s is a d m i t t e d t o

t h e b u r n e r a n d i g n i te d s a fe ly .

inlet pressure -

r e d u c i n g system

M a i ns a f e t y

s h u t - o f fvalve

D o u b l e - b l o c k - a n d - b l e e d

assembly

Mainflow-

. | . v a l v e ~ " B u r n e r 2

Or

SBypass f l o w -

c o n t r o l valve

B u r n e r 4

Vent

Figure 3 .13 S impl i f ied schem atic o f gas- f ir ing sys tem

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42 P ow er-p lan t ontrol and instrumentation

3 . 3 . 4 W a s t e- to - e n e r g y p l a n t s

T h e r e h a s b e e n a s t e ad y d e v e l o p m e n t o f p l an t s t h a t i n c in e r a te w a s te

m a t e r i a l o f v a r i o u s t y p e s a n d u s e t h e h e a t t h u s p r o d u c e d t o g e n e r a t e e le c -

t ri ci ty . E a r l y u n i ts s u f f e re d f ro m t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e n a t u r e o f t h e w a s te

m a t e r i a l a n d t h e s e v e re c o r ro s i o n r e s u l ti n g f r o m t h e r el ea s e o f a c id i c

c o m p o u n d s d u r i n g t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s . B u t t h e p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n

l a rg e l y o v e r c o m e t h r o u g h t h e a p p l ic a t io n o f i m p r o v e d c o m b u s t i o n s y ste m s

a n d b y b e t t e r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m a t e r ia l s u s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

p l a n t .

W a s t e m a t e r i a l m a y b e o b t a i n e d f r o m a n y o f s e v e ra l s o u rc es , i n c l u d i n g

t h e f o l l o w i n g :

• m u n i c i p a l ;

• i ndus t r i a l ;

• c l in ica l ;

• a g r i c u l t u r a l .

T h e m a t e r i a l m a y b e b u r n e d a f t e r v e r y b a s i c t r e a t m e n t ( s h r e d d i n g e t c . )

o r i t m a y b e p r o c e s s e d in s o m e w a y , in w h i c h c a se t h e e n d r e s u l t is t e r m e d

r e f u s e - d e r i v e d f u el ( R D F ) .S e v e r a l t y p e s o f w a s t e - t o - e n e r g y p l a n t a r e i n e x i s t en c e , a n d w e s h a ll

l o o k a t o n e o f t h e m , s o th a t its n a t u r e a n d c h a r a c te r is t ic s c a n b e a p p r e -

c i a t ed . O t h e r p l a n t s w i l l d i f f e r i n t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r t e c h n o l o g y , b u t

f r o m a n o p e r a t i o n a l p o i n t o f v i e w t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l c h a r a c te r is t ic s w ill

p r o b a b l y b e q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h o s e d e s c r ib e d b e l ow .

3.3 .4 .1 T h e bubbl ingf lu id ised-bed boi ler

F i g u r e 3 .1 4 s h o w s th e p r i n c i p l e s o f a w a s t e - t o - e n e r g y p l a n t b a s e d o n t h e

u s e o f a b u b b l i n g f l u i d i s e d - b e d b o i le r . F i rs t, t h e i n c o m i n g w a s t e i s s o r t e d t o

r e m o v e o v er si ze d , b u l k y o r d a n g e r o u s m a t e r i a l . T h e r e m a i n d e r is t h e n

c a r r i e d b y a s y s t e m o f c o n v e y o r s t o a h a m m e r m i ll w h e r e i t is b r o k e n d o w n

u n ti l o n ly m a n a g e a b l e f r a g m e n t s r e m a i n . A f t e r a s e p a r a t o r h a s r e m o v e d

i n c o m b u s t i b l e m a g n e t i c it e m s , t h e w a s t e is h e l d i n a s t o r a g e b u i l d in g , f r o mw h e r e i t is r e m o v e d a s re q u i r e d b y a s c re w c o n v e y o r a n d t r a n s f e r re d v i a

a n o t h e r c o n v e y o r t o th e b o i le r. I m m e d i a t e l y b e f o re e n t e r i n g t h e b o il er ,

n o n f e r r o u s m e t a l s a r e r e m o v e d b y a s e p a r a to r .

T h e b o i l e r i ts e lf c o m p r i s e s a v o l u m e o f s a n d w h i c h i s k e p t i n a f lu i di se d

s t a te b y j e t s o f a ir . A p o r t i o n o f d o l o m i t e is a d d e d t o t h e s a n d t o a ss is t i n

t h e r e d u c t io n o f c o rr o s io n a n d to r e d u c e a n y t e n d e n c y o f t h e s a n d a n d fu el

t o c o a l e s c e ( a p r o c e s s k n o w n a s ' s l a g g i n g ' ) . A f t e r t h e s a n d / d o l o m i t e

m i x t u r e h a s b e e n h e a t e d b y a s y s te m o f s t a r t- u p b u r n e r s , c o m b u s t i b le

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dm 

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44 Po w er -p lan t con t ro l an d ins t rumen ta t ion

w a s t e m a t e r i a l a d d e d t o i t i g n i t e s . T h e h e a t r e l e a s e d i s u s e d t o g e n e r a t e

s t e a m i n a w a y t h a t i s s i m i l a r t o c o n v e n t i o n a l b o i l e r s s u c h a s t h o s e

d e s c r ib e d in C h a p t e r 2 .

3 .4 I g n i t e r s y s t e m s

W h a t e v e r t h e m a i n f u el o f t h e b o i l e r m a y b e , i t is n e c e s s a r y to p r o v i d e

s o m e m e a n s o f i g n i t i n g i t. A v a r i e t y o f i g n i te r s a r e u s e d , b u t m o s t m o d e r n

s y st em s c o m p r i s e a m e a n s o f g e n e r a t i n g a h i g h - e n e r g y el e ct ri c s p a rk w h i c h

l ig h t s a g a s o r l i g h t -o i l s u p p l y w h i c h in t u r n l ig h t s t h e m a i n f u e l.

I n a d d i t i o n t o i g n i t i n g t h e f u e l , t h e i g n i t e r m a y s o m e t i m e s b e u s e d t oe n s u r e t h a t t h e f u e l r e m a i n s a l i g h t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e i t m a y

o t h e r w i s e b e e x t i n g u i s h e d . T h i s is r e f e r r e d t o a s p r o v i d i n g ' s u p p o r t ' f o r t h e

m a i n b u r n e r .

L i k e m a n y a s p e ct s o f p o w e r - st a ti o n b u r n e r o p e r a t i o n s , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

f o r i g n i t e r s a r e d e f i n e d i n s t a n d a r d s s u c h a s t h o s e d e v e l o p e d b y t h e

N a t i o n a l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n A s s o c i a t io n ( e.g . N F P A 8 5 0 2 :9 5 [1 ]). I n t h e s e

s t a n d a r d s , i g n i te r s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s e a c h o f w h i c h isd e f i n e d i n d e t a i l . I n e s se n c e, t h e t h r e e c l as se s h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r -

istics.

C l a s s 1: A n i g n i t e r p r o v i d i n g s u ff ic ie n t e n e r g y t o r ai se t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f

t h e fu e l a n d a i r m i x t u r e a b o v e t h e m i n i m u m i g n it io n t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d to

s u p p o r t c o m b u s t i o n , u n d e r a n y b u r n e r l ig h t -o f f o r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i ti o n s. S u c h

i g n i te r s g e n e r a l l y h a v e a c a p a c i t y o f m o r e t h a n 1 0% o f t h e f u ll -l o a d c a p a c i t y o f

t h e m a i n b u r n e r t h a t it is ig n i ti n g . T h i s c l as s is a ls o r e f e r r e d t o a s a ' C o n t i n u o u s

Igniter ' .

C l a s s 2 : ( a l s o r e fe r re d t o a s a n 'i n t e r m i t t e n t i g n i t e r ' ) : C a p a b l e o f l i g h ti n g t h e

fue l o n ly u n d e r a d e f i n e d r a n g e o f l i g h t - o f f c o n d it io n s . Such ign i t e r s have a capac i ty

g e n e r a l l y b e t w e e n 4 % a n d 10 % o f t h e fiJ ll-lo ad b u r n e r i n p u t a n d m a y a ls o b e

u s e d t o s u p p o r t c o m b u s t i o n o f th e f ue l a t l o w l o ad s o r u n d e r a d e f in e d r a n g e o f

a d v e r s e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t io n s .

C l a s s 3 : Sm al l ign i te r s , ge ne ra l ly app l i ed to gas o r o i l bu rne r s . Th ese ign i t e r s

a r e c a p a b l e o f l i g h t in g t h e f u e l o n ly u n d e r a d e f i n e d r a n ge o f c o n d it io n s a n d m a y n o t b e

u s e d o r s u p p o r t p u r po s e s. T w o t y p e s o f C l a ss 3 i g n i t e r a r e d e f i n e d : i n t e r r u p t e d

i g n it e rs ( n o t u s u a ll y e x c e e d i n g 4 % o f t h e m a i n b u r n e r f ue l i n p u t e n e r g y ) ,

w h o s e o p e r a t i o n is a u t o m a t i c a l l y s t o p p e d w h e n a s et ti m e h a s e x p i r e d a f t e r

t h e f ir st i g n i ti o n ; a n d d i r e c t e l e c t ri c i g n i te r s w h i c h h a v e e n o u g h e n e r g y t oi g n i te t h e m a i n f ue l.

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Th e fu el , a ir and lue-gas c ircui ts 45

T h e t y p e o f i g n i te r i n u s e w ill d ef in e t h e m e t h o d s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e

b u r n e r a n d t h e s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e t o b e e m p l o y e d in th e a s s o c i a te d b u r n e r -

m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m .

3.5 B u r n e r - m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m s

S a f e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e b u r n e r a n d its a s s o c i a te d i g n i te r m u s t b e e n s u r e d

a n d i n m o s t c a se s th is r e q u i r e s t h e u s e o f a s o p h i s t ic a t e d b u r n e r - m a n a g e -

m e n t s y s t e m ( B M S ) . I n o u t l in e , t h es e s y s te m s i n c l u d e a m e a n s o f

m o n i t o r in g t h e p r e s en c e o f t h e f la m e a n d a re li ab le m e t h o d a n d p r o c e d u r e

f o r o p e r a t i n g t h e a s s o c i a t e d f u e l v a l v e s i n a s e q u e n c e t h a t p r o v i d e s s a f ei g n i t io n a t s t a r t - u p a n d s a fe s h u t - d o w n , e i t h e r i n t h e e v e n t o f a fa u l t o r i n

r e sp o n s e t o a n o p e r a t o r c o m m a n d .

T h e p r o c e d u r e f o r l ig h t in g a b u r n e r d e p e n d s , firs t, o n c h e c k i n g t h a t i t

is s a f e t o li gh t i t a t a ll . T h i s m e a ns t ha t , i f no o t he r b u r n e r is f ir ing , c on f i r -

m a t i o n h a s b e e n r e c e i v e d t h a t a n y f l a m m a b l e m i x t u r e s h a v e b e e n

e x h a u s t e d f r o m t h e f u r n a c e b y m e a n s o f a p u r g e . S u c h a p u r g e i n v o lv e s t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f F D a n d I D f a ns f o r a d e f i n e d ti m e , so t h a t a c e r ta i n v o l u m e o f

a i r h a s p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e f u r n a c e . ( I n a c o a l -f i re d b o i l e r t h e f l o w r a t e

t h r o u g h t h e f u r n a c e m u s t b e a t le a s t 4 0 % o f t h e fu l l- lo a d v o l u m e t r i c a ir

f l o w . )

O n c e c o n f i r m a t i o n h a s b e e n r e c e i v e d t h a t t h e f u r n a c e p u r g e i s

c o m p l e t e ( o r i f o t h e r b u r n e r s a r e a l r e a d y f ir in g ), i g n i ti o n o f t h e b u r n e r w i ll

d e p e n d o n t h e s u cc e ss fu l o p e r a t i o n o f s o m e f o rm o f i g n i te r o r p i l o t a n d ,

o n c e t h e m a i n b u r n e r h a s b e e n s u c c e s s fu l ly li t, it s o p e r a t i o n m u s t b e c o n -

t in u o u s l y m o n i t o r e d , b e c a u s e a n e x t in g u i s h ed f la m e m a y m e a n t h a t

u n b u r n e d f ue l is b e i n g i n j e c te d i n to t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . I f s u c h fu e l is

s u b s e q u e n t l y i g n it e d i t m a y e x p l o d e .

O n c e a b u r n e r h a s i g n it e d , t h e B M S m u s t e n s u r e t h a t s af e o p e r a t i o n

c o n t i n u e s , a n d i f a n y h a z a r d a ris es t h e s y s t e m m u s t s h u t o f f t h e b u r n e r ,

a n d i f n e c e s s a r y , t r i p t h e e n t i r e b o i le r .

O n s h u t - d o w n o f a b u r n e r , s te p s m u s t h e t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t a n y

u n b u r n e d f u el is c l e a r e d f r o m t h e p i p e w o r k . T h i s p r o c e d u r e i s k n o w n a ss c a v e n g in g , a n d i n a n o i l b u r n e r i t m a y i n v o lv e b l o w i n g c o m p r e s s e d a i r o r

s t e a m t h r o u g h t h e p i p e w o r k a n d b u r n e r p a s s a g e s . S u c h p r o c e d u r e s a r e

d e f i n e d i n c o d e s s u c h a s N F P A 8 5 0 2 -9 5 .

E a c h c o m p o n e n t o f t h e B M S is v i ta l t o th e s a f e ty o f t h e p l a n t a n d t o

t h e r e l i a b i l it y o f it s o p e r a t i o n , b u t t h e m o s t o n e r o u s r e s p o n s i b i l i ty r e s ts

w i t h t h e f l a m e d e t e c t o r : a n e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e

i n c lo s e p r o x i m i t y t o h i g h - e n e r g y s p a r k i g n i t io n s y s te m s , a n d i n c o n d i ti o n so f e x t r e m e h e a t a n d d i rt . M o r e o v e r , i t m u s t p r o v i d e a r e li a b le i n d i c a t io n o f

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4 6 Po w er -p lan t con tro l an d ins trumen ta tion

t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r f la m e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f m a n y

o t h e r s a n d i t m u s t d i sc r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n t h e e n e r g y o f t h e f la m e a n d h i g h

le v els o f r a d i a n t e n e r g y f r o m h o t r e f r a c t o r y m a t e r i a ls a n d p ip e s . T h e

s i g h t i n g o f t h e f l a m e m a y a ls o b e a f fe c te d b y c h a n g e s i n f l a m e p a t t e r n o v e r

a w i d e r a n g e o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a n d i t m a y a ls o b e o b s c u r e d b ys w i r l i n g sm o k e , s t e a m o r d u s t .

S a fe o p e r a t i o n o f t h e b o i l e r d e p e n d s o n p r o p e r d e s ig n o f t h e B M S ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e f l a m e s c a n n e r , a n d o n c a r e f u l s i t in g o f t h e s c a n n e r s o t h a t i t

p r o v i d e s r e l ia b le a n d u n a m b i g u o u s d e t e c t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t f la m e u n d e r

a ll o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t io n s . A f te r in s t a l l a t i o n , t h e s y s te m c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o

p e r f o r m s af e ly a n d r e l i a b ly o n l y i f c o n s t a n t a n d m e t i c u l o u s a t t e n t i o n is p a i d

t o m a i n t e n a n c e . T h i s i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r i s a ll t o o o ft e n i g n o r e d , a n d t h ei n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t is t h a t t h e s y s t e m m a l f u n c t i o n s , l e a d i n g t o fa i lu r e t o ig n i t e

t h e fu e l, w h i c h m a y i n t u r n d e l a y s t a r t - u p o f t h e b o i le r . I n t h e e x t r e m e ,

m a l f u n c t io n s c o u l d e v e n e n d a n g e r t h e s a fe ty o f t h e p l a n t i f t h e y r e s u l t i n

f u e l b e in g a d m i t t e d t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r w i t h o u t b e i n g p r o p e r l y

i g n i te d . A p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d B M S w i ll n o t a l l o w t h is to h a p p e n , b u t i f

r e p e a t e d m a l f u n c t i o n s o c c u r i t is n o t u n k n o w n f o r o p e r a t o r s t o ig n o r e t h e

w a r n i n g s i g n s a n d e v e n t o o v e r r i d e s a f e t y s y s te m s . I n s u c h c a se s i t is u s u a l

to b l a m e t h e B M S a n d / o r t h e f l a m e m o n i t o r s , w h i c h c o u l d b e f u l l y f u nc -

t io n a l if t h e y w e r e n o t m i s u se d o r b a d l y m a i n t a i n e d . T h i s i m p o r t a n t

s u b j e c t is d i s c u s se d in g r e a t e r d e p t h i n C h a p t e r 5 .

3 .6 G a s t u r b i n e s in c o m b i n e d - c y c l e a p p l ic a t i o n s

I n t h e c o m b i n e d - c y c l e p l a n t , t h e h e a t u s e d fo r b o i l i n g th e w a t e r a n d s u p e r-

h e a t i n g t h e s t e a m is o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e e x h a u s t o f a g as tu r b i n e , a s

d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 2 . I n s u c h p l a n t , u n l e ss s u p p l e m e n t a r y f ir in g is u s e d ,

t h e c o m b u s t i o n p ro c e s s o c c u r s e n t ir e l y in t h e g a s t u r b i n e . W h e r e s u p p l e -

m e n t a r y f i r in g is u s e d t h e r e l e v a n t c o n t r o l s y st em s ta k e o n m a n y o f t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o i l- o r g a s - f ir i n g s y s t e m s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h e

p r e s e n t c h a p t e r .

3 . 7 S u m m a r y

S o fa r, w e h a v e l o o k e d a t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e b o i le r a n d s t u d i e d i n

o u t l i n e t h e b o i le r 's s t e a m , w a t e r a n d g a s c i rc u i ts , a n d a ll th e m a j o r i t e m s o f

p l a n t r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r o p e r a t i o n . W i t h t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e c a n n o w

l o o k a t t h e c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s y s t em s a ss o c i a te d w i t h t h e p l a n t .T h i s s u r v e y w i l l b e s t r u c t u r e d i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e p r e c e d i n g

c h a p t e r s , s t a r t in g w i th a n o v e r v i e w o f a n i m p o r t a n t f u n d a m e n t a l : t h e

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Th e u el , a ir and lue-gas c ircui ts 47

m e t h o d b y w h i c h t h e d e m a n d f o r s t e a m , h e a t o r e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r i s

o b t a i n e d . A f t e r w a r d s , w e s h a ll s ee h o w t hi s d e m a n d is tr a n s m i t t e d t o all

t h e r e l e v a n t s e ct io n s o f t h e p l a n t so t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e p r o p e r l y a n d

s a f e l y a d d r e s s e d .

3 .8 R e f e r e n c e s

1 N FP A 8502-95: S ta nd a rd fo r the p reven t ion o f fu rnace exp los ions /implos ions in mu l t ip le bu rn er boile rs . N a t ion a l F i re Protec t ion Assoc iat ion ,

B a t t e r y m a r c h P a r k , Q u i n c y , M A , U S A , 1 99 5