Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective Factors Shaping Tourism Learning Objectives: Explain the objective factors Explain the effects of cultural background.

Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective Factors Shaping TourismFactors Shaping Tourism

Learning Objectives: Explain the objective factors

Explain the effects of cultural background on travel decisions.

Explain the effects of time & income on travel decisions.

Explain the effects of socio-economic background on travel decisions.

Explain the effects of psychographic background on travel decisions.

Explain the subjective factors—Motivations

OverviewOverview The objective factors

The effects of TIME on travel The effects of INCOME on travel Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects on travel The effects of CULTURE on travel The effect of PERSONALITY on travel Other forces

Why people travel? (reasons) Motivation Pull motivation & Push motivation

Motivation theories and implications Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs; The travel career ladder (TCL; Pearce 1988, 1991, 1993); Iso-Ahola’s (1982) optimal arousal theory; Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.

Barriers to Travel

1. Cost

2. Lack of time

3. Health limitations

4. Family stage

5. Fear and safety

6. Lack of interest

Time can be spent in one of three ways: Work: Maintenance: activities that are necessary

to sustain and maintain life, such as eating, sleeping, maintaining the house.

Leisure: the time remaining after work and maintenance activities have been completed.

The effects of TIME on travelThe effects of TIME on travel

Vacation time as of July 2003Vacation time as of July 2003Country Days by law Average

Sweden 25 25-35

Austria 25 30

Denmark 25 30

Germany 24 30

Italy 20 30

Norway 21 30

Spain 25 30

France 25 25-30

Switzerland 20 25-30

Ireland 20 28

Australia 20 25

Finland 24 25

Netherlands 20 25

Portugal 22 25

United Kingdom 20 25

Belgium 20 24

Greece 20 23

Japan 10 17.5

China 15 15

U.S. 0 10.2

China’s situation? To meet the growing demand for leisure travel among China’s

own citizens and to encourage personal consumption for economic growth, the central government has issued a number of policies to promote tourism.

1. In 1992, weeklong holidays were first introduced;

2. In 1995, a five-day work week was introduced;

3. Starting in 1999, three weeklong holidays were established around May 1(May Day/Labor Day), October 1 (National Day), and the lunar Spring Festival of Chinese New Year.

4. Starting in 2008, only two weeklong holidays were remained around October 1 (National Day), and the lunar Spring Festival of Chinese New Year.

The effects of TIME on travelThe effects of TIME on travel

The effects of INCOME on travelThe effects of INCOME on travel

Personal income

Taxes Disposable income

Personal outlays Discretionary income

Consumer durables Savings Recreation

Personal Income An individual's total annual gross earnings coming from wages,

business enterprises and various investments. Income tax

A tax levied on net personal or business income. A tax on any money earned during a fiscal year, usually filed on a

yearly basis. Disposable Income

The amount of income left after paying taxes. Discretionary Income

The amount of an individual's income that is left for spending after the essentials have been taken care of.

Individual income that is not allocated for necessary items such as food and shelter.

Dual Income, No Kids - DINKS A household in which there are two incomes and no children. DINKS are often the target of marketing efforts for luxury items

such as expensive cars and vacations.

The effects of INCOME on travelThe effects of INCOME on travel

Personal income in the United States Personal income in the United States

Source: http://www.answers.com/topic/personal-income-in-the-united-states

Personal income for the population age 25 or older.

Income in the United StatesIncome in the United States

SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2006

http://www.answers.com/topic/personal-income-in-the-united-states

Age Generational influence Sex Education Life cycle stages

Other Other SOCIOECONOMICSOCIOECONOMIC variables effects variables effects

Class model regarding the social structure of Class model regarding the social structure of the United States.the United States.

This particular model was introduced by William Thompson and Joseph Hickey in Society in Focus in 2005.

Culture can be defined as a “set of beliefs, values, attitudes, habits, and forms of behavior that are shared by a society and are transmitted from generation to generation”.

The effects of CULTURE on travelThe effects of CULTURE on travel

Hofstede found the value patterns vary along four main dimensions:

Power Distance (social hierarchy, formality) Individualism vs Collectivism (individual/group achievements)

The closeness of the relationship between one person and other persons.

Femininity vs Masculinity (social roles) Uncertainty Avoidance (ambiguity)

How to deal with the uncertainty of future; The role of opinion leaders is strong and safety is i

mportant in high scoring countries.

The effects of culture on travel

Hofstede (1980, 2001)

Evidence for Different Work Values across Cultures Evidence for Different Work Values across Cultures

Country Cluster and their Value SystemsCountry Cluster and their Value Systems

Source: Jackofsky, Slocum & McQuaid (1988). ‘Cultural Values and the CEO: Alluring Companions?’, The Academy of Management Executive, Vol 11(1), 39-49; Original Source: Hofstede, G. (1980a). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications

Introverts (introverted): look into themselves and tend to be shy and reserved.

Extroverts (extroverted): Are other-oriented, looking outside the self, and

tending to be objective rather than subjective in outlook.

People from the East prefer dependable types of travel while people from the West prefer more venturesome types of travel;

The effect of PERSONALITY on travelThe effect of PERSONALITY on travel

Other External Factors Impacting TourismOther External Factors Impacting Tourism

Political stability Energy prices rising directly affects co

nsumer disposable income Exchange rate

The Canadian dollar is expected to stay on par with current levels.

Outbound Canadian travel will remain strong.

Public health issue — SARS， H1N1 flu

Tourism MotivationsTourism Motivations Robert W. McIntosh, Charles R. Goeldner,

JR Brent Ritchie (1995) proposed four basic tourism motivations in their book named Tourism: Principles, Practices and Philosophies: Physical Cultural Interpersonal Status and prestige

Motivation: the drive to satisfy needs and wants, both physiological and psychological through the purchase and use of products and services.

Push motivations: internal, socio-psychological motivations that predispose the individual to travel. (whether to go?)

Pull motivation: external motivations that attract the individual to a specific destination once the decision to travel has been made.

(where to go?)

Motivation Motivation

Push and Pull factorsPush and Pull factors

People travel because they are pushed by physiological, psychological, intangible and internal factors; and people travel also because they are pulled by the unique things a destination features, such as image, recreation facilities, education, appreciating scenery, safety, gambling and foods.

Motivational Push ItemsMotivational Push Items

Motivational pull itemsMotivational pull items

Motivation theoriesMotivation theories

The present research concentrates on the development, modification, and potential enhancement of one of the existing theories of tourist motivation. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs; The travel career ladder (TCL; Pearce 1988,

1991, 1993); Iso-Ahola’s (1982) optimal arousal theory; Plog’s (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.

Maslow’s TheoryMaslow’s Theory

Sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times

Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy

When the important need is satisfied, it stops being a motivator

Physiological Needs(hunger, thirst)

Safety Needs(security, protection)

Social Needs (sense of belonging,

love)

Esteem Needs (self-esteem)

Self Actualization

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

According to Maslow there are five needs forming a hierarchy. Maslow’s needs and their order of priority are:

• Physiological -- food, water, shelter, reproduction

• Safety -- stability, security, structure

• Love -- affiliation, affection, sense of belonging

• Esteem -- success, self worth, achievement

• Self-actualization -- self fulfillment, personal growth

Maslow’s suggested that a person will be motivated to fulfill a higher level need only if lower needs have already been fulfilled.

Pearce’s Travel Career Ladder is based on a hierarchy of travel motives and builds on Maslow’s model (in Pearce et al., 1998).

Each person has a “travel career” just as they have a “work career”.

People start their travel careers at different levels during their travel careers.

Broadly, the TCL theory proposed that people progress upward through the levels of motivation when accumulating travel experiences.

People’s travel decisions and decision-making processes are not static; they change over a person’s lifetime based on their travel experiences.

The travel career ladderThe travel career ladder

The travel needs ladder

Fulfilment needs

Need for self-actualizationNeed for flow experience

Self-esteem/development needs

(Other directed)Need for statusNeed for respect recognitionNeed for achievement

(Self-directed)Need for self-developmentNeed for growthNeed for mastery, control competenceNeed for self-efficacy

Relationship needs

(Other directed)Need to reduce anxiety about othersNeed to affiliate

(Self-directed)

Need to give love, affection

Safety/security needs (Other directed) Need for security

(Self-directed)Need to reduce anxietyNeed to predict and explain the world

Relaxation needs (Externally oriented)need for escape, excitement, curiosityNeed for arousal, external excitement, stimulation

(Internally oriented)Need for rest, eating, drinkingNeed for relaxation (manage arousal level)

People tend to ascend the ladder as they become more experienced travelers

Higher-level motives include low-level motives.

Lower-level motives have to be satisfied or experienced before high-level motives

come into play

Optimal Arousal Theory

• Optimal Arousal Theory, also named two dimensional theory of tourist motiv

ation, is developed by S. E. Iso-Ahola’s.

• The basic principle behind the optimal arousal theory is that a person seeks ou

t a level of stimulation that is best for him/her as an individual. If a person’s life

is too quiet, the person may seek out stimulation through activity. If too much i

s happening in a person’s world, then the person seeks to cut off stimulation and

find a quieter environment.

• Tourism provides an excellent means of accommodating a person’s need for a

n optimal level of stimulation. Someone whose day-to-day life is overbearing m

ay choose to visit a remote, peaceful setting to counter the pressures of home an

d work. Someone whose work and life are boring may want a vacation that sup

plies adventure and excitement.

Iso-Ahola’s theory of seeking and escapingIso-Ahola’s theory of seeking and escaping

Source: Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1984). Social psychological foundations of leisure and resultant implications for leisure counseling. In Leisure counseling: concepts andapplications, E. T. Dowd, ed., pp. 97-125. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Plog’s allocentric-psychocentric theoryPlog’s allocentric-psychocentric theory

Psychocentric-allocentric model This work was historically important in providin

g one organizing theory of travel motivation. 1. It offers only a single trait: a static and extrin

sic account of tourist motivation2. It is not of universal application 3. It is limited by its formulation in the tourism c

ontext of the early 1970s

Plog’s distribution of psychological segmentsPlog’s distribution of psychological segments-five types personality-five types personality

Plog (1973) used a psychometric scale to categories tourists into allocentric, mid-centric and psychocentric, depending on individual's relative focus on their own culture and the one they are visiting.

Psychocentrics tourists like good facilities; nice swimming pools; well-organized trip; pub lunches.

The personality scale helps to explain why destinations rise and fall in popularity. In particular, tourists’ personality characteristics determine their travel patterns and preferences.

Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13

Plog’s distribution of psychological segmentsPlog’s distribution of psychological segments

Psychographic positions of destinations (1972)Psychographic positions of destinations (1972)

Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13

Psychocentric: Conservative in travel pattern, prefer ‘safe’ destinations. Allocentric: Adventurous and discover , prefer ‘new’ destinations.

Psychographic positions of destinations Psychographic positions of destinations (2001)(2001)

Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13