Chapter 3 - Management Science 2018 - Theories of Work

ByDavidJoyce

www.theoriesofwork.com

Copyright©2013-2018byDavidJoyce.

Allrightsreserved.

Thismaterial,oranypartthereof,maynotbereproduced,ortransmitted,inanyformor by any means, electronic, mechanical,photo-copying, recording or otherwise,withoutpriorwrittenpermission.

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2

TheoriesofWork:OriginsoftheDesignandManagementofWork

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ChapterThreeManagementScience

DesignandManagement

Concepts

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■ ScientificManagementand“Taylorism”.

■ ProductivityIncentives;PaymentbyResults.

■ WorkAnalysis,WorkBreakdown,andWorkMeasurement.

■ BestPracticesandBenchmarking.

■ StandardizedWork,StandardTimes,ProductionStandards,WorkInstructions,JobDescriptions,andWorkInspection.

■ DivisionofResponsibility;PlanningvsDoing;Blue-CollarvsWhite-Collarjobs,andFunctionalSupervision.

■ ProcessImprovementandWasteRemoval.

■ Timesheets,EmployeeDisciplineandEmployeePerformanceRecords.

■ WorkerEfficiency,WorkerUtilizationandWorker“laziness”.

■ StaffSuggestionSchemes.

■ ManagementConsulting.

MANAGEMENTSCIENCETHEORIESOFWORK:

ORIGINSOFTHEDESIGNANDMANAGEMENTOFWORK

Workerswere retained only as long theywereready,willing,andable todowhat theownerswanted.243

Whentheynolongerwere,theywerediscardedandreplaced,likereplaceablemachineparts,byotherswhowerecompliantandusable.243

In the earlydaysof industrialization theworkdone by most employees required little or noskill,andunskilledlaborwasplentiful.243

Ingeneral, thiswork forcehad littleeducationand, therefore, relatively low levels ofaspiration.243

Manywereimmigrantswithonlyaverylimitedknowledge of English. They aspired more fortheirchildrenthanforthemselves.243

247TheManagementCentury,byWalterKiechelIIIhbr.org/2012/11/the-management-century/

243Springer,ASystemicViewofTransformationalLeadership”,AckoffR.L.SystemicPracticeandActionResearch,Vol.11,No.1,February1998,pp.23-36(14)Publicationdate:1998-02-01l094-429X/98/0200-0023$15.00/0©1998PlenumPublishingCorporationwithkindpermissionfromSpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.

nthelasttwodecadesofthe19thcentury,the

U.S. was shifting - uneasily - from a looselyconnected world of small towns, smallbusinesses,andagriculturetoanindustrializednetwork of cities, factories, and largecompanieslinkedbyrail.247

Acrosstheindustrializedworldownersofearlyenterprises had the power to run theirbusinesseswithvirtuallynoconstraints.243

Theyweregod-likeinthesmallworldstheyhadcreated.243

Althoughemployeeswereknowntobehuman,their personal interests and purposes wereirrelevanttotheiremployers.243

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the industrialized world



As a result, they were treated more likedifficult-to-replace organs than easilyreplaceablemachineparts.243

Allthismadetheownerslessgod-like.243

Factoryworkwasdoneaccording to the craftsystem; jobs were “trades”, and their secretsandrulesof thumbwerepasseddown,slowlyandgrudgingly,frommastertoapprentice.244

The owners and operators of the businessreally had no idea how theirwork should bedone.244

They didn’t know how tasks were bestarranged, they didn’t know how to optimizethe output of the machines, and they didn’tknowwhatpaceofoutputwassustainable.244

243Springer,ASystemicViewofTransformationalLeadership”,AckoffR.L.SystemicPracticeandActionResearch,Vol.11,No.1,February1998,pp.23-36(14)Publicationdate:1998-02-01l094-429X/98/0200-0023$15.00/0©1998PlenumPublishingCorporationwithkindpermissionfromSpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.

Government began to regulate workingconditions,therebyreducingthepoweroftheownersandprotectingat least the healthandsafetyofmembersoftheworkforce.243

Unions emerged, improving the conditions ofwork,workitself,compensationforit, andjobsecurity.243

B e c au s e o f con t i nu ing advance s i nmechanization, the skills required of workerscontinuedtoincrease.243

Thosewhohadtherequiredskillswerenotasplentifulasthosewhodidn’t.243

It was costly to replace skilled workers;expensivetrainingwasfrequentlyinvolved.243

244TheManWiththePlan-FrederickWinslowTaylor,fatherofscientificmanagement,BrinkLindsey,fromtheJanuary1998issue,reason.com/archives/1998/01/01/the-man-with-the-plan

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The foreman set the wages using a “rule ofthumb”method,245246ahaphazardpracticeoforganizing the work, which gave individualworkersenormouscontrol.257

the foreman

In virtually all industries, regardless of thetypes of manufacturing operations takingplace, the foreman was, for all intents andpurposes,themanufacturer.245246

Theforemanhadnearabsoluteauthorityovertheworkers.245246

He was responsible for hiring and firingpersonnel, training them, arbitratinggrievances, promoting and demotingworkers, and enforcing the manufacturer’spersonnel policies regarding work hours,personalappearance,andrulesofconduct.245246

245ONEHUNDREDYEARSOFTAYLORISM:ISITSTILLRELEVANTTODAY?DimitriosNikolaouKoumparoulis,AnathaliaVlachopoulioti,AcademicResearchInternationalVol.3,No.2September2012www.ugsm-monarch.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Valchopoulioti-Taylorism-20123.2-55.pdf

257FREDERICKWINSLOWTAYLOR,Author:BillBarry,CommunityCollegeofBaltimoreCounty,andTheSt.JamesEncyclopediaofLaborHistoryWorldwide(2004),usedwithkindpermission.

246Nelson,Daniel(1980)FrederickW.TaylorandtheRiseofScientificManagementMadisonWisconsin,UniversityofWisconsinPresspp.8-9

Image:Foreman’sOffice,WorkBoardontheRight,CostKeepingandScientificManagement(1911),Author:Evans,HoldenA,Publisher:NewYork[etc.]McGraw-Hillbookcompanyp.211archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

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Some more or less experienced foreman orrate-setter came along and looked at a job,andmadewhatappearedtobeaguess(oftenaverycloseguess)atthetimethatshouldbetakentoperformthework.249

Aratewasfixedaccordingly.249

In many industries the “piece work” systemwascommon.245246

The manufacturer, for whom the foremanworked, usually watched the payroll veryclosely. When piece workers were soproductive that they earned more than theprevailingdaywage,themanufacturerwouldorder the piece rate cut, removing anyincentivetoproducemore.245246


Image:InteriorofaMachineShop,ThePrinciplesofIndustrialManagement(1920),Author:Duncan,JohnC.(JohnChristie),b.1881,Publisher:NewYork,London:D.AppletonandCompanyp.154archive.org/details/principlesofindu00dunc

249TheScienceandPracticeofManagement(1918),Author:Church,A.Hamilton(AlexanderHamilton),1866-1936,Publisher:NewYork:TheEngineeringmagazineco.pp.11-12archive.org/details/sciencepracticeo00chur

246Nelson,Daniel(1980)FrederickW.TaylorandtheRiseofScientificManagementMadisonWisconsin,UniversityofWisconsinPresspp.8-9

Combinedwiththedifficultandunsafeworkenvironments inmany factories, therewasamore or less permanent state of labor-managementstrife.245246

Strikesandviolencewerecommon.245246

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173en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt

249Thescienceandpracticeofmanagement(1918),Author:Church,A.Hamilton(AlexanderHamilton),1866-1936,Publisher:NewYork:TheEngineeringmagazineco.pp.11-12archive.org/details/sciencepracticeo00chur

332PublicManagement:OldandNew,ByLaurenceE.Lynn,Jr.Publisher:Routledge;Newedition(August3,2006)p.92

261Managementandideology:thelegacyoftheinternationalscientificmanagementmovement,ByMerkle,JudithA,Publisher:UnivofCaliforniaPr(December1980)p.211

a scientific approach

Some believed that a more systematic orscientificapproachwasrequired.

Theinitialfocusofwhatbecameknownas‘thescientific management movement’ was onefficient use of labor and on costs and costsystems.332

AsAlexanderChurchdescribed:

Thenext stepon the pathof development of thepracticaluseofanalysiswasdue to thedesireofemployersoflabortofindsomesatisfactorybasisforrewardingitaccordingtoresults.

Theoldpiece-workmethodswerelargelybasedonthehit-or-missplan.

The early beginnings of this movement werecharacterized by a desire for more exact

knowledge.249

Oneofthefirstdocumentedusagesofa morescientific management approach was byBoultonandWatt.

Boulton&Wattmanufacturedstationarysteamengines. Itwas initially a partnership betweenMatthewBoultonandJamesWatt.173

ThefirmofBoultonandWattowedmanyofitsmanagement innovations not to James Watt,Sr., the inventor, or his partner MatthewBoulton, but to their sons, who took over theenterprise.261

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They instituted one of the first completeapplicationsofscientificmanagement.254

In this plant there is evidence of marketresearch, including machine layout studyinvolvingworkflow,productionstandards,costaccounting, employee training, employeeincentives,andemployeewelfareprograms.254

Although there is evidence of a scientificmanagement approach at Boulton & Watt’splant,thereislittleevidencethatthisapproachwasusedelsewhereatthetime.

In his book “The Making of ScientificManagement”,LyndallUrwickreported:

Thiswas perhaps the first model of whatwaslater to become a standard pattern in thedevelopment of industry, the “father”generation of inventors and entrepreneursbeingsucceededbythe“sons”whoturned topuremanagement.261

In 1794,Watt Jr.becameapartner in theSohoFoundryfirmofBoulton&Watt.250251

HebecameresponsiblewithMatthewRobinsonBoultonforitsmanagement.250251

Matthew Robinson Boulton was mainlyinvolvedintheinitialplanningoftheFoundry,withJamesWattJr.beingmoreconcernedwithdailymanagementandorganisation.253252

261Managementandideology:thelegacyoftheinternationalscientificmanagementmovement,ByMerkle,JudithA,Publisher:UnivofCaliforniaPr(December1980)p.211

250en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt_junior

251Williams,Robert(1995),Accountingforsteam:TheaccountsoftheSohofactory,Accounting&FinanceWorkingPapers,95/14,Wollongong,NSW:UniversityofWollongong,retrieved2012-09-16p.5

252Williams,Robert(1995),Accountingforsteam:TheaccountsoftheSohofactory,Accounting&FinanceWorkingPapers,95/14,Wollongong,NSW:UniversityofWollongong,retrieved2012-09-16p.7

253en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Robinson_Boulton

254EncyclopediaofManagement,5thEdition,EditedbyMarilynM.Helms,D.B.A.©2006ThomsonGale,apartofTheThomsonCorporation.pp.651-653

2019



Sincemanagement reliedheavilyonengineersfor advice in the new factories, it is notsurprising that associations of engineers weresome of the first to examine and write aboutmanagementproblems.254

Onesuchassociation,ASME,founded[in1880]as the American Society of MechanicalEngineers,isaprofessionalassociationthat,initsownwords, “promotes theart, science,andpractice of multidisciplinary engineering andalliedsciencesaroundtheglobe”.258

ASME had been founded to gather technicalinformation, but in 1886, Henry RobinsonTowne, read a paper called The Engineer asEconomist, which has been called “thefounding document of the new science ofmanagement”.257

In its setting as part of the history of thepioneers of scientificmanagement ...Was themanagementatSohoanisolatedinstanceinatimeofintenseindustrialchange?

Did itmaintain itshighstandardsovertwoorthree decades without exerting any influenceontheaffairsormindsofcustomersandothercontacts?

For the present there is no certain answer to

thesequeries.248

Curiousasthismaybe,itwasn’tuntilthelate1800sthatascientificmanagementapproachbecomemorewidespread.

the management engineer

As with Boulton andWatt, the catalyst forthisspreadwereengineers.

248TheMakingOfScientificManagementVolumeII(1949),Author:Urwick.L,Publisher:ManagementPublicationsp.38archive.org/details/makingofscientif032926mbp

258en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASME



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In this paper he recognised the need for ascience of management which could flourishonly through its own literature, journals andassociation259and laid out his ideas about themanagementrolefortheengineer.255

HenryR.TownewasanAmericanmechanicalengineerandbusinessman.255

He was introduced to Linus Yale, Jr.255 theinventor of the pin tumbler lock440 256 and inOctober 1868, the two men formed the YaleLockManufacturingCompany.255

Towne was one of the first engineers to seemanagementasanewsocialroleforengineersand that the development of managementtechniqueswasimportantforthedevelopmentoftheengineeringprofession.255

440en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_(company)


Image:HenryRobinsonTowne(1844-1924),Classof1865,portraitphotograph,Date:circa1900,Source:UniversityofPennsylvania,Author:Unknown,Permission(Reusingthisfile)PD-USen.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Robinson_Towne.jpg

255en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_R._Towne

256Yale:HistoryofYale

259DynamicsofModernManagement,ByWainoWSuojanen,Publisher:Holt,RinehartandWinston;1StEditionedition(1966)p.101

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It is important to recognize the contributionsofHenryR.Townetotheearlydevelopmentofscientificmanagement.260

wages and incentives

FrederickA.HalseywasanotherengineerwhowrotepaperspresentedtoASMEoutlininghisideasaboutwages.254

Halsey fundamentally disagreed with Towne’sprofit-sharingideas.357

In 1891 Fredrick Halsey read an importantpaper before the American Society ofMechanicalEngineers.357

He attacked the evils of profit sharing andproposeda special “premiumplan” forpayingworkersbasedontimesaved.254

Townewasresponsibleforestablishingmodernmanagementmethods in his company’s shop.259

He began applying systematic managementpracticesasearlyas1870.254

HewaselectedPresidentoftheASMEin1888,and his presidential address continued toaddress how to improve shop and workerefficiency.255

Towneencouragedthewritingandpublicationof papers dealing with management ofproduction.260

Towne also published several papers and abook,EvolutionofIndustrialManagement,onthe use of “gain sharing” to increase workerproductivity.254


357ManagementThought,ByJayantaKNanda,PublisherSarup&Sons,NewDelhi(1Jan2005)pp.79-82

260ImprovingCompetitivenessofIndustry,ByHaroldBierman,Jr.WorldScientificPublishingCompany;1edition(June10,2011)p.119

255en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_R._Towne

259DynamicsofModernManagement,ByWainoWSuojanen,Publisher:Holt,RinehartandWinston;1StEditionedition(1966)p.101

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frederick taylor

As industrialismexpanded intheUnitedStatesfollowingtheCivilWar,theessenceofthelabormovement was the struggle for control of theworkplacebetweentheworkers,holding fasttotheircraftskills,andthemanagement.257

OneofthemostfamousfigurestoparticipateinthisstrugglewasFrederickWinslowTaylor.257

Frederick Taylorwas one of the first people toviewmanagementasasciencetobestudied.327

Much of this chapter will be dedicated todiscussing Taylor, such is his influence on thedesignandmanagementofworktoday.

Halsey proposed incentives based on pastproduction records, including a guaranteedminimumwage and a premium for not doingwork.254

Workers under the Halsey plan were allowedthesamelengthoftimetheyhavebeentakingin the past as a standard. If they increasedoutput, two-thirds of the gain went to theemployerandone-thirdwasgiventothemen.357

TheTowneandHalseyschemeswerebothtriedout in factories and both yielded results, interms of higher wages and increasedproductivity.441

However,thefearbyeithermanagementortheworkers that the other side was ‘getting toomuch’,wasalreadyrearingitshead.441

441ManagementandOrganizationalBehaviour,JayanteeSaha,Publisher:ExcelBooks(July25,2012)p.74


327AnAnalyticalStudyOnScientificManagementHRM601,AkeemAdebiyiAdeyemiErsalAslamAlanCohenSangramSinghJolantaSoltis

357ManagementThought,ByJayantaKNanda,PublisherSarup&Sons,NewDelhi(1Jan2005)pp.79-82


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The America of the late ‘seventies and early‘eighties,theperiodwhenTaylorfirstcameonthe industrial scene, was gripped in a viciouscircle of low wages, low production, lowpurchasing power and a consequent lack ofprosperity.361

Strikes and other evidences of widespreadindustrialunrestmarkedtheperiod.361

BornintoawealthyfamilyinPhiladelphia,257in1873, [Taylor]decided to leaveschool (PhillipsExeterAcademy334)tobecomeanengineer.263

Image:FrederickWinslowTaylor1873,Source:Gaugler,Eduard(Hrsg.):Taylor,FrederickWinslow:Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement;VademecumzudemKlassikerderWissenschaftlichenBetriebsführung.Düsseldorf:VerlagWirtschaftundFinanzen,1996.Author:Grapcommons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F._Taylor_at_1873.jpg

361ScientificmanagementinAmericanindustry,bytheTaylorSociety,H.S.Person,

editor(1929),Author:TaylorSociety;Person,HarlowS.(HarlowStafford),1875-1955,Publisher:NewYorkandLondon,Harper&Brothers,p.xviiiarchive.org/details/scientificmanage00tayl


263TaylorTimeline.Author:BillBarry,CommunityCollegeofBaltimoreCounty,usedwithkindpermission.

334FrederickW.Taylor,fatherofscientificmanagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrotherspp.3-7archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

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a fair days work

Inlate1878,TaylorwenttoworkatMidvaleinthemachineshopandMidvalebecame“alargelaboratory”263forTaylor.

He excelled, and it wasn’t long before Taylorwaspromoted.

In 1879, Taylor was appointed a gang boss atMidvaleSteel,admittingtotheworkersthat:257

hewasnowonthesideofmanagement,andthatheproposedtodowhateverhecouldtogetafairday’sworkoutofthelathers.257

Hismethodsweretohaveaprofoundimpact.

Sointhespringof1874,hequitExetertoworkina foundry, the EnterpriseHydraulicWorks,also known as Ferrell and Jones, after theownerswhomadesteampumpsandhydraulicmachinery, using the steam-pump designdevelopedbyHenryWorthington.263

Hestartedasanapprenticepatternmakerandlateramachinist.

The industrial revolution had been underwayfornearly100yearsbefore Taylortookhisfirstjob as an engineer at Philadelphia’s MidvaleSteelCompany.245442

In late 1877, Taylor met Wilfred Lewis andColemanSellers,whosefather,WilliamSellers,wastheheadofalargemachinetoolcompanyand who owned a controlling interest inMidvaleSteel,Sellerswasamechanicalgenius,with90patents.263



442Nelson,Daniel(1980)FrederickW.TaylorandtheRiseofScientificManagementMadisonWisconsin,UniversityofWisconsinPressp29

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362ScientificmanagementinAmericanindustry,bytheTaylorSociety,H.S.Person,editor(1929),Author:TaylorSociety;Person,HarlowS.(HarlowStafford),1875-1955,Publisher:NewYorkandLondon,Harper&Brothers,p.1archive.org/details/scientificmanage00tayl

417ShopManagement,ByFrederickWinslowTaylor,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911p.14archive.org/details/shopmanagement01tayl

331AdministrativeThinkerseditedbyD.RavindraPrasad,V.SivalingaPrasad,P.

SatyanarāyaṇaPublisher:Sterling;2ndeditionedition(March30,2011)p.65.

326ShopManagementByFrederickWinslowTaylor,IntroductionbyHenryTowne,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911


Tosolvethisproblem,Taylorwasinspired byTowne’s ideas and directed his efforts tounderstandallfacetsofafirmandtodevelopscientificmanagement.331

Taylorwrote:

Inthewriter’sjudgment,theTowne-Halseyplanisagreat invention,and, likemanyothergreatinventions,itsvalueliesinitssimplicity.326

However,itdidn’tgofarenoughforTaylor.

Immediatelyhewasplungedintodifficultiesofmanagement.Theoutputwas lowand,havingbeen aworker amongworkers of that day, heknew it was due to systematic as well asunconscious soldiering362 (today known asslacking,lazinessorshirking).

AsTaylorexplained:

Hardly a competent workman can be found … who does not devote a considerable part of his time to studying just how slowly he can work and still convince his employer that he is going at a good pace. 417FrederickTaylor

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For fi f teen years a t Midva le , Tay lorexperimentedandrecordedeveryaspectoftheworkprocess.257

For example, his determination to increaseproductivityledhimintheautumnof1880,toa series of systematic experiments in metal-cutting.257

He foundalmost immediatelythatcoolingthecutting toolswith awater spray, permitted anincreaseofthecuttingspeedby40%.257

In1882,Taylorwantedtoeliminatetherule-of-thumbandreplaceitwithscientificknowledge,backedbymeticulousdata.263

The ideaof ‘guessing’about the timerequiredto perform a job was against Taylor’s basicoutlook.269

the productivity problem

He began in 1880 to keep “Book ContainingNotesofImportance,”andherecordedalldataaboutallprocesses,takingnothingforgrantedandacceptingnoneofthepastpractices.263

He also began researching what others weredoingtosolvethe“productivityproblem”:

AlmostassoonasIstartedwiththis ideaattheMidvale Steel works ... I started to collect whatinformation could be had that was written and

publishedonwhatconstitutedaday’swork.263

Taylor employed research, industr ial“tourism” (visiting other establishments) andearlyformsofbenchmarking.

269FrederickW.Taylor:TheFatherofScientificManagement:MythandRealityByCharlesD.WregeandRonaldG.Greenwood,Publisher:BusinessOneIrwin(June1991)p.54



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Taylordescribedthemethod:

itconsistsinrecordingthequickesttimeinwhichajobhasbeendone,andfixingthisasastandard.

If the workman succeeds in doing the job in ashorter time, he is still paidhis samewages perhour for the time he works on the job, and inaddition is given a premium for having workedfaster,consistingoffromone-quartertoone-halfthedifferencebetween thewagesearnedand thewages originally paid when the job was done instandardtime.326standard “should take” times

Taylor hypothesized that workers could beretooled like machines, their physical andmental gears recalibrated for betterproductivity.270

Taylor began to measure how work wasperformed, how long it took and, mostimportantly,begantoprojecthowlongeachjobshouldtake.257


270Crossen,Cynthia(November6,2006).“EarlyIndustryExpertSoonRealizedaStaffHasItsOwnEfficiency”.WallStreetJournal.online.wsj.com/article/SB116277621193713997.html


326ShopManagementByFrederickWinslowTaylor,IntroductionbyHenryTowne,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911


Our trades are learned just as they were in the Middle Ages. 263FrederickTaylor(Testimony,1912)

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Everythingbecameamanagementmethodtoincrease productivity: the design of themachine,thedesignofthepiece,themotionsoftheoperator,etc.263

In doing so, Taylor broke down the job tocreate an expectation, almost mathematical,forfuturework.263

Hewentontoexplain:

since the rate-fixing is done from accurateknowledge,insteadofmoreorlessbyguesswork,the motive for holding back on work, or‘soldiering,’ and endeavoring to deceive theemployer as to the time required todowork, isentirelyremoved.336

Taylormaintainedthathigherproductivityledtohigheremployment,buttheworkersofthelate 19th century saw the reverse: they werecarefulnottofinishworktooquicklytoavoidboth running out of work and working toohard.257

For the first time, one of Taylor’s assistantsused a stopwatch to break down the workprocess into minute components, each ofwhich could be altered to speed upproduction.263


336FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.402archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl


Image:LatheOperatoratMidvaleSteel,KheelCenterforLabor-ManagementDocumentationandArchives,M.P.CatherwoodLibrary,CornellUniversity.www.ilr.cornell.edu/library/kheel/resources/images/citing.jpg

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scientific time-study

The use of time-study in organisations hadbegun. Ithadbeenusedbefore,goingbacktotheverybeginningsofthefactorysystem249butnot in a formalized,orwhatTaylorwould callscientific,way.

Oppositewecanseeanobservationsheetusedin1910fortimingwork.

Taylor’sbattleforincreasedproductivitywouldleave no stone unturned, he also restrictedworkersfromleavingtheshopatlunchtime.263

InFebruary, 1884,Taylorwaspromoted,atage28, toalmostcompletecontrolof themachineshop; calling himself “Chief Engineer,” thoughhe did not officially receive this title until1887.263

249Thescienceandpracticeofmanagement(1918),Author:Church,A.Hamilton(AlexanderHamilton),1866-1936,Publisher:NewYork:TheEngineeringmagazineco.pp.11-12archive.org/details/sciencepracticeo00chur


Image:ObservationSheet,CostKeepingandScientificManagement(1911),Author:Evans,HoldenA,Publisher:NewYork[etc.]McGraw-HillbookcompanyP.132archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

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THEORIESOFWORKPARTI:ORIGINSOFTHEDESIGNANDMANAGEMENTOFWORKMANAGEMENTSCIENCE

Hismethodsprovedsuccessful,from1881-1885:Midvalegrewtremendously.263

Herewecanseewhatwascalled “AShopObservationCardForRecordingStop-WatchTimeStudies”usedin1909.Itincludesthejoborder,thetypeofwork,thenameoftheworkmanwhodidthework,thedateandtimewhenworkbeganandwassubsequentlycompleted,alongwithremarks,andtotaltimetocompletethejob,inthiscase10hours.Eachoperationisalsobrokendown.

Theaimofthesetimestudieswastoincreaseproductivitybyreducingorremovingwaste.

263 Taylor Timeline. Author: Bill Barry, Community College of Baltimore County, used with kind permission.

Image: Shop Observation Card for Recording Stopwatch Time Studies, Cost Keeping and Scientific Management (1911), Author: Evans, Holden A, Publisher: New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill book company P. 205 archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

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Taylor stipulated that a fair day’swork shouldbe “determined through observations … andanalysis”.276

As he observed each movement, moreover,Taylortriedtosimplifyeachone.257

Hisviewwasthat:

StandardTime×WorkingHours=FairDay’sWork276

While his immediate goal was increasingproductivity,hecontributedtothedeskillingoftheworkplace.257

By calculating “scientifically” how each jobshould be performed, and how long it shouldtake, Taylor increased productivity but, mostimportantly, transferred control of the workprocessovertomanagement.257

In his chapter “Wasted Time Detected byTimeStudies”(1911)Evansstatedthat:

Wasted time is the principal reason forinefficientlabor.

Very few owners or managers realize that anenormousamountof time iswastedbymen intheiremploy.

Wasted time, while due to many causes, maybe classed under four general heads: Loafing,Employment on Unsuitable Work, Lost Timedue to Unnecessary Waits, and PoorEquipment.

Theproperprocedureistofirstfindthecause.

This can only be accomplished by detailobservation.

Thebestmeansfordoingthis isbystop-watch

unittimestudies.317


317CostKeepingandScientificManagement(1911),Author:Evans,HoldenA,

Publisher:NewYork[etc.]McGraw-Hillbookcompanypp.127-128archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

276TechniquesofScientificManagementwww.managementstudyguide.com/techniques_scientificmanagement.htm

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Taylor’sideawasthateverypartofafactory,ora whole organization, should be scientificallyanalyzed and redesigned to achieve the mostefficientoutput.278

With this inmindTayloralso sought toapplythe same principles to standardize clericaloperations.

HereyoucanseeanearlyTaylorClericalTimeFormfromMidvalein1885.

It includedtimingsandrates foreachpieceofwork, when the work started, when the workended, the total time thework took, and if itpassedinspection.

278FrederickW.Taylor:TheFatherofScientificManagement:MythandRealityByCharlesD.WregeandRonaldG.Greenwood,Publisher:BusinessOneIrwin(June1991)p.255

Image:TimeNoteforStandardizedClericalOperations,FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.257archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

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standardized work

In a further attempt to improve productivityTaylor also created “instruction cards,” whichnoted each motion and each decision thatworkers had passed along informally to eachother.257

Thesedecisionswererecordedfortheforemanandwereusedboth to instructand tocontrolnewworkers.257

Taylorhadeffectivelystandardisedwork.

HereyoucanseeanexampleofoneofTaylor’sinstructionworkcards.

Eachdetailoftheoperationisdescribedalongwithhowlongeachoperationshouldtake,andhow long it did take. The worker whoperformedtheworkisrecorded,asishisboss,andanybonusearned.


Image:ExampleofanInstructionCard,Work,Wages,andProfits(1919),Author:Gantt,HenryLaurence,1861-1919,Publisher:NewYork,TheEngineeringmagazineco.p.264archive.org/details/cu31924013870724

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functional management

In 1883 Taylor also began to break down thejob of the foreman, he advocated functionalforemanship.276

The scheme of functional foremanship is anextensionof[the]principleofspecializationatthesupervisorylevel.276

This techniquewasdeveloped to improve thequalityofworkasasinglesupervisormaynotbe an expert in all the aspects of the work.Therefore workers were to be supervised byspecialistforeman.276

Taylor had now separated planning fromdoing.Fourofthespecialistforemanwouldbelocated in theoffice forplanningand fourontheshopfloorwiththeworkmen.

At the planning level there were foursupervisors.274


277TheprinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brotherspp.122-125archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

434ibid.,p.39

274F.W.Taylor’sScientificManagementTheory-kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2011/06/frederick-taylor-principles-of.html

Taylordescribed their roles inrelation to theworkerwhodoesthework:

The InstructionCardClerk;describing indetailthetaskwhichheistoaccomplish,aswellasthemeans to be used in doing the work.434Theseinstructionsrepresentthecombinedworkof several men in the planning room, each ofwhomhashisownspecialtyorfunction.

TheTimeClerk;astoeverythingrelatingtohispayandtoproperwrittenreportsandreturns.

The Route Clerk; as to the order in which hedoes his work and as to the movement of the

workfromonepartoftheshoptoanother.

TheDisciplinarian;incaseaworkmangetsintoany trouble with any of his various bosses the

“disciplinarian”interviewshim.277

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Taylorhadcreatedthefunctionalorganization,replacingthelineorganization.

Taylorhadappliedthedivisionoflabor,tobothwhiteandblue-collarjobs,creatingthemodernwhite-collarworkforce,dividingtheworkplaceintoworkersanddirectorsofwork.263

Thisdivisionisstillcommonplacetoday.

At the doing level there were also foursupervisors.274 Again Taylor described theirrolesinrelationtotheworker:

TheInspector;seesto it thatheunderstandsthedrawingsandinstructionsfordoingthework.Heteacheshimhowtodoworkoftherightquality.

TheGangBoss;showshimhowtosetupthejobinhismachine,andteacheshimtomakeallofhispersonalmotionsinthequickestandbestway.

The SpeedBoss; sees that themachine is runatthebestspeedandthatthepropertoolisusedintheparticularwaywhichwillenablethemachinetofinishitsproductintheshortestpossibletime.

The Repair Boss; as to the adjustment,

cleanliness,andgeneralcareofhismachine.277



Image:Taylor’sFunctionalForemanship,TechniquesofScientificManagementwww.managementstudyguide.com/images/functional_foreman.jpg

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”

277Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brotherspp.122-125archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

53 54



staff suggestion schemes

Taylor proposed a form of incentive foremployees to make suggestions if they felt animprovement could be made to either themethodor the implementusedtoundertakeatask.265

After analysis of the suggestion, and if it wasintroduced into theworkplace265 Taylor statedthat:

The workman should be given the full credit forthe improvement, and should be paid a cash

premiumasarewardforhisingenuity.443

Staff suggestion schemes and innovationbonuseswereborn.

Taylorsoughttomeasurethehumaninputsandoutputs in manufacturing. Workers wereevaluated and rewarded in terms of the ‘workunits’theyproduced.266

resource planning department

Inherent in Taylor’s style of management wasthe setting up of planning departments ofclerks who ensured that ‘... every labourer’sworkwasplannedoutwellinadvance,andtheworkmen were moved from place to place bytheclerkswithelaboratediagrams’.265

AsTaylorstated:

Thesemenofnecessity spendmostof their timeintheplanningdepartment,becausetheymustbeclose to the records and data which theycontinually use in their work, and because thisworkrequirestheuseofadeskandfreedomfrom

interruption.277

Thus, today’s resource planning and processimprovementdepartmentswereborn.

266ThePuritanGift:triumph,collapseandrevivalofanAmericandream,KennethHopperandWilliamHopper,I.B.Tauris(April3,2007)pp.74-79.BypermissionofKenHopperandWillHopper

265FrederickWinslowTaylor-CharteredManagementInstitute-www.mbsportal.bl.uk/taster/subjareas/busmanhist/mgmtthinkers/taylor.aspx

277Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brotherspp.122-125archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

443ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brothersp.128archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

“

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“

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55 56



Under differential piece rate system, astandard output was first fixed. Then twowagerateswerefixedasfollows:274

It consistsbriefly inoffering twodifferent ratesfor the same job; ahighpriceperpiece in casetheworkisfinishedintheshortestpossibletimeand in perfect condition, and a low price, if ittakesalongertimetodothejob,orifthereare

anyimperfectionsinthework.273

This enabled the management to fix theamountofworktobedonebyeachworkerinonehouror inoneday.That is,managementcanfixastandardoutputofworkforacertainperiodoftime.274

differential rates

Taylor claimed the primarymotivationof anemployeewastoearnmoney. Therefore,thewaytogetanemployeetoworkharderwastopaybythepiece.267

Taylortheorizedthatworkerswereinefficientbecausetheytendedtorationtheirworkloadorworklessthantheycouldtopreventthejobtasks fromrunningout, resulting ina lossofwages.268

By 1884,Taylor proposed a set ofdifferentialrates at Midvale that would be set“scientifically,”withhigherratesperpiecepaidabove certa in product ion s tandardsestablishedbymanagement.263

It was intended to provide individualemployeeproductivityincentives.267


267QuestionsonOrganizationalBehaviorStephenW.Hartman,Ph.D.iris.nyit.edu/~shartman/mba0299/120_0299.htm


273CostKeepingandScientificManagement,Evans,HoldenA,PublishedBy:McGraw-HillBookCompany,NewYork,1911pp.109-110archive.org/details/costkeepingscien00evanrich


268FrederickWinslowTaylor:FatherofModernManagementFrederickWinslowTaylor:FatherofModernManagement,www.mgmtguru.com/mgt301/301_Lecture1Page8.htm

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Halsey’s plan, along with Taylor’s ideas onpiece rates, had a major influence in theUnitedStatesandGreatBritainonthedesignofpayschemes.254

Herewas the genius, perverse or inspired, ofTaylorism,whichfarexceededtheprincipleofdifferentialrates:theseizingofcontroloftheworldprocessonbehalfofmanagement.257

This created a new class, and successivegenerations, of order-takers: do it themanagement way or else, destroying the lastvestigesofworkercontrolinthepre-industrialworkplace.257

“Modern” industrial practices, as we knowthemtoday,begantotakedefiniteform.257

Taylor in his paper describing the differentialrate, read before the Society of MechanicalEngineers273said:

The following table will show the economy of

payinghighwagesunderthedifferentialrate:273

Sincedifferentrateswouldbepaidforallworkona kindof sliding scale,dependingondailyproductivity, these differential rates were adramaticchangefromsimplepiecerates,whichhad been introduced at Midvale and werecommoninmachineshops.263




273CostKeepingandScientificManagement,Evans,HoldenA,PublishedBy:McGraw-HillBookCompany,NewYork,1911pp.109-110archive.org/details/costkeepingscien00evanrich

Image:Tableshowingtheeconomyofpayinghighwagesunderthedifferentialrate,CostKeepingandScientificManagement,Evans,HoldenA,PublishedBy:McGraw-HillBookCompany,NewYork,1911p.110archive.org/details/costkeepingscien00evanrich

“”

59 60



In1890TaylorresignedfromMidvale.263

In thetwelveyearshespentatMidvale,or intheyearsofhisyoungmanhoodbetween theages of twenty-two and thirty-four, hedeveloped single-handed a system of shopmanagementthelikeofwhichneverhadbeenknownbefore,anddespite theoppositionhisradicallynewwayswereboundtoarouse,putthethingintoeffectwithsuchsuccessthathebroughttheentireworksaroundtoit.264

And it is to be observed that in these yearsMidvalesteadily increasedinsizeandgeneralimportance.264




62

THEORIESOFWORKPARTI:ORIGINSOFTHEDESIGNANDMANAGEMENTOFWORKMANAGEMENTSCIENCE




Image:TaylorRubberStamp,FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.391archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

the world’s first management consultant

From 1893 - 1898Taylor set himselfupas FrederickTaylor,ConsultingEngineer inManagement, forvariouscompanies.257

Hewastheworld’sfirstmanagementconsultant.266

AsTaylorhimselfwouldstate:

IbelieveIwasthefirstmaninthiscountrytoundertakethisworkasaprofession.446

Herewecanseewhathelistedonhisbusinesscardandletter-heads.

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64



that involved the need to increaseproductivity(which was considered low inarsenals)andmanagepeople.337

Metcalferealisedimmediatelyontakingoveras manager of Frankford Arsenal thattraditional methods of organisation andcontrolarebothwastefulandineffective.339

To remove these problems he developed asystem of control in 1881 which wasuniversally recognisedasanewmilestone inmanagementliterature.339

the science of administration

Captain Henry Metcalfe, a graduate of WestPoint and the Ordnance Department, wentbeyond technologymanagement and focusedonthescienceofadministration.338

WhileTaylorwasengagedinhisearlyMidvalebattles, Metcalfe had progressed enough towrite The Cost of Manufactures, publiclybroaching the need for an administrativescience whose researchers would collect andclassify past records to produce genericprinciplestoapplyinfuturecases.337

His book isconsideredapioneerwork in theareaofmanagementscience.254

Metcalfe,oftheUnitedStatesArmyOrdnanceDepartment,wasinchargeofthegun-makingworkshopsatFrankfordArsenal,aposition

338InSearchoftheLostGrailofMiddleManagement:TheRenaissanceofMiddleManagers,ByQuentinR.SkrabecUniversityPressofAmerica(15Dec2003)p.4

254EncyclopediaofManagement,5thEdition,EditedbyMarilynM.Helms,D.B.A.

©2006ThomsonGale,apartofTheThomsonCorporation.pp.651-653

337FrederickTaylorandthePublicAdministrationCommunity:AReevaluationByHindyL.SchachterPublisher:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress;SUNYSeriesinPublicAdministrationedition(November1989)p.28

339ManagementPrinciples,PracticesandTechniquesSecondEditionByN.S.GuptaandAlkaGupta,PublishedbyAtlanticPublishers&Distributors1986p.71

65 66



Image(s):WorkReport,TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshops,byHenryMetcalfe,Publisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)p.60archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

342TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshopsbyHenryMetcalfePublisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)pp.59-60archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

time-sheets

In the bookMetcalfe described the “PresentSystem”inuseatthattimeatanArsenal:

The timekeeper, generally the foreman, goesabouttheshoptowardsthecloseofthedayandasks each workman how he has spent it;according to the workman’s recollection heentersthetimereportedinabook.

Thereare twogeneral formsof timebook;one,form A in which the time made by each manduringeachdayisenteredingross;

andformBoccupiesapageforeachday,anda

lineforeachman.342

You can see examples of forms A and Bopposite.

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67 68



Metcalfewent onto explain his newer system.He proposed a separate shop order card foreach job. The system required that theworkmannotethetimehespentoneachjobonaseparatelaborcard,filedbyjobnumber.341

Each workman is supplied with a book of fiftypages,eachpagecontainingacouponcard2¾x5½ inches and a stub about 1½ inches wide, inwhich, to save himwriting, is stamped his shopnumber, his name, and his wages per time unit,unlessheisworkingbythepiece.

Whentheworkmangoestoworkinthemorning,hegetshisbook fromthe foreman,andwhenheleavesworkhereturns it tohim,madeoutsoastoindicatethedistributionofhistimeduringtheday.

He fills that portion of the card showing theemploymentbywritingunder‘Chargeto’.

Image:ServiceCard,TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshopsbyHenryMetcalfe,Publisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)p.157archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

“

Inthe‘timeunit’spaceheputsdownthenumberof quarter days, hours, half hours, etc., he hasworkedonthejob.

Absenteesforawholedayaresomarkedonaleaftakenoutoftheirownbooks.

Amanworkingonpiecework,whohascompleteda suitable batch of pieces,makes out a ticket tocorrespond, andgives itwith thepiecesmade to

theforemanorinspector....343


341HandbookofCostManagement,ByRomanL.Weil,MichaelW.MahePublisher:Wiley;2edition(May30,2005)p.736

69 70



If thework receives the inspector’s approval, hepunchestheservicecardandforwardsitwiththeothercards.

The cards go to the Cost Clerk and the time isthenenteredinthetimebook.

The cards corresponding to each order numberare then placed in a pigeon hole bearing thenumberoftheorder.

Each pigeon hole shows at a glancewhat laborhasbeendoneonthejobitrepresents,when,andbywhom.Everyemptypigeonhole testifies toajobsofaruntouched,andsoon.

When the order ticket comes back ‘completed’,thecardscorrespondingtoitaretakenout.343

Thuswhattodaywewouldrecogniseastime-sheets were created, and put to use as amethodtomeasureutilisation.


”

Image:TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshops,byHenry,MetcalfePublisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)TitlePagearchive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

71



338InSearchoftheLostGrailofMiddleManagement:TheRenaissanceofMiddleManagers,ByQuentinR.SkrabecUniversityPressofAmerica(15Dec2003)p.4

Image:OrganizationofanArsenal,TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshops,byHenryMetcalfePublisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)p.27archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

administrative management

WhileMetcalfeisfamousforthedevelopmentofthe“timecard”andworkorders,hewasapioneerindefiningtheadministrativeroleofmiddlemanagement.338

Inchaptertwowediscussedtherootsoftheorganisationchart.

In1894MetcalfecreatedhisversionoftheorgchartwhendescribingtheorganisationoftheArsenal.

Wecanseesomethingmorerecognisabletohowanorganisationisdepictedtoday.

74



bethlehem steel

Returning our story back to Taylor, afterleaving Midvale, Taylor worked at variouscompanies as a management consultant.Whilstsuccessfulasaconsultant,hisnextfulltimerolecameatBethlehemSteel.

In1887thecompanyobtainedfromSecretaryWhitneycontractsbothforforgingsforheavycannonandforarmorplate.445

It was realized, however, that somethingneeded to be done to brace up the worksmanagement.445

When the works management problem atBethlehembecamemorepressing, eyes therewereturnedtoMidvale.Notthattheywishedto copy their rival’s methods. But Midvaleappearedtohaveanexceptionallygoodworksmanagement.445

Taylor recognised thework ofMetcalfewhilsthewashimselfatMidvale.

Hewrote:

The card system of shop returns invented andintroduced as a complete system by CaptainHenryMetcalfe,U.S.A.,inthegovernmentshopsoftheFrankfordArsenalrepresentsanothersuchdistinctadvanceintheartofmanagement.

The writer appreciates the difficulty of thisundertakingashewasatthesametimeengagedin the slow evolution of a similar system in theMidvale Steel Works, which, however, was theresult of a gradual development instead of acomplete,wellthoughtoutinventionaswasthat

ofCaptainMetcalfe.340

340ShopManagement,ByFrederickWinslowTaylor,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911p.202archive.org/details/shopmanagement01tayl


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Bethlehem’shopesrestedonTaylor.275

Philadelphia was then one of the biggestindustrial centres on the planet, the secondbiggestcity in theUSA,withapopulationofnearly 850,000andexport figuresmore thanfive per cent of the exports of the wholenation. In the six years before Taylor startedwork,3,000milesofrailhadbeenlaidacrossAmerica.275

Intheearly 1900sSouthBethlehembecameacrowded and noisy boomtown. BiographerCatherine Drinker Bowen, who lived inBethlehemasachild,wrote that theboroughwas

like another place and another planet, a WildWestofitsown.444

TaylorwasapproachedashisworkatMidvalehadbecomewellknown.

ThenegotiationswithTaylorlastedoffandonfrom November, 1897, throughout thefollowingwinter.Tohimtheprospectofgoingto Bethlehem was more than pleasing. Hereagain he saw opening for him the door of agreatopportunity.445

The Bethlehem Company at this time had anominal capital of $5,000,000,while its valuewas placed at $15,000,000 or more. Betweenfive and six thousand men were thenemployed.445

TheAmericansteelindustrywasreelingfromaprice-fixing scandal for armour plating, anddesperatelyneededtofindsomewayofcuttingcosts.275

444SteelworkerhousinginSouthBethlehem,PA,circa1935.explorepahistory.com/displayimage.php?imgId=1-2-C00


275BBCHistoryMagazinewww.historyextra.comandFrederickWinslowTaylorThemanwhomadeusallworklikethis…,DavidBoyle,BBCHistoryMagazine,June2003david-boyle.co.uk/history/frederickwinslowtaylor.html


77 78

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Taylor was hired by Bethlehem Steel in thespring, 1898, and given control over MachineShopNo.2,producingenormouscannonfortheSpanish-AmericanWar.257

Bethlehem at the time boasted the largestmachine shop in the world and a 90ft steamhammer-alsotheworld’slargest.275

Hewouldworkunder,RobertP.Linderman,thecompany’schiefexecutive.445

Taylor,was indomitablyresolvedongettingtheBethlehem Company to accept his methodscomplete,and…whenitfinallywassettledthathe should begin his work in May, 1898, hepreparedhimselfforthestruggleofhiscareer.447

InBethlehemtherewasalsoamixtureofracesfromallovertheearth.445

Thesteelworks,which,astheWorldWarcameto s t imulate the i r bus iness , offeredemploymenttomorethan25,000persons.445


Image:SteelWorkerHousinginSouthBethlehem,PA,circa1935.explorepahistory.com/displayimage.php?imgId=1-2-C00



447FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.2,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrotherspp.14-16archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02copl

79 80




OnMay27,1898,thedayheformallybeganhiswork, he addressed to Linderman his“Recommendation No. 1. Subject: Desirabilityof establishing standards throughout theworks.”447

Inhisrecommendationhestated:

Anyattempttowardtheadoptionofstandardsofthiskindwillmeetwithgreatopposition,thechiefgroundofwhichisbasedonthesuppositionthatuniform conditions of this sort discourageoriginality and individual improvement amongthemen.

If this systemof standards,however, is properlyapplieditproducesquitetheoppositeeffect,sinceeach workman then understands that if hesucceeds in making any improvement that suchimprovement may be adopted as the work’s

standard.447

“

”

The method of setting and documenting astandard,understandingandworkingto thatstandard, and then seeking improvement tocreateanewstandardhadbeenborn.

Today this is in use as recommended “bestpractice”, and has been adopted by manyefficiencyconsultantsandpractitioners.

TaylorwentontoaskLinderman:

1st. To determine whether you wish to adopt aseries of standards for the small detailsthroughoutyourworks.

2nd.Ifyoudecideintheaffirmative,toconvinceyour leading assistants in the works of thedesirabilityofstandards.

3rd. To determine upon the best method ofestablishingthesestandardsandenforcingtheiradoption and maintenance throughout the

works.447

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8281



365en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Noll



LindermanagreedtoTaylor’srequests.

taylorism

Calling Bethlehem Steel “a case study ininefficiency,” Taylor began to transform theworkplace ineveryarea, installing “scientificmanagement,” or “Taylorism,” as it was nowknown, over the objections of both workersandmanagers.257

Image:BethlehemSteelCompanyExecutiveswithTaylor,FrederickW.Taylor,fatherofscientificmanagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.84archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02copl

Another protégé arrived at Bethlehem whenCarlBarthwashiredtodevelopmathematicalformulas for calculating the job rates. Bydevisingaspecialsliderule,managementwasabletoaccuratelypredicttheamountoftimeneededforeachprocess,eliminatingtherule-of-thumbwhichhaddominatedtheshop.257

Uptothespringof1899allofthematerialsintheyardoftheBethlehemSteelCompanyhadbeenhandledbygangsofmenworkingbytheday, andunder the foremanshipofmenwhohad themselves formerly worked at similarworkaslaborers.368

TheBethlehemSteelmanagementwanted toincreaseworkers’output.365

83 84



Focusingonworker’soutput,Taylorconducteda study at Bethlehem Steel regarding theloadingofpigironontorailroadcars.365

Atthestartofthestudy,workerswere loadingan average of 12.5 tons of pig per laborer perday, and received a wage of $1.15 per day,regardlessofindividualoutput.365


Image:MenSittingonStackofPigIron,Jones&LaughlinSouthSideWorks,Pittsburgh,PA,1885.Creator:FrederickT.GrettonFrederickT.GrettonPhotographs,1857-1953,MSP328,LibraryandArchivesDivision,SenatorJohnHeinzHistoryCenter,Bykindpermissionimages.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/i/image/image-idx?q1=Men%20sitting%20on%20stack%20of%20pig%20iron;view=entry;cc=hpichswp;entryid=x-msp328.b001.f14.i01

InadditiontoTaylor,twoofTaylor’semployeesworked at the Bethlehem Steel plant,experimenting with loading strategies andsearching out exemplary workers to serve asmodels for the assertion that “a good day’swagescouldbemadeattheexistingratesbyagoodman”.365366

schmidt pig-iron experiments

Enter “Schmidt,” the pig-iron handler atBethlehem.367

Tay lo r began the f amous shove l ingexperiments with an obscure 28-year oldlaborernamedHenryNoll,263laterdisguisedbyTayloras“amannamedSchmidt.”257

366CharlesD.WregeandAmadeoG.Perroni,“Taylor’sPigTale:AHistoricalAnalysisofFrederickW.Taylor’sPig-Ironexperiments”in:AcademyofManagementJournal,17(March1974),6-27

367TheTheoryandPracticeofScientificManagement(1917),Author:Thompson,ClarenceBertrand,1882-1969,Publisher:Boston,NewYork[etc.]HoughtonMifflincompanyp.81archive.org/details/theorypracticeof01thom

365en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Noll


85 86



In this filmyoucan see the resultsofTaylor’sfamousPigIronCarryingExperiment,withpayperdaybeforeandafterscientificstudy.

Menwouldpickupapieceofpigiron,walkupaplank,andthendropthatpigironintoatraincar,closelystudiedbyTaylor’smen.

Taylordescribed“Schmidt”:

HewasalittlePennsylvaniaDutchmanwhohadbeenobservedtotrotbackhomeforamileorsoafterhiswork in the evening,aboutas freshaswhen he came trotting down to work in themorning.

ThismanwewillcallSchmidt.

Thetaskbeforeus,then,narroweditselfdowntogettingSchmidttohandle47tonsofpigironperdayandmakinghimgladtodoit.

IfSchmidthadbeenpermittedtoattackthepileof forty-seven tons of pig iron without anyguidance, he probablywould have tired himselfoutbeforenoon.

Thiswasthescienceofhiswork.Howcouldhepossibly have discovered this science for

himself?369

“

”

Video:ProductionCompany:PresentedbyJamesS.PerkinsincollaborationwithDr.LillianM.Gilbreth&Dr.RalphM.Barnes.Thismovieispartofthecollection:PrelingerArchives.archive.org/details/OriginalFilm_2


87 88

Watchvideovimeo.com/75161632



Itproved,however, thatonlyaboutoneman ineight inthatgangofseventy-fivewasphysicallycapableofhandlingforty-seventonsaday.369

To make up his special force of pig-ironhandlers,hehadtogetsomemenfromoutsidetheworks.369

Taylor’sresultswereimpressive.

By 1901, the workforce at Bethlehem washandlingthreetimesasmuchmaterialasbeforeandtheirwageswere60percenthigher.275

He reduced the number of shovellers in theirtwo-milegoodsyardfrom500to140.275

Underhismethods,thecostofhandlingpigironwasjustaboutcutinhalf.Andhewasundertheimpression thatwhat he had donewas a goodthingforeverybody.369

Tayloralsoanalysedtheaffectphysicalexertionhad a on a worker, and found that a workerrequired a fixed amount of time to rest peramount of work completed. With thisknowledge the most efficient use of properlyspaced rest periods could be devised thusresultinginincreasedoutput.

Beginning as an evaluation of a labor gangloading pig iron on freight cars, the laterexperimentsonshovelsizesanddesignshowedthat “Taylorism” could apply to even themostunskilledjob.257

Graduallythesuspicionsoftheothermenwereovercome.ThespectacleofSchmidt,plainlynotover-worked,andyetgetting$1.85dayafterdaywhiletheyweregettingonly$1.15,wastoomuchforthem.369


89 90




Soon after leaving, Charles Schwab, aspresidentofUSSteel,boughtBethlehem.263

documenting scientific management

InNovember1901Taylor“retired”tobecomeaconsultant.263 Healsoturnedhisattentiontodocumentinghismethodsandprovidingcasestudiesoftheiruse.

In June 23, 1903, Taylor presented ShopManagement at the annual meeting of theAmerican Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME)inSaratoga,NY.263

It was the first comprehensive summary of“Taylorism”.263

The presentation was filled with technicalexhibitsanddiagrams.257

Later on in 1911 a report was circulated byopponents of Scientific Management thatSchmidt had naturally succumbed to the tasklaiduponhimbyFredTaylor-thatSchmidt,infact,wasquitedead.370

Through the inspector of the OrdnanceDepartmentstationedattheBethlehemworks,Schmidt was found in that town, and inJ a nu a r y, 1 9 1 4 , A . B . Wad l e i gh wa scommissionedbyTaylortoemployaphysicianandreportonSchmidt.370

The physician, Dr. C.L. Johnstonbaugh,ofBethlehem, certified370 Noll to be “in goodphysicalcondition”.370

Taylor continued with his experimentation atBethlehemuntilheleftthecompanyin1901.




91 92



In 1906TaylorwaselectedpresidentofASME,and begin to import “efficiency” into theorganizationalpractices.263

The ASME had membership of 542 veryinfluentialmen263ofthetime.

the pivotal moment

Although his ideas were beginning to spread,Taylorcame tonationalprominence thanks tothe future Supreme Court justice LouisBrandeis,whorealised ‘scientificmanagement’could win his case against the railroadcompaniesforraisingfares.275

Itisworthwhileexploringthispivotalmoment,and how, as a result, “scientific management”becamepopularised.

Taylorwouldreport:

To ensure the best results, the organization ofproductive labormustbedirectedandcontrolledbypersonshavingnotonlygoodexecutiveability,and possessing the practical familiarity of amechanic or engineer, with the goods producedandtheprocessesemployed,buthavingalso,andequally,apracticalknowledgeofhowtoobserve,record, analyze, and compare essential facts inrelationtowages,supplies,expenseaccounts,andallelsethatentersintooraffectstheeconomyofproductionandthecostoftheproduct.326

“Shop Management” is seen as an extremelyinfluential.

Which iswhy a cultural historian likeMarthaBanta could describe Taylor’s 1903 lecture as“oneof thekeydocumentsshaping…modernindustrialisation”.275

“

”

326ShopManagementByFrederickWinslowTaylor,IntroductionbyHenryTowne,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911archive.org/details/shopmanagement01tayl


93 94




Brandeisarguedagainstrateincreasesbycitingthe probable effects of the application of‘scientificmanagement’.333

Oneofthewitnesses,HarringtonEmerson,anengineer,testifiedthatinthiswaytherailroadscouldsaveamilliondollarsaday.334

Otherwitnesses,managersofplants,sworethatthrough Scientific Management they hadreduced their costs, while increasing theirmen’swages25to100percent.334

Scientific Management! In common with thepublic in general, reporters and editors of thenon-technical press never had heard of itbefore,anditseemedaphrasetoconjurewith.334

Andasavingofamilliondollarsaday!Thatwastrulysensational.334

Early in the summer of 1910, the railroads ofthenorth-easternsectionoftheUnitedStatesfi led wi th the In ter s ta te CommerceCommission new freight tariffs calling for ageneral advance in rates, and in September,October,andNovembertheCommissionheldhearingstodeterminetheirreasonableness.334

Itwasthefirstcaseofitskind.334

Fromthebeginningthecontestprovidedgood“copy” for the newspapers, and it waxed inintensity.334

It was argued that through more efficientmanagement the railroads could save moremoneythantheydemandedinincreasedrates.334


333ManagementPrinciplesforHealthProfessionals,ByJoanGrattoLiebler,CharlesR.McConnellPublisher:Jones&BartlettLearning;6edition(May18,2011)p.58

95 96



Only a few days after the introduction of theevidence, the early December reviews ofcurrenteventsgavegreatspacetothedramatictestimonyofsomeofthewitnesses.334

Through January, February, March and everymonthof 1911, theperiodicalpress,popularaswell as technical, was filled with explanationafter explanation as to what scientificmanagement is, why it is good, or why it isworthless.334

By the fall of 1911, Dartmouth College hadarranged for a conference to spreadinformation as to the merits of scientificmanagement.334

“scientific management”

But how did “Scientific Management” get itsname?

All through the testimony about ScientificManagement, one man was referred to as itsoriginatorandprincipalexponent.334

ThoughBrandeishadvisitedhimseveraltimestogetinformation,thismanhaddonenothing,directly or indirectly, to prompt theintroduction of the Scientific Managementideaatthoseratehearings,andhehimselfdidnotappear,butagainandagainhisnamecameup.334

AnditwasinthatwaythatFrederickW.Taylor,tosomeextent,at least,becameknowntothegenerality.334

The effect of the insertion of the scientificmanagement argument into the rate hearingscontestwasfeltalmost instantaneouslybythewholecountry.334


97 98



A name had been found, and people werekeen to talk about their experiences of itsappl icat ion, and on the subject ofmanagementingeneral.

the taylor society

In 1911 there was a meeting of ASMEmembers who found it increasingly difficultto get any papers on the subject ofmanagement through the Meet ingsCommittee.330

Under the leadership of Frank Gilbreth andRobert T. Kent, these insurgent engineersheld their first meetings ... and out of theirdeliberations came the organization at firstcalled the Society toPromote the ScienceofManagement, and after Taylor’s death, theTaylorSociety.330

In October, 1910, Brandeis had a conferencewith [Henry] Gantt and several otherengineers including Frank B. Gilbreth andRobertT.Kent,andatthisconference,heldinGantt’s New York apartments, the questioncameupastowhatthesystemtheyallhadinmindshouldbecalled.329

“Efficiency,” “Functional Management,” and“Taylor System” were some of the namesformallyconsideredandrejected.329

Then was suggested the phrase Taylor forseveralyearshadbeenusingcasually,andallpresent agreed that Brandeis could not dobetter, in speaking of the system at the ratehear ings , than to ca l l i t Sc i ent ificManagement.329

Following thepopularitygiven to thisphraseattheratehearings,Taylorhimselfmadeboldtouseitformally.329

329FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.2,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersarchive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02coplp.372

330ibid.pp.382-383

99 100



OnApril26,1911,JamesO’Connell,presidentofthe “International Association of Machinists,affiliated with the American Federation ofLabor,” sent to the various lodges of thatassociationacircular:450

Thepresentefforton thepartofMr.Taylor is tohave his system installed in the Governmentarsenalsandnavyyards.

He has been so successful that the WarDepartmenthasdecidedtogivethesystematrial.

This would give his methods a tremendousadvertisement,andonlybea short timeuntilallprivate manufacturers throughout the countrywouldadopthissystem…thisproposedstaggeringblow at labor must be met by determinedresistance.450

Thisresistancewassoontomanifestitself.

opposition and resistance

Asunionismgrewaftertheturnofthecentury,sodidorganizedoppositionto“Taylorism.”257

Laborleadersandothersdenounced“Taylorism”asoppressiveandantidemocratic.244

Taylor maintained that the benefits of higherproductivity achieved by means of greaterefficiencywouldbesharedwiththeworkforce.266

However, workers were not deceived and soonrecognized that although they had beenpromisedmore,theywerebeingpaidless.266





“

”

101 102



The proposed introduction of “scientificmanagement” at the Watertown, MA,Arsenal,257 in August, 1911263 starting with atime-study, caused individual opposition,shop-wide work stoppages, petitions,discharges, extensive meetings and nationalpublicityalloverthetopicof“Taylorism.”257

ItwasthefirststrikethathadoccurredunderScientificManagement.450

As a result, the House of Representativesauthorized a “Special Committee toInvestigate the Taylor and Other Systems ofShopManagement”.257

ThecommitteebeganitsworkonOctober4,1911, and did not finish it until February 12,1912. It visited theWater-town Arsenal, andheld hearings in Boston, New York, andWashington.448


423InvestigationofTaylorSystemofShopManagement:HearingsBeforetheCommitteeonLaboroftheHouseofRepresentatives,Author:UnitedStatesCongress.House.CommitteeonLabor,SamuelGompers,Publisher:U.S.Gov.Prnt.Off.Year:1911p.35archive.org/details/investigationta00gompgoog




At the one of the hearings, James O’Connellstated:

Mr. Taylor’s plan is this: He will come to yourestablishment and say to you: “I want to lookover your factory.”After looking over it, he willsaythathefindsthatyouhaveagreatamountofwasteineverylineofindustryinyourfactory.

Then he will say: “Now, I will put into effect asystem that will be the means of saving you a

greatdealofmoney,...423

“

103 104



Iwillputamanhere,anexpert in this lineofbusiness,whowillsuccessfullyputthisschemeintooperationforyou.”

The men at the Rock Island Arsenal, of theUnitedStatesGovernment,1,500ofthem,whenit became generally known that the Taylorsystem would be put into effect, these men,regardless of their trade or calling, whethermechanicsorlaborers,thisarmyofmenaroseasonemanandsaid:“No;noTaylorsystemforus.WewillnotaccepttheTaylorsystem.”

We state to you that this system is wrong,

becausewewantourheadsleftonus.423

moral implications

Livingasaconsultantofsorts,Taylorhadnotbeen directly confronted with the moralimplicationsofscientificmanagementand



”

over theyearshad forcedhissystemthroughunorganizedworkplaces.257

At most of the hearings, especially the earlyones, Taylor was present as a sort of laycounselforhiscause.448

Taylor’s own testimony was given at theCapitol in Washington towards the close ofthehearings, in January, 1912.Hewason thestandmorethantwelvehoursscatteredoveraperiodoffourdays.448

From the Congressional hearing, the editedtranscript provides the fullest expression ofTaylor’sviews.257

423InvestigationofTaylorSystemofShopManagement:HearingsBeforetheCommitteeonLaboroftheHouseofRepresentatives,Author:UnitedStatesCongress.House.CommitteeonLabor,SamuelGompers,Publisher:U.S.Gov.Prnt.Off.Year:1911p.35archive.org/details/investigationta00gompgoog

105 106



Itisnotanewsystemoffiguringcosts;itisnotanew scheme of payingmen; it is not holding astop watch on a man and writing things downabouthim; it isnottimestudy; it isnotmotionstudynorananalysisofthemovementsofmen;itisnottheprintingandrulingandunloadingofa ton or two of blanks on a set of men andsaying,“Here’syoursystem;gotoit.”

It is not divided foremanship or functionalforemanship; it is not any of the devices whichthe average man calls to mind when scientificmanagementisspokenof....Iamnotsneeringatcost-keeping systems, at time study, atfunctional foremanship, nor at any new andimproved scheme of paying men, nor at anyefficiency devices, if they are really devices thatmakeforefficiency....449

It was Taylor’s most heroic attempt toelucidate the philosophy of ScientificManagementinapopularway.449

Fromhistestimony:

There are many elements of scientificmanagement ... that are utterly impossible togointoatahearingofthiskind;butIwant...tomakeclearwhatmaybecalledtheessenceofit,so that when I use the words “scientificmanagement,” youmenwhoare listeningmayhaveaclear,definiteideaofwhatisinmymind....

I want to clear the deck, sweep away a gooddeal of rubbish first by pointing out whatscientificmanagementisnot....

Scientific management is not any efficiencydevice ... nor is it any bunch or group ofefficiencydevices.

449 Frederick W. Taylor, Father of Scientific Management (1923), Author: Copley, Frank Barkley, Volume: v.1, Publisher: New York, London, Harper and Brothers pp. 9-10 archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

“

107 108



Andwithoutthiscompletementalrevolutiononbothsidesscientificmanagementdoesnotexist.

That is the essence of scientific management,thisgreatmentalrevolution.

Scientificmanagementcannotbesaidtoexist...inanyestablishmentuntilafterthischangehastaken place in themental attitude of both themanagementandthemen,bothastotheirdutyto cooperate in producing the largest possiblesurplusandastothenecessity forsubstitutingexact scientific knowledge for opinions or theoldruleofthumborindividualknowledge.

Thesearethetwoabsolutelyessentialelementsofscientificmanagement.449

Ibelieveinthem;butwhatIamemphasizingisthat these devices in whole or in part are notscientificmanagement;theyareusefuladjunctstoscientificmanagement,soaretheyalsousefuladjunctsofothersystemsofmanagement.

Now, in its essence, scientific managementinvolves a complete mental revolution on thepart of the workingman engaged in anyparticular establishment or industry - acompletementalrevolutiononthepartofthesemenastotheirdutiestowardtheirwork,towardtheirfellowmen,andtowardtheiremployers.

And it involves the equally complete mentalrevolution on the part of those on themanagement’s side - the foreman, thesuperintendent, the owner of the business, theboard of directors - a complete mentalrevolutionontheirpartastotheirdutiestowardtheirfellowworkersinthemanagement,towardtheir workmen, and toward all of their dailyproblems.

”


109 110



the principles of scientific management

In1911,TaylorintroducedhisThePrinciplesofScientificManagementpapertotheAmericanmechanical engineering society, eight yearsafterhisShopManagementpaper.281

These ideaswereanaccumulationofhis life’swork.265

ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement,waspublished in three issues of The AmericanMagazine,beginninginMarch,1911;andthen,a long w i th Shop Management (bu tseparately),wasbroughtout inbook formbyHarper&Brothers.330

From the outset the book proved extremelypopular.

At the close of his testimony he wasdeliberately baited by his labor-leaderopponents.448

Two of them went at him at the same timewith insultsand sneers. In so faras theplanwas tomake him lose his temper, todestroyhisself-control, itwasasuccess,448he losthistempersouncontrollably that therecordwasscrubbed.275

The committee made a report to the house.DatedMarch9,1912,itwasunanimous.448

Thecommittee...failedtofindanygroundintherepresentations made by the opponents of thesystem upon which to base condemnation or

seriouscriticismofthemethods.448265FrederickWinslowTaylor-CharteredManagementInstitute-www.mbsportal.bl.uk/taster/subjareas/busmanhist/mgmtthinkers/taylor.aspx



“

”

281en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor

330FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.2,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersarchive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02coplpp.382-383

111 112



Writing inApril, 1911, toColonel E.D.Meier,thenthepresidentoftheA.S.M.E.,Taylorsaid:330

Iam indaily receiptof letters frommembersofthe A.S.M.E. to whom I mailed copies of thespecialeditionofthebook,askingmewheretheycangetadditionalcopies.

Theserequestsrunallthewayfromasinglecopytoasmanyasfiftycopies,fordistributionamongtheirfriendsandemployees,etc.330

Helistedthreegoalsforthework:328

First. To point out, through a series of simpleillustrations, the great loss which the wholecountry is suffering through inefficiency in

almostallofourdailyacts....277

330FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.2,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersarchive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02coplpp.382-383

328en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management_(monograph)

277TheprinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brotherspp.122-125archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

Image:ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&BrothersFrontCoverarchive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

“

”

“

113



Taylor developed five principles of scientificmanagement:282

1. Each part of an individual’s work is analysed‘scientifically’, and the most efficient methodforundertakingthejobisdevised;the‘onebestway’ of working. Measuring the maximumamounta‘first-class’workercoulddoinaday;workersarethenexpectedtodothismuchworkeveryday.265

2. Themostsuitablepersontoundertakethe jobis chosen, again ‘scientifically’. The individualistaughttodothejobintheexactwaydevised.Everyone, according to Taylor, had the abilityto be ‘first-class’ at some job. It wasmanagement’sroletofindoutwhichjobsuitedeachemployeeand train themuntil theywere

first-class....265

Second.To try to convince the reader that theremedy for this inefficiency lies in systematicmanagement,ratherthaninsearchingforsomeunusualorextraordinaryman.

Third.Toprove that thebestmanagement isatrue science, restinguponclearlydefined laws,rules,andprinciples,asafoundation.

And further to show that the fundamentalprinciples of scientific management areapplicabletoallkindsofhumanactivities,fromoursimplest individualacts to theworkofourgreat corporations, which call for the mostelaboratecooperation.

And,briefly,throughaseriesofillustrations,toconvince the reader that whenever theseprinciples are correctly applied, results must

followwhicharetrulyastounding.277

text

277ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brotherspp.122-125archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich


”

282“QUALITY:QUOVADIS?”,TheSwissDemingInstitute(December2006):ErnstC.Glauser,p.10Usedwithkindpermission.www.deming.ch/downloads/E_quo_vadis.pdf

“

115 116



3. Provide financial incentives for following themethods.282

4. Managers must cooperate with workers toensurethejobisdoneinthescientificway.265

5. There is a clear ‘division’ of work andresponsibility between management andworkers. Managers concern themselves withtheplanningandsupervisionofthework,and

workerscarryitout.265

Taylorwarnedaboutattemptingtoimplementparts of scientific management withoutaccepting the whole philosophy, stating thattoofastofachangewasoftenmetwithtrouble,strikes,andfailure.328

It is only through enforced standardization of methods ... and enforced cooperation, that faster work can be assured. The duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone. 452FrederickTaylor



452ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brothersp.83archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich


Image:FrederickTaylor,Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop.jpgPD-OLD

Ensuringthisdidn’thappenwaslaidsquarelyontheshouldersofmanagement:

”

117 118



spreading the word

Beyond the Pr inc ip les o f Sc ient ificManagement, he devoted most of theremainder of the work to providing casestudiestosupporthiscase.328

Following publication of the book, Taylorembarkedonaseriesoflectures.

Priorto1911hehaddonelittlepublicspeakingapartfromthelectureshegaveatHarvard.451

During 1911, the fifty-fifthyearof his age, hisscheduleoflectureswasaheavyone.451

Thisexcerptfromaletteraddressedbyhimin1909 to the Boston Merchants’ Association,expresses the attitude he continued to takegenerally:451

Toconvinceeventhemostinterestedmanthatthenewtypeofmanagementmustofnecessitybe overwhelmingly better than the old, takesmenotlessthantwohours.451

Taylorwouldstateinhisstandardlecture:275

Every day, year in and year out, each manshould ask himself over and over again, twoquestions … First, ‘What is the name of theman I am now working for?’ And havinganswered this definitely then ‘What does thismanwantmetodo,rightnow?’

Not,‘WhatoughtItodointheinterestsofthecompany I am working for?’ Not, ‘What arethe duties of the position I am filling?’ Not,‘WhatdidIagreetodowhenIcamehere?‘Not,‘What should I do for my own best interest?’but plainly and simply, ‘What does this man

wantmetodo?’275


“

”



“

”

119 120



Hewouldsumthisupbystating:

We do not ask the initiative of our men. We do not want any initiative. All we want of them is to obey the orders we give them, do what we say, and do it quick. 293Frederick Taylor

293AnA-Zofbusinessquotations,Labour,Aug31st2012,13:12byB.R.www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/08/z-business-quotations-3

Image:FrederickTaylor,Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop.jpgPD-OLD

121

ManagementScienceSummary

124



aylordiedin1915buthislegacyliveson.

Taylorism has led to a cascade inmanagementthinking,andhasbecomethearchetypalmodelforWesterncorporationsinthe20th279and21stcenturies.

ScientificManagementgavelifetoconceptslikeefficiency,productivityandstandardization.284

Taylor prescribed the way to do things betterwas that each part of an individual’s work isanalysed ‘scientifically’, and the most efficientmethod forundertaking the job isdevised; the‘onebestway’ofworking.265

Thiswouldinvolvethebreakdownofworktasksinto constituent elements; the timing of eachelementbasedonrepeatedstopwatch

studies; the fixing of piece rate compensationbasedonthosestudies;standardizationofworktasks on detailed instruction cards; andgenerally, the systematic consolidation of theshop floor’s brain work in a “planningdepartment.”244

Today, this “bestpractice” iswidely inuse.Wehave workforce planning departments, andprocess improvement departments, that areseparate fromwhereworkoccurs justasTayloradvocated;witha relianceondataand reportstoinformthemonhowworkisprogressing.

Taylor described that “elaborate diagrams”; 265shouldbeusedbysuch functions.Today theseare called spreadsheets, slide packs, and flowcharts.

T


279www.systemsthinking.co.ukCopyright©VanguardConsultingLimited

284GaryHamel:ManagementRevolution,PostedbyDougGoldsteinpksimplex.blogspot.com/2009/10/gary-hamel-management-revolution.html


125 126



Convention is that activity equals cost andthat standardising work will improveefficiency. However writing standard workinstructions are guaranteed to makeperformanceworse,yetwestilldoit.279

Iwouldarguethatmanyofmethodsused inScientific Management bear a remarkables imi lar i ty to methods employed byconsultants today, obsessedwith eliminatingwasteanddelays,andimprovingefficiency.

The method of setting and documenting astandard,understandingandworkingtothatstandard, and then seeking improvement tocreateanewstandardwasbornunderTaylor.This method is still in use today as arecommended “best practice” and has beenadopted by many efficiency consultants andpractitioners.

GaryHamelgoesfurther:

If you read Frederick Winslow Taylor there are

threefundamentalthingshetaught:455456

1. Findthebestpracticewhereveritexists.Todaywecallitbenchmarking.

2. Decompose the task into its constituentelements.Wecallitbusinessprocessre-design.

3. Getridofthingsthatdon’taddvalue.Workoutwhatwecallitnow.455456

Taylor’saimwas toseekways todo itcheaperand faster. He was the earliest advocate of“worksmarter,notharder”,280amantrastillverymuchespousedintoday’sorganisations.



455FrederickWinslowTaylor(1856-1915)www.eldritchpress.org/fwt/taylor.html

456TorontoGlobeandMail,(1995)January26,pp.B26

280HenryL.GanttandFrederickTaylor:ThePioneersofScientificManagement,PeterB.Darmody,PSP,2007AACEInternationalTransactions,p.1

“

”

127 128



If you remember back to chapter two, wediscussed how in Babbage’s Economy ofMachinery it was described what is nowcalled the Babbage principle. It pointed outcommercial advantages available with morecarefuldivisionoflabour.202

What Babbage remarked is that skilledworkers typically spend parts of their timeperforming tasks that are below their skilllevel. If the labour process can be dividedamong severalworkers, labour costsmay becutbyassigningonlyhigh-skilltaskstohigh-costworkers,restrictingothertaskstolower-paidworkers.202204

The Babbage principle is an inherentassumption in Frederick Winslow Taylor’sscientificmanagement.202271

We have discussed how Taylor applied thedivisionoflabor,tobothwhiteandblue-collarjobs, creating the modern white-collarworkforce, dividing the work place intoworkersanddirectorsofwork.263

His functional foremanship isanextensionofprinciple of specialization at the supervisorylevel.276Asaresult,referencesto“whitecollar”appearasearlyas1911.454

Taylor’s industrialmodels separated ‘working’from‘doing’;hebelievedthatitwastheroleofmanagement to determine the ‘one bestway’to perform the work28 and managers weretasked with the responsibility of motivatingtheiremployees.279

204Giddens,Anthony;Held,David(1982).Classes,PowerandConflict:ClassicalandContemporaryDebates.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p.155.ISBN978-0-520-04627-6.Retrieved18April2013.


271YeheskelHasenfeld;AndrewDelanoAbbott(1April1992).HumanServicesasComplexOrganizations.SAGEPublications.p.211.ISBN978-0-8039-4065-9.Retrieved18April2013.

202en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage

454en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-collar_worker



130129



Thisiswhatistaught,andpracticed,asgoodmanagementtoday.

Scientific Management proponents wantedto expose lazy workers and improve theutilizationof theworkforce. This led to theinvention of production standards, timesheets, worker inspection, employeeper formance records and employeediscipline. Thesemethods are commonly inusetoday.

Taylor sought to drive out craft production;wecanseethis thinkingstill inusebythosewhomanageknowledgeworkerstoday.

Employees are becoming commoditizedassets. For example, youwill hear managerstalking about “resources” when they meanpeople, it has become the norm to simplifyandstandardizeworkwhichcanthenbe

outsourced to lower cost organisations orlowercosteconomies500toreducecosts.

Scientific management bases humanmotivation wholly on extrinsic rewards anddiscardstheideaofintrinsic272motivation.

It is common for organisations today to setoutput targets and reward employees if theyreach them, or apply pressure if they arefallingshort;managementbyfear.

The ideaof productivity incentives; paymentbyresults,iscommonplacetodayasamethodformotivationandincreasedproductivity.

Taylorwouldlookupontheirusewithpride.

272en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation

500RethinkingLeanService,JohnSeddon,TheSystemsThinkingReview,7thAug2009www.thesystemsthinkingreview.co.uk/index.php?pg=18&backto=1&utwkstoryid=186

131 132



Surely we have moved on? Do we not valueinputfromouremployeesandaskforthemtosuggest improvements rather than imposemethodsuponthem?

As we discussed, Taylor created staffsuggestion schemes; with financial rewardsfor each suggestion that was implemented,bothofthesemethodsareusedtoday.

Taylor was the world’s first managementconsultant.266

Today, there are thousands of managementconsultancies,andhundredsof thousandsofmanagementconsultants.

Governments and organizations spendbillions on management consultants, yet,many of them will promulgate the samescientific management methods we havediscussedinthischapter.

Rather than being vilified, as many peopleoften do (for example there is a piece onYouTubeentitled “FrederickTaylor-thebiggestbastard ever” 453), Taylorism unquestionablysupplied the methods which were largelyresponsible for growth of American Industry;also fortheabilitytomobiliseandemploytheraw untrained labour which flooded into theUSinthelate19thandearly20thcentury.279

Taylorwantedtoexploittheworkpotentialofalarge uneducated and untrained workforce.Thisleadattheverybeginningoftheindustrialagetoenormousproductivityincreases,highersalariesandshorterworkinghours,allinalltoahigherstandardofliving.282


453FrederickTaylor-thebiggestbastardever,www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wa4_ihxT9rI



133 134



A balanced look at his life and times revealsnotavillainbutatragichero.244

His innovations ushered in enormousp roduc t i v i t y g a in s , wh i ch b rough tunprecedentedaffluencetotheUnitedStatesand thenations that followed its lead;at thesametime,though,Taylor’ssystememployedmethods that misunderstood, and therebygrievously undermined, the full promise ofthenewmassproductioneconomy.244

It is fair to say that Frederick Taylor’s careerexemplified the Industrial Revolution hehelped to lead: a mixture of beneficentachievementsandmalignshortcomings.244

I will leave the final thoughts on Taylor’sinfluence on today’s theory of work; how wedesignandmanagework,tomanagementguruPeterDrucker.

281en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor


Image:PeterDrucker,PhotographCourtesyofTheDruckerInstituteatClaremontGraduateUniversity

Taylor was the first man in recorded history who deemed work deserving of systematic observation and study. His approach to work is still the basic foundation used today. Not much has been added even though he has been dead for years. 281PeterDrucker

135 136



Taylor’sworkwasalsodescribedbyDruckeras“themostpowerfulaswellasthemost lastingcontribution America has made to WesternthoughtsincetheFederalistPapers.”275

DruckerrankedhimwithFreudandDarwinasa maker of the modern world 286 - more eventhanMarx.275

As we will learn in the next chapter, hespawned a mental revolution that still has agriptoday.


286THEONEBESTWAY:FrederickWinslowTaylorandtheEnigmaofEfficiency,RobertKanigelwww.robertkanigel.com/_i__b_the_one_best_way__b___frederick_winslow_taylor_and_the_enigma_of_efficienc_57916.htm

137

DesignandManagement

Concepts

■ ScientificManagementand“Taylorism”.

■ ProductivityIncentives;PaymentbyResults.

■ WorkAnalysis,WorkBreakdown,andWorkMeasurement.

■ BestPracticesandBenchmarking.

■ StandardizedWork,StandardTimes,ProductionStandards,WorkInstructions,JobDescriptions,andWorkInspection.

■ DivisionofResponsibility;PlanningvsDoing;Blue-CollarvsWhite-Collarjobs,andFunctionalSupervision.

■ ProcessImprovementandWasteRemoval.

■ Timesheets,EmployeeDisciplineandEmployeePerformanceRecords.

■ WorkerEfficiency,WorkerUtilizationandWorker“laziness”.

■ StaffSuggestionSchemes.

■ ManagementConsulting.

140

THEORIESOFWORK:ORIGINSOFTHEDESIGNANDMANAGEMENTOFWORK

In our next chapter we will discuss howScientific Management spread around theworld,across thewholeof society, resultinginTaylor’s“MentalRevolution”takinghold.

141

Bibliography

Image:Maninahead,FritsAhlefeldt,Added:Apr3,2013,colorillustrationCopyright©2013HikingArtist,AllRightsReserved.www.hikingartist.net

ByDavidJoyce

ChapterThree:ManagementScience

MANAGEMENTSCIENCE:BIBLIOGRAPHYNOTES


247 TheManagementCentury,byWalterKiechelIIIhbr.org/2012/11/the-management-century/

243 Springer,ASystemicViewofTransformationalLeadership”,AckoffR.L.SystemicPracticeandActionResearch,Vol.11,No.1,February1998,pp.23-36(14)Publicationdate:1998-02-01l094-429X/98/0200-0023$15.00/0©1998PlenumPublishingCorporationwithkindpermissionfromSpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.

244 TheManWiththePlan-FrederickWinslowTaylor,fatherofscientificmanagement,BrinkLindsey,fromtheJanuary1998issue,reason.com/archives/1998/01/01/the-man-with-the-plan

245 ONEHUNDREDYEARSOFTAYLORISM:ISITSTILLRELEVANTTODAY?DimitriosNikolaouKoumparoulis,AnathaliaVlachopoulioti,AcademicResearchInternationalVol.3,No.2September2012www.ugsm-monarch.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Valchopoulioti-Taylorism-20123.2-55.pdf

246 Nelson,Daniel(1980)FrederickW.TaylorandtheRiseofScientificManagementMadisonWisconsin,UniversityofWisconsinPresspp.4-9

247 TheManagementCentury,byWalterKiechelIIIhbr.org/2012/11/the-management-century/

257 FREDERICKWINSLOWTAYLOR,Author:BillBarry,CommunityCollegeofBaltimoreCounty,andTheSt.JamesEncyclopediaofLaborHistoryWorldwide(2004),usedwithkindpermission.

332 PublicManagement:OldandNew,ByLaurenceE.Lynn,Jr.Publisher:Routledge;Newedition(August3,2006)p.92

173 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt

261 ManagementandIdeology:thelegacyoftheinternationalscientificmanagementmovement,ByMerkle,JudithA,Publisher:UnivofCaliforniaPr(December1980)p.211

248 TheMakingOfScientificManagementVolumeIII(1949),Author:Urwick.L,Publisher:ManagementPublicationsTrustp.38archive.org/details/makingofscientif032926mbp



249 TheScienceandPracticeofManagement(1918),Author:Church,A.Hamilton(AlexanderHamilton),1866-1936,Publisher:NewYork:TheEngineeringmagazineco.pp.11-12archive.org/details/sciencepracticeo00chur

253 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Robinson_Boulton

252 Williams,Robert(1995),Accountingforsteam:TheaccountsoftheSohofactory,Accounting&FinanceWorkingPapers,95/14,Wollongong,NSW:UniversityofWollongong,retrieved2012-09-16p.7

254 EncyclopediaofManagement,5thEdition,EditedbyMarilynM.Helms,D.B.A.©2006ThomsonGale,apartofTheThomsonCorporation.pp.651-653

258 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASME

250 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt_junior

251 Williams,Robert(1995),Accountingforsteam:TheaccountsoftheSohofactory,Accounting&FinanceWorkingPapers,95/14,Wollongong,NSW:UniversityofWollongong,retrieved2012-09-16p.5

255 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_R._Towne

259 DynamicsofModernManagement,ByWainoWSuojanen,Publisher:Holt,RinehartandWinston;1StEditionedition(1966)p.101

440 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_(company)

256 Yale:HistoryofYale

260 ImprovingCompetitivenessofIndustry,ByHaroldBierman,Jr.WorldScientificPublishingCompany;1edition(June10,2011)p.119

357 ManagementThought,ByJayantaKNanda,PublisherSarup&Sons,NewDelhi(1Jan2005)pp.79-82

441 ManagementandOrganizationalBehaviour,JayanteeSaha,Publisher:ExcelBooks(July25,2012)p.74

327 AnAnalyticalStudyOnScientificManagementHRM601,AkeemAdebiyiAdeyemiErsalAslamAlanCohenSangramSinghJolantaSoltis

272 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation

271 YeheskelHasenfeld;AndrewDelanoAbbott(1April1992).HumanServicesasComplexOrganizations.SAGEPublications.p.211.ISBN978-0-8039-4065-9.Retrieved18April2013.



331 AdministrativeThinkerseditedbyD.RavindraPrasad,V.SivalingaPrasad,P.SatyanarāyaṇaPublisher:Sterling;2ndeditionedition(March30,2011)p.65.

361 ScientificmanagementinAmericanindustry,bytheTaylorSociety,H.S.Person,editor(1929),Author:TaylorSociety;Person,HarlowS.(HarlowStafford),1875-1955,Publisher:NewYorkandLondon,Harper&Brothers,p.xviiiarchive.org/details/scientificmanage00tayl

263 TaylorTimeline.Author:BillBarry,CommunityCollegeofBaltimoreCounty,usedwithkindpermission.

442 Nelson,Daniel(1980)FrederickW.TaylorandtheRiseofScientificManagementMadisonWisconsin,UniversityofWisconsinPressp29

362 ScientificmanagementinAmericanindustry,bytheTaylorSociety,H.S.Person,editor(1929),Author:TaylorSociety;Person,HarlowS.(HarlowStafford),1875-1955,Publisher:NewYorkandLondon,Harper&Brothers,p.1

archive.org/details/scientificmanage00tayl

279 www.systemsthinking.co.ukCopyright©VanguardConsultingLimited

417 ShopManagement,ByFrederickWinslowTaylor,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911p.14archive.org/details/shopmanagement01tayl

333 ManagementPrinciplesforHealthProfessionals,ByJoanGrattoLiebler,CharlesR.McConnellPublisher:Jones&BartlettLearning;6edition(May18,2011)p.58

269 FrederickW.Taylor:TheFatherofScientificManagement:MythandRealityByCharlesD.WregeandRonaldG.Greenwood,Publisher:BusinessOneIrwin(June1991)p.54

270 Crossen,Cynthia(November6,2006).“EarlyIndustryExpertSoonRealizedaStaffHasItsOwnEfficiency”.WallStreetJournal.online.wsj.com/article/SB116277621193713997.html

326 ShopManagementByFrederickWinslowTaylor,IntroductionbyHenryTowne,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911

284 GaryHamel:ManagementRevolution,PostedbyDougGoldsteinpksimplex.blogspot.com/2009/10/gary-hamel-management-revolution.html



366 CharlesD.WregeandAmadeoG.Perroni,“Taylor’sPigTale:AHistoricalAnalysisofFrederickW.Taylor’sPig-Ironexperiments”in:AcademyofManagementJournal,17(March1974),6-27

317 CostKeepingandScientificManagement(1911),Author:Evans,HoldenA,Publisher:NewYork[etc.]McGraw-Hillbookcompanypp.127-128archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

276 TechniquesofScientificManagementwww.managementstudyguide.com/techniques_scientificmanagement.htm

274 F.W.Taylor’sScientificManagementTheory-kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2011/06/frederick-taylor-principles-of.html

455 FrederickWinslowTaylor(1856-1915)www.eldritchpress.org/fwt/taylor.html

456 TorontoGlobeandMail,(1995)January26,pp.B26

434 ibid.,p.39

265 FrederickWinslowTaylor-CharteredManagementInstitute-www.mbsportal.bl.uk/taster/subjareas/busmanhist/mgmtthinkers/taylor.aspx

267 QuestionsonOrganizationalBehaviorStephenW.Hartman,Ph.D.iris.nyit.edu/~shartman/mba0299/120_0299.htm

266 ThePuritanGift:triumph,collapseandrevivalofanAmericandream,KennethHopperandWilliamHopper,I.B.Tauris(April3,2007)pp.74-79.BypermissionofKenHopperandWillHopper

268 FrederickWinslowTaylor:FatherofModernManagementFrederickWinslowTaylor:FatherofModernManagement,www.mgmtguru.com/mgt301/301_Lecture1Page8.htm

273 CostKeepingandScientificManagement,Evans,HoldenA,PublishedBy:McGraw-HillBookCompany,NewYork,1911pp.109-110archive.org/details/costkeepingscien00evanrich

278 FrederickW.Taylor:TheFatherofScientificManagement:MythandRealityByCharlesD.WregeandRonaldG.Greenwood,Publisher:BusinessOneIrwin(June1991)p.255

453 FrederickTaylor-thebiggestbastardever,www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wa4_ihxT9rI



326 ShopManagementByFrederickWinslowTaylor,IntroductionbyHenryTowne,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911archive.org/details/shopmanagement01tayl

338 InSearchoftheLostGrailofMiddleManagement:TheRenaissanceofMiddleManagers,ByQuentinR.SkrabecUniversityPressofAmerica(15Dec2003)p.4

337 FrederickTaylorandthePublicAdministrationCommunity:AReevaluationByHindyL.SchachterPublisher:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress;SUNYSeriesinPublicAdministrationedition(November1989)p.28

339 ManagementPrinciples,PracticesandTechniquesSecondEditionByN.S.GuptaandAlkaGupta,PublishedbyAtlanticPublishers&Distributors1986p.71

342 TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshopsbyHenryMetcalfePublisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)pp.59-60archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

202 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage

341 HandbookofCostManagement,ByRomanL.Weil,MichaelW.Mahe,Publisher:Wiley;2edition(May30,2005)p.736

343 TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshopsbyHenryMetcalfePublisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)pp.152-155archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

340 ShopManagement,ByFrederickWinslowTaylor,PublisherHarperandBrothersNewYorkandLondon1911p.202archive.org/details/shopmanagement01tayl

275 BBCHistoryMagazinewww.historyextra.comandFrederickWinslowTaylorThemanwhomadeusallworklikethis…,DavidBoyle,BBCHistoryMagazine,June2003david-boyle.co.uk/history/frederickwinslowtaylor.html

444 SteelworkerhousinginSouthBethlehem,PA,circa1935.explorepahistory.com/displayimage.php?imgId=1-2-C00

365 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Noll



336 FrederickW.Taylor,fatherofscientificmanagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.402archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

334 ibid.,pp.3-8

264 ibid.,p.117

449 ibid.,pp.9-10

328 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management_(monograph)

423 InvestigationofTaylorSystemofShopManagement:HearingsBeforetheCommitteeonLaboroftheHouseofRepresentatives,Author:UnitedStatesCongress.House.CommitteeonLabor,SamuelGompers,Publisher:U.S.Gov.Prnt.Off.Year:1911p.35archive.org/details/investigationta00gompgoog

281 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor

454 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-collar_worker

368 FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.2,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.37archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02copl

445 ibid.,p.4

446 ibid.,p.390

447 ibid.,pp.14-16

369 ibid.,pp.43-49

370 ibid.,p.55

329 ibid.,p.372

330 ibid.,pp.382-383

448 ibid.,pp.346-349

450 ibid.,pp.340-344

451 ibid.,p.391

282 “QUALITY:QUOVADIS?”,TheSwissDemingInstitute(December2006):ErnstC.Glauser,p.10www.deming.ch/downloads/E_quo_vadis.pdfUsedwithkindpermission.



286 THEONEBESTWAY:FrederickWinslowTaylorandtheEnigmaofEfficiency,RobertKanigelwww.robertkanigel.com/_i__b_the_one_best_way__b___frederick_winslow_taylor_and_the_enigma_of_efficienc_57916.htm

204 Giddens,Anthony;Held,David(1982).Classes,PowerandConflict:ClassicalandContemporaryDebates.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p.155.ISBN978-0-520-04627-6.Retrieved18April2013.

277 Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&Brotherspp.122-125archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

452 ibid.,p.38

443 ibid.,p.128

293 AnA-Zofbusinessquotations,Labour,Aug31st2012,13:12byB.R.www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/08/z-business-quotations-3

280 HenryL.GanttandFrederickTaylor:ThePioneersofScientificManagement,PeterB.Darmody,PSP,2007AACEInternationalTransactions,p.1

500 RethinkingLeanService,JohnSeddon,TheSystemsThinkingReview,7thAug2009www.thesystemsthinkingreview.co.uk/index.php?pg=18&backto=1&utwkstoryid=186

THEORIESOFWORK:ORIGINSOFTHEDESIGNANDMANAGEMENTOFWORKMANAGEMENTSCIENCE:BIBLIOGRAPHYOFIMAGES

InteriorofaMachineShop,Theprinciplesofindustrialmanagement(1920),Author:Duncan,JohnC.(JohnChristie),b.1881,Publisher:NewYork,London:D.AppletonandCompanyp.154archive.org/details/principlesofindu00dunc

HenryRobinsonTowne(1844-1924),Classof1865,portraitphotograph,Date:circa1900,Source:UniversityofPennsylvania,Author:Unknown,Permission(Reusingthisfile)PD-USen.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Robinson_Towne.jpg

FrederickWinslowTaylor1873,Source:Gaugler,Eduard(Hrsg.):Taylor,Frederick,Winslow:Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement;VademecumzudemKlassikerderWissenschaftlichenBetriebsführung.Düsseldorf:VerlagWirtschaftundFinanzen,1996.Author:Grap.commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F._Taylor_at_1873.jpg

LatheOperatoratMidvaleSteel,KheelCenterforLabor-ManagementDocumentationandArchives,M.P.CatherwoodLibrary,CornellUniversity.www.ilr.cornell.edu/library/kheel/resources/images/citing.jpg

ObservationSheet,CostKeepingandScientificManagement(1911),Author:Evans,HoldenA,Publisher:NewYork[etc.]McGraw-HillbookcompanyP.132.archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

ShopObservationCardforRecordingStopwatchTimeStudies,CostKeepingandScientificManagement(1911),Author:Evans,HoldenA,Publisher:NewYork[etc.]McGraw-HillbookcompanyP.205archive.org/details/costkeepingands00evangoog

TimeNoteforStandardizedClericalOperations,FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.257archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

ExampleofanInstructionCard,Work,Wages,andProfits(1919),Author:Gantt,HenryLaurence,1861-1919,Publisher:NewYork,TheEngineeringmagazineco.p.264.archive.org/details/cu31924013870724

Taylor’sFunctionalForemanship,TechniquesofScientificManagementwww.managementstudyguide.com/images/functional_foreman.jpg


Tableshowingtheeconomyofpayinghighwagesunderthedifferentialrate,CostKeepingandScientificManagement,Evans,HoldenA,PublishedBy:McGraw-HillBookCompany,NewYork,1911p.110archive.org/details/costkeepingscien00evanrich

FrederickWinslowTaylor1886,Source:Gaugler,Eduard(Hrsg.):Taylor,FrederickWinslow:Theprinciplesofscientificmanagement;VademecumzudemKlassikerderWissenschaftlichenBetriebsführung.Düsseldorf:VerlagWirtschaftundFinanzen,1996.Author:Grapcommons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F._Taylor_at_1886.jpg

TaylorRubberStamp,FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.391archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor01copl

TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshops,byHenryMetcalfe,Publisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)TitlePage.archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

WorkReport,TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshops,byHenryMetcalfe,Publisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)p.60.archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

ServiceCard,TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshopsbyHenryMetcalfe,Publisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)p.157.archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

OrganizationofanArsenal,TheCostofManufacturersandtheAdministrationofWorkshops,byHenryMetcalfePublisher:JohnWiley&SonsNewYork(1890)p.27.archive.org/details/costofmanufactur00metc

SteelWorkerHousinginSouthBethlehem,PA,circa1935.explorepahistory.com/displayimage.php?imgId=1-2-C00

BethlehemSteelCompanyExecutiveswithTaylor,FrederickW.Taylor,fatherofscientificmanagement(1923),Author:Copley,FrankBarkley,Volume:v.1,Publisher:NewYork,London,HarperandBrothersp.84archive.org/details/frederickwtaylor02copl

FrederickTaylor,Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop.jpgPD-OLD


MenSittingonSackofPigIron,Jones&LaughlinSouthSideWorks,Pittsburgh,PA,1885.Creator:FrederickT.Gretton,FrederickT.GrettonPhotographs,1857-1953,MSP328,LibraryandArchivesDivision,SenatorJohnHeinzHistoryCenter,Bykindpermissionimages.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/i/image/image-idx?q1=Men%20sitting%20on%20stack%20of%20pig%20iron;view=entry;cc=hpichswp;entryid=x-msp328.b001.f14.i01

ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(1911),Author:Taylor,FrederickWinslow,Publisher:NewYork,London,Harper&BrothersFrontCover.archive.org/details/principlesofscie00taylrich

PeterDrucker,PhotographCourtesyofTheDruckerInstituteatClaremontGraduateUniversity

MovieFrederickTaylor’sPigIronCarryingExperiment,ProductionCompany:PresentedbyJamesS.PerkinsincollaborationwithDr.LillianM.Gilbreth&Dr.RalphM.Barnes.Thismovieispartofthecollection:PrelingerArchives.www.archive.org/details/OriginalFilm_2

MANAGEMENTSCIENCEINDEXOFNAMES


AlexanderChurch

MatthewBoulton

JamesWatt

MatthewRobinsonBoulton

JamesWattJr.

LyndallUrwick

HenryRobinsonTowne

LinusYaleJr.

FrederickA.Halsey

FrederickTaylor

HenryWorthington

FerrellandJones

WilfredLewis

ColemanSellers

WilliamSellrs

HoldenA.Evans

CaptainHenryMetcalfe

SecretaryWhitney

CatherineDrinkerBowen

RobertP.Linderman

CarlBarth

HenryNoll“Schmidt”

Dr.C.L.Johnstonbaugh

MarthaBanta

LouisBrandeis

HarringtonEmerson

FrankB.Gilbreth

RobertT.Kent

HenryGantt

JamesO’Connell

ColonelE.D.Meier

Chapter 3 - Management Science 2018 - Theories of Work

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