Chapter 3

Chapter 3. Modality and Modal Verbs. Parallel descriptions

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MOODS, MODALITY AND MODAL VERBS

Main issues: A. Definitions and distinctions B. Concepts of modality C. Ways of expressing modality D. Types of modality E. Modal verbs.

Learning objectives

When you have studied this chapter, you will be able to: Define the concept of ‘modality’ and distinguish between modality and

mood (both from a theoretical and a practical point of view) Distinguish, classify and exemplify concepts and types of modality Understand and correctly describe the modal shades of meaning and

correctly use the modalled idioms, modal idioms, modal verbs and modal phrases in various contexts.

A. Definitions and distinctions

The three basic and comprehensive concepts of moods, modality and modal verbs underlie the three perspectives in what follows. Mood is that formal category which is expressed by verb inflections and which indicates “the various ways in which the action or the state is thought of by the speaker” (Curme 1947). Mood is a syntactic abstraction whose content represents the speaker’s evaluation of the event expressed by the sentence verb, in terms of its being either something real/factual or desirable conditioned, probable, possible, necessary, etc., all in all distinguishing between the opposition [+] real. Thus, a speaker may evaluate a state/event:

a) as a fact (involving a factual meaning):

Septimus is in love. or It is laughable that Septimus is in love. (Yes, this is a fact: he is in love)

b) as a supposition (involving a theoretical or non-factual meaning): i) real supposition (plan for the future): It is proposed that the Assembly elect a new Committee. (mandative subjunctive)

ii) unreal supposition (referring to an imaginary/hypothetical state of affairs):

It is laughable that Septimus should be in love. (whether he is in love or not is a different matter) [analytical subjunctive]

c) as a hypothesis (involving something contrary to fact, i.e., a counterfactual meaning):

It would be laughable if Septimus were in love. (but actually he is not in love) (examples - extracted from Leech 2004: 120)


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The Indicative mood points to the speaker’s evaluation of a state/event to be a fact or something real. The Subjunctive mood expresses the speaker’s evaluation of a state/event to be something supposed to happen in the future or supposed to have happened in the past, thus involving a theoretical or non-factual meaning. (cf - b) above). The Conditional mood indicates a condition underlying the statement, thus emphasizing its hypothetical or counterfactual meaning:

i) If your father had caught us, he would have been furious. (… but in fact he didn’t) ii) If she were slimmer she could run faster. (but she actually isn’t)

The hypothetical or counterfactual meaning may also be expressed with the help of the subjunctive:

iii) What if we’d lost our way… (…but in fact we didn’t) iv) I wish I hadn’t swallowed that last glass of whiskey. (… but in fact I did) (examples

extracted from Leech 2004: 125)

Closely related to the category of mood, modality is frequently defined as (1) ‘the speaker’s relation to reality’, or as (2) ‘the speaker’s evaluation of state-of-affairs’ or as (3) ’the speaker’s cognitive, emotive, or volitional qualification of a state-of-affairs’. Modality may refer to the speaker, to the event or to the proposition. (Propositions are interpreted here semantically, as sentences expressing a truth, which is obvious both the speaker and to the hearer).

B. Concepts of Modality

The introduction of the syntagm ‘scale of certainty’ opens perspectives to a better understanding and description of types of modality. The scale of certainty involves the speaker’s report of the likelihood of the predication being valid. Any such report is based o the speaker’s personal assessment of the facts – judgments which are represented as objective and those which are explicitly presented as subjective or personal.

In an impersonal tone, in their declarative sentences, speakers may express: (i) certainty:

He is certain to be there. It is inevitable that there will be a violent outcome.

(ii) probability: It is likely that the footballer will be able t o play. He ought to be able to play.

(iii) possibility: It is possible that the train will be delayed. I am not certain to be there.

(iv) nil certainty: It is not possible for Emily to go to college.


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In a personal tone, in their declarative sentences, speakers may express their own: (i) conviction (with verbs as believe, be + convinced, positive, confident, sure, certain):

I am sure our football team will win tonight. I believe they are really movie stars.

(ii) conjecture (with verbs as think, presume, suppose, infer, daresay, expect, judge, conclude, trust, be of the opinion, assume, hold, suspect, subscribe to the view that, anticipate, foresee, predict, prophesy, consider, reckon, surmise, guess, imagine, conjecture):

I think they will be here in time. I expect I’ll meet you today.

(iii) doubt (with verbs as wonder, be + skeptical, doubtful, dubious): I doubt whether there is any hope for him. I am skeptical about the chance of a successful outcome.

(iv) disbelief (with verbs as doubt, wonder, be +skeptical, doubtful, dubious + negative): I don’t believe in your managerial skills. I am fully convinced he is not telling the truth.

Semantically, modal concepts may be grouped into intellective, emotional and volitional. Intellective modal concepts consider attitudes connected to reason or to the

speaker’s/listener’s power of judgment, such as: belief, conviction, scepticism, doubt, possibility, prediction, logical necessity.

Emotional concepts are connected to verbs of (positive or negative) attitude and include: admiration, love, desire, hatred, regret, wish, hate, appreciation, and anger or even (dis)approval.

Volitional concepts of modality refer to the speaker’s act of making a choice or a decision and they may be illustrated by firmness, order, necessity, request, application, obligation, prohibitions, refusal, threat, determination, and willingness.

C. Ways of expressing modality The multitude of modal concepts brings about a wide range of means which

express these concepts. By and large, modality may be expressed by modal verbs on the one hand and by other means, which belong to morphology, syntax and rhetorics, on the other hand.

1. Grammatical means used to express modal concepts:

Grammar provides instruments coming either from phonology and morphology or from syntax.

Lexical means

► Proper names involving a certain humour, or concealing euphemistic values, which are known to native speakers. This is the case with:

The Old Gentleman/old Gooseberry (Scaraoţchi), Mrs Grundy (gura lumii), and Joe Black (Doamna cu coasa) John Barleycorn (personification of alcoholic liquor) in:

I have just run into the John Barleycorn of our family.


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► English phrases which suggest: doubt: tell that to the marines! disapproval: to wash one’s dirty linen in the public humouristic disapproval to be a bit on (a fi afumat) approval: you may well say so irony: the devil’s own luck

►Proverbs. Croitoru (2002: 86–125) refers to ‘modalled idioms and proverbs’ and presents a comprehensive collection of such items, out of which very few will be presented in what follows:

a) modalled idioms (i.e., idioms with a modal value) Can a duck swim? (vrei calule ovăz ?) It will happen in a month of Sundays (la Sfântu-aşteaptă)

b) proverbs A bad thing never dies. (buruiana rea nu piere) A bad padlock invites a picklock. (paza buna…)

Morphological means

► adverbs with a modal value: probably, possibly, surely, hopefully, thankfully, obviously, really, certainly, merely.

You were obviously delighted with your new car.

► adjectives with a modal value: possible, probable, likely which are used a) in impersonal constructions:

It’s possible he may have come b) as part of a nominal group:

The likely winner of this afternoon’s race or … the most probable outcome of this trial...

► Interjections cover a large span of feelings:

- oh! (surprise) - ah! (satisfaction, recognition) - aha! (jubilant satisfaction, recognition) - yippee! (excitement, delight) - ouch! / ow! / ooh! (pain) - ugh! (disgust) -

► modal nouns: possibility, probability, chance, and likelihood.

There’s just a chance that he may come.

► lexical verbs – the verbs in this group express such notions as: ‘asserting’ (believe, consider, think, reckon)

I believe he will be successful in his career.


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‘evaluating’ (suspect, guess) I guess John will get the promotion. The detainees are suspected to belong to terrorist organizations. ‘requesting’ (beg, require, request, invite) We request your presence with our anniversary. ‘suggesting’ (advise, suggest, suppose, presume) Emily advised Donald to be more cautious. ‘exercising authority’ (allow, command, guarantee, forbid, nominate, wish,

declare, proclaim, warn) The doctor did not allow any civilian to enter the hospital.

► lexico-modal auxiliaries or modal phrases (Croitoru 2002: 80-1) - patterns consisting of the structure be / have + adjective + infinitive: be apt/able to, be capable to, be bound to, be sure/certain to, be possible/probable/likely to, be liable to

The protesters are sure to be arrested. Niky is likely to win the contest.

► modal idioms: would rather, had better, would sooner, would (just) as soon, had best (Zdrenghea, 168)

I would sooner you assumed responsibilities. I’m sure they would just as soon stay at home We had best forget what happened. (Quirk et al. 1985:226)

► modal periphrases: have got to (gotta), be going to (gonna), be willing to, be inclined

to, be about to, be to, be capable of, be supposed/expected to, be allowed/permitted to, be in a position (determined by the circumstances) to:

She was about to leave the room when the phone rang. ►modal/pure/syntactic auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, must, have to, shall,

should, will, would, ought to. Dogs can distinguish many odors. ► pseudo / semi / quasi modals: need, dare, be to, used to, have to:

She needn’t pay for that bill, I have already done it. Dare he steal his brother’s money? ► the use of remote past:

I thought I’d go along with you, if you don’t mind


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Syntactic means ► if-clauses used to express doubt or uncertainty:

If you know what I mean. If you don’t mind my saying so. What if he’s had an accident?

► Exclamations and exclamatory sentences: Capital! Good of/for you!

► Exclamatory sentences in the negative: Hasn’t she lost weight! (She has lost weight, hasn’t she?)

► Exclamatory questions with a positive form: Did she look annoyed?

► Rhetorical questions (positive/negative): Is that a reason for despair? (Certainly, that is not…) Didn’t I tell you were lying? (You know, I told…)

2. Rhetorical means used to express modal concepts:

► Repetitions: This car is far, far too expensive for us!

► Emphatic means: Such a beautiful girl! She treated them so carefully! You do look nice today!

► Negative intensifiers: not (in the verb form) + at all I do not/don’t like vegetables at all.

► the use of non-assertive items, such as any He’ll drink any kind of juice.

D. Types of Modality F.R. Palmer’s (1979: 21-24) distinguishes three types of modality: epistemic,

deontic and dynamic modality, which is further subdivided into neutral dynamic modality and subject-oriented modality. On the other hand, L. Horn (1972) suggests a division of the modal expressions into scalar classes, which can be defined by entailment and quantitative conversational implicature. He proposes three such scales: logical, deontic and epistemic. The logical scale relates necessity truth possibility. Thus, possible is entailed by necessary and it implicates the negation of necessary, but only if it


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is regarded as a non-logical relationship.

1. Epistemic Modality. The word epistemic has a Greek origin, coming from episteme (knowledge) + logos

(study) and meaning ‘knowledge’ or ‘to know how to do’. It was used by 19th century philosophers to designate that branch of philosophy studying the history, methods and principles of sciences.

In linguistics, it refers to the sentence subject’s (lack of) knowledge; it describes those modalities revealing the value speakers attach to their utterance. Such modalities may range from probability to possibility and further to certainty. Speakers express their degree of knowledge by means of the so-called epistemic, inferential or evaluative modalities, as they may be inferred from the situation they describe or evaluate. On Horn’s epistemic scale, modalities range from certainty to possibility, i.e., certainty probability possibility.

Epistemic modalities have to do with the concepts of prediction, (logical) necessity and possibility. The speaker’s role is that of commenting on the content of the clause, making reference to (lack of) knowledge or evaluating an interpretation of reality.

Jennifer is Victor’s best friend, so she may know his address. (possibility) His car is near the garden, so he must be at home now. (certainty) They should be back home in half an hour. (probability)

Epistemic modality is exemplified by may for possibility and must for necessity.

Should, would, can and could are also required in several instances. The epistemic modals are normally subjective, i.e. the epistemic judgment rests with the speaker.

Epistemic modality is the modality of the propositions, as in the examples below: It is possible for my daughter to be at the library now. My daughter may be at the library now. (strong possibility) My daughter told me her today’s plan; she will be at the library now. (assumptive) Modal certainty, involving prediction or logical necessity is expressed with will,

must, be bound to: The broadcast will be over by now. (prediction, I know it from experience) The broadcast must be over by now. (logical necessity: the lights are off)

Prediction is more often expressed with would (in narratives) or with be apt to (in case of repeated states or happenings).

The stage director noticed that Brad Pit was apt to play complex characters. Logical necessity is based on a process of deduction Your mobile phone must be in your bag (subjective: I know you keep it there) Your mobile phone has to be in your bag (more objective: ladies keep it there) Epistemic possibility (i.e., the possibility of something to be true) in negative clauses is expressed with can:

Take a very good look at them, they can’t be real pearls. Within epistemic modality speakers evaluate an interpretation of reality, and in so doing they refer to (their own) knowledge.

2. Deontic Modality This term also comes from Greek and consists of two parts: deon- + -ontos meaning

‘that which is binding’. The term was also borrowed from the 19th century philosophy


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where deontology designated the science of duty. Consequently, deontology as an assembly of rules and regulations which

determine the requirements of any job as well as the behaviour and relationships between professionals and parties they have to work with.

Deontic modalities have to do with obligations and permissions. The speaker’s role in this case is an active one as (s)he intervenes in the speech event and since (s)he refers to obligation and permission may bring about changes in the event.

You must observe the deadline or else you may miss the opportunity. Deontic modality is illustrated by may for permission and must for obligation.

Some verbs are essentially performative (in the sense suggested by Austin) or discourse oriented or ‘relative’ to the speaker i.e. relative to the speaker in assertions and to the hearer in questions. By this criterion, shall (expressing an offer) could also be included among the deontic modals.

You may share your room with your cousin. (permission) You must share your room with your cousin. (obligation) Shall I use my e-mail address for the conference correspondence? (offer) On Horn’s deontic scale, modalities range from strong obligation (request) weak

obligation (suggestion) permission.

3. Dynamic Modality This type of modality was also called neutral/able/ability modality. Horn (1972)

put forward a division of the modal expressions into scalar classes and produced a hierarchy of what he called “the semantic values of the relevant subset”. His modal scale consists of three columns: one is intended for epistemic/logical modality, a second for the deontic modality and a third which has no label and which refers to the modals CAN and COULD describing their meaning of ‘ability’. Hornby (1963:228) describes ability as resulting from “physical power or capacity, or from knowledge or skill”.

This box is very heavy, can you lift it? Grannie is over seventy but she can still read without glasses. Can you only understand Swedish or can you speak it as well? Hornby further distinguishes ability resulting from circumstances which may be

paraphrased “be in a position to” Can you come to the meeting tomorrow? (Are you free to do so/Are you in a position to do so?) Can you lend me five pounds? (Are you in a position to do so?) This type of modality, ignored by some grammarians, circumscribes two

subdistinctions of modality: the neutral dynamic modality and the subject-oriented modality.

3.1 Neutral Dynamic Modality

This type of modality is detectable when can is used to express ‘possible for’ and must is used to indicate ‘necessary for’.

The tutor can give you the right answer. (meaning: it is possible for him to give you the


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right answer). You must leave your valuables in the hotel safe because we do not feel responsible for things stolen from the hotel rooms. (meaning: it is necessary for you to …)

3.2 Subject-oriented Dynamic Modality This is the second subtype dynamic modality and it is illustrated by the verb can

when it expresses ability and will when it suggests willingness. Dynamic modality refers to the modality of events that are not conditioned deontically.

A skillful professional like him can fix your boat in less that a week. If only the headmaster will give us an interview!

Dynamic or ability modalities have to do with physical capacity, skill or knowledge as well as with circumstances which enable subjects to carry out a particular task. The speaker’s role is attitudinally neutral since (s)he neither evaluates, comments or interprets nor intervenes in the proposition. (S)he only asserts or inquires about the subject’s capacity of performing a task.

This carpenter can make a chair and a stool a day. My private secretary can type 40 words a minute.

Thus, when the modals are not epistemic, they may be either subject or object

oriented. While can and will are subject-oriented and refer to the ability or willingness of the sentence subject may, shall and must are discourse-oriented and they relate to the speaker’s action when giving permission, making a promise or laying an obligation. The syntagm ‘discourse-oriented’ is meaningfully larger and it may accept not only the speaker’s but the hearer’s intervention, as well. In a question as May I come in? which illustrates an instance of asking for permission, permission relates to the hearer and not to the speaker.

Nevertheless, it is impossible to exemplify one modal to perfectly fit into one or the other of the three kinds. Croitoru (2002: 49-50) draws a parallel between deontic and epistemic specific features, as follows:

Deontic values Epistemic values

1. The perfective and the progressive aspects are excluded with deontic values of modals

1. Perfective and progressive meanings are assigned to epistemic values of modals

i. He may go out now; he has got it

over. (permission) ii. He can ride a hose. (ability)

iii. He can be speaking German fluently. (ability) [ungrammatical]

iv. They must have gone now. (obligation)

i. He can’t have said such non-sense.

(impossibility) ii. They may have been in the kitchen then,

and nobody answered. (possibility) iii. He must have done that with great

responsibility. (certainty) iv. They may/can be having luck now.

(possibility) 2. The sentence subject must be animate 2. They do impose no subject restriction

i. They must work hard in order to make progress.

i. The apple must have fallen from the tree.

(inanimate subject - certainty)


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ii. *The nut must break now. (obligation) [ungrammatical]

ii. The child must have fallen from the tree. (animate subject - certainty)

3. Some of them have past tense forms (might, could, would)

3. The forms might, could, would are forms of the subjunctive (expressing unreal situations) not past

tense equivalents (referring to a situation which happened in the past).

i. They asked if they might drop in at

his place that afternoon. ii. He would have that at his finger’s

end if he read more.

i. I wish he might be here now.

ii. We wish we could do that as soon as possible.

Modality is a highly complex concept and a mater of degree. In ordinary language epistemic modalities can range from very slight possibility to absolute certainty, while deontic modalities may mean anything from permission to compulsion, as a result of a weaker or a stronger from volition or constraint. Every modal concept, whether it is possibility, probability, certainty or obligation, may exhibit various intensities, very finely differentiated.

F. Modal Verbs This class of verbs which facilitate the speaker’s intervention in the character of a proposition making it express a factual, non-factual (theoretical) or counterfactual (hypothetical) meaning is peculiar to the English language and it is known as that of modal verbs. Based on the morpho-syntactic features they share, English modal verbs divide into central and marginal modals.

F.R. Palmer (1979:24) asserts that both modals and main verbs are primarily verbs and they both can in theory share the same grammatical features. L.G. Alexander (1988:208-9) compares them with the auxiliaries be, have and do to underline the resemblance between the two groups. Pure modals stand for a special group of verbs, which partially share the characteristics of the primary auxiliaries. Marginal modals, on the other hand, are context-dependent and, by way of consequence, they may show features of either principal or modal verbs. 1. Morphologic Features of Modal Verbs The modals have always been dealt with in separate chapters, due to some peculiarities that make them different from the rest of the verbs. These particular traits are the object of the following section, for ignoring them would mean to create a gap in the description of the English verb. ► they are never preceded by the to-infinitive particle.

N.B. When preceded by the to-infinitive particle, they become transitive verbs and they implicitly belong with the main/lexical verbs list:

a) the verb can suggests ability b) the verb to can may mean one of the followings “1. a. to put in a can: preserve

by sealing in airtight cans or jars b : to hit (a golf shot) into the cup c : to hit (a shot) in basketball 2: to discharge from employment 3 slang : to put a stop or


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end to”.

c) the verb need means be under necessity or obligation to (I need to know), d) the verb to need means to be in need of or to require.

e) the verb used to involves a past event, state or process which happened in a more or less definite past and it is always used with past reference,

f) the verb to use reveals transitive and intransitive meaning, being the synonym of employ or utilize. The Webster’s Dictionary (1996: 2097) accounts for the following meanings: 1: to put into action or service: avail oneself of: EMPLOY; 2: to consume or take (as liquor or drugs) regularly; 3: to carry out a purpose or action by means of: UTILIZE; also: MANIPULATE 2b *used him selfishly*; 4: to expend or consume by putting to use often used with up; 5: to behave toward: act with regard to: TREAT *used the prisoners cruelly*; 6:STAND 1d *the house could use a coat of paint*

► like auxiliary verbs, they form the negative with the enclitic negation ‘not’ next

to the verb You may not smoke here.

► they form interrogative by means of inversion: Could that be Elaine?

► modals will never take the –(e)s ending for the third person in the singular of

the present indicative: He must pay attention to all the details as opposed to He goes to the theatre twice a month.

► they cannot be used as infinitives (being replaced by lexico-modal auxiliaries). When you are ready, you will have to prove it.

► modals are also ‘defective’ since they do not have forms either for the past

tense, or for gerund and for past participle.

You must arrive in time for today’s job interview. as opposed to You had to arrive in time for the meeting yesterday.

2. Syntactic Features of Modal Verbs

To describe the syntactic features of pure modals the relationships, which may be established between modality and temporality/aspectuality and between modality and agentiality should be considered.

2.1. Modality and Tempo-aspectuality As already specified, pure modals will always be followed by an infinitive. As a form of the verb, even if non-finite, the infinitive can be described with the help of the grammatical categories of any verb, i.e. tense, aspect and voice.


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The context consisting of a pure modal and an infinitive will add temporal and aspectual shades of meaning to the modality expressed by the speaker/hearer. The position of pure modals within a pattern (a compound verbal predicate) will always be initial and even if the label of ‘pure’ modals was adopted by this approach, it is beyond any doubt that the modal verbs will act as auxiliaries. Consequently, they will either have to bear the mark of temporality/aspectuality or will have to be part of a more comprehensive structure suggesting the idea of time (be it internal or external). Pure modals are most frequently followed by the present infinitive, simple or continuous, to emphasize the coincidence of the speech moment (i.e. the moment when the speaker/hearer expresses his/her attitude) and the event moment (the reality to which reference is made):

I am watching him attentively and I am convinced that he can use a computer. Yes, you may smoke in this room. Their little baby used to be playing whenever we met them in the park.

When a modal verb is followed by a perfect infinitive the relationship established between the speech moment and the event moment will be one of anteriority, meaning that the attitude the speaker conveys regards an event which took place somewhere in a past moment/interval.

They may have had an accident since they haven’t come back yet. He must have left something at home and he’s back to take it. She can’t have cooked such a delicious cake.

When the situation type described by the verb takes place for a longer time interval and the speaker feels like emphasizing the semantic feature of durativity, the modal will be followed by an infinitive in its aspectual form:

He can be working for hours and hours without any break. You may be living with us over this whole summer if you want to.

An aspectual form of the infinitive should also be used in case the speaker wants to emphasize the full progress of the action/process expressed by the lexical verb in the compound verbal predicate:

They must be playing chess now and they certainly can’t hear the bell ringing. She may be watching television while I am cooking, it doesn’t bother me.

A final distribution of the modal verb with the infinitive shows the modal is in the present tense and the infinitive is the form infinitive perfect continuous:

They must have been watching TV for hours as they look exhausted. They shouldn’t have been debating on that issue for such a long time.

2.2. Modality and the Passive Voice

The infinitive following the modal may function both in its active and in its passive forms and such patterns point out to the interaction, which may exist between modality and voice. These constructions will always imply that the agent performing the action expressed by the lexical verb has no relevance to the speaker; what matters is the


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result of the agent’s action:

They may/must be punished by the International Tribunal in the Hague. The hostages may have been killed in January 1998. The Serbian president must be being interrogated now.

There are instances where the English passive voice is translated into Romanian with the active voice:

He may/must be caught in the rain. (Poate/probabil ca l-a prins ploaia)

As a rule, epistemic modality combines freely with voice, but deontic and ability modalities are either inherently active or inherently passive:

He is willing to help. (willingness – deontic value: inherently active ) He can/is able to help me. (ability: inherently active ) They wouldn’t be helped. (willingness – deontic value: inherently passive) They weren’t willing to be helped. (willingness – deontic value: inherently passive)

All these distributions underline features to be assigned to the lexical verb

following the modal. When special reference is made to the speaker’s attitude towards a certain situation, modal verbs are replaced by substitutes which convey the same meanings and which provide patterns for all tenses or aspects.

F. Uses and Meanings of Pure Modal Verbs

CAN

This modal has a high frequency of occurrence for speakers may use it in relation to present, past or future situations. When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is present, the modal can may involve the following concepts:

► ability: i) physical ability:

He can cut trees and he can turn them into furniture. ii) mental ability:

He can learn long poems by heart.

► possibility i) for a situation to happen in the future, in: If you are busy now, we can discuss it later. ii) to describe peculiar features of people of things, in: Insomnia can prove a sing of another disease. iii) with generic reference to any situation which may happen in the future,

in: Any lady can be a member of our woman’s club.


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►uncertainty, lack of knowledge (in interrogations) Who can ring us up so very late? Can it be your grandmother? ►permission

i) asking for permission - in: Can I pick your daughter up for the prom? ii) giving permission - in: Yes, you can. iii) permission already granted - in: Writers who have published three volumes can join our literary club.

►offers

I can plant the flowers for you if you feel bad.

When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is present or future can may involve the following concepts:

►requests or orders Can you mow the lawn for me, please? Do you think you can fix my watch until Friday morning? ►suggestions

You can try this dress in a larger size, the colour really fits you.

When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is past, can may involve the following concepts:

►to make guesses about past situations, in interrogations and negations: Can Amanda have stolen my bracelet? She is anything but foolish, that’s why I think she can’t have stolen it.

COULD

Some grammarians agree that could is the past tense form of the modal can, but this form conceals other meanings as well. When it refers to past situations, could may be followed by the present infinitive:

► ability - with reference to a past situation:

Sharon could skate very well when she was a little girl. He could come sooner whenever he himself drove his car.

►possibility (to give details about past behaviour) When under pressure she could be impossible to put up with. ►permission

On week-ends we could watch TV till late at night.

Could is also used with reference to present or to future situations to underlie the


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following concepts: ► permission (hesitatingly asking for permission – you are not sure to get it):

Could I use your computer while you are out of the town?

►requests and orders You could help me with my chores if you would. She could start with the windows, to make a good beginning.

► offers or suggestions I could do it for you, if you accepted my offer. We could look at the house designs after supper.

►politeness

I’m afraid that talking to her could be of no consequence to you, sir. Could I see you again, tomorrow?

When it refers to past situations, could may be followed by the perfect infinitive:

► the speaker did not take advantage of a past possibility: I could have bought that blue car. (but I did not) You could have gone jogging yesterday.

► to express some theoretical possibility about a past situation: That stone could have hit you! Thanks God it missed you this time!

► reproach You could have prevented me about their plans!

To be able/apt to, to be capable to/of successfully replace can or could within past or future tense frameworks:

They will be able to provide for their family only after they have got a job. Mary was capable of working for hours on end. Lately she has been able to perform impressively, now that she has been trained by a professional.

MAY

When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is present, may will involve the following concepts:

► permission

i) asking for permission – in formal English, in: May I have some more coffee, please? ii) granting permission, in: Yes, please, help yourself. iii) permission not granted, but may not is less emphatic than must not

You may not take your shoes off in my house.


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► possibility Mother is not in the kitchen, she may be upstairs. She may be making our beds.

compare: She may not be baking = it is possible that she is not baking

and She can’t be baking = it is not possible that she is baking

►possibility (as a contradictory argument) I may be drunk but I still can shoot.

May is among the modals used with reference to future situations in order to express:

► possibility likely to happen in the future It may snow before Christmas. (weather feature in our part of the world) We may be visiting the Bulgarian Black Sea coast this summer.

► formal wishes on celebrations or special holidays May all your dreams come true! May you live long and happy!

May is also followed by the perfect infinitive to refer to:

► possibility for something to have happened in the past: I may have left my umbrella at home, I can’t have lost it.

MIGHT

This modal is similar to could, in that it may suggest both reference to a past tense context and to unreal situations (aspirations, unfulfilled desires, regrets, etc.). Might is followed by present infinitive and it refers to past situations to express:

► permission

i) asking for permission, in: Do you think I might put in a good word for Paul? ii) permission granted, in: You might wait for the manager in his office.

►possibility (in formal English, or rather in literature) The family worked hard so that they might pay for the boy’s education.

Might + present infinitive may refer to present or future situations to express:

►possibility (weaker certainty on the part of the speaker) She might be working in her room (but I am not so sure of that) I might take you with me if you were willing to escort me to the museum.

►suggestions or requests You might buy some bread on your way back home. You might put the album on the mantelpiece for me, please. I like to have it there.


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►reproach related to a situation which happened in the past

You might have let me know about your idea of throwing a party this weekend.

** When permission or possibility are set against a future background, may or might are replaced by to be allowed/permitted to.

Our children will be allowed to have breakfast in the gazebo only after 10 May. They will be permitted on board the vessel after they have produced their vouchers.

The same substitutes are used with relative tenses: They have just been permitted to enter the marvelous garden.

MUST

Unlike the rest of modals, must is used only with reference to present or future situations to express:

►obligation (inner obligation, the speaker’s own feeling) I must take my mother a bunch of flowers on her birthday.

►obligation (imposed by the speaker who may be an authority) You must be there in time, don’t keep your father waiting!

►inquiring about one’s obligation Must I give you the answer tomorrow? Yes, you must./ No, you needn’t (I think it is not necessary for you…) No, you don’t have to. (no rule, norm or regulation forces you to…) ► deduction:

The light is on in the garage; he must be fixing his car.

► friendly invitation for a meal: You must have breakfast with me tomorrow; I need to talk to you.

Must is followed by the perfect infinitive to express: ► deductions about the past

They must have met before, they seemed to be old friends.

N.B. When obligation refers to the past or future, must is replaced by have to: She accepted she had to take all the medicine to feel better. I shall have to consider all options before making a choice.

N.B. In reported speech, the use of must depends upon the context, as follows: i) it remains unchanged when the direct speech subject is in the first person singular:

direct speech: I must do my room before I go out. reported speech: He said he must do his room before he went out.


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ii) it is replaced by to be to when orders or instructions are reported: direct speech: You must take your medicine before going to sleep. reported speech: The doctor told the patient she was to take her medicine before going to sleep.

SHALL

The verb shall behaves both as an auxiliary and a modal. It is used with modal values to express:

► an offer (in interrogative sentences should have a first person subject): Shall I make you a coffee? Shall we help you with your luggage?

► determination on the part of the speaker (in affirmative sentences should have a second or third person subject):

You shall spend the evening all by yourself!

► a threat (always with a second or third person subject): You shall be punished unless you do your job in due time!

► a promise(always with a second or third person subject): You shall get what you deserve! She shall be there in due time! I’ll see to that!

SHOULD

This verb is used in combination with a second or third person subject to suggest: ► advice:

You should work harder if you want to get a scholarship.

►reproach: She should have worked much harder to get the scholarship. They shouldn’t spend so much money on drinks. They shouldn’t have been so rude to our friends.

►hypothesis, when used in a subordinate conditional clause: If you should find my dictionary, please send it back to me as soon as possible. Should you meet Loraine give her my best regards.

► obligation/duty under hypothetical conditions:

If I could work my will, every idiot should be boiled in his own pudding.

Should in subordinate clauses ►tentative should to show uncertainty, in subordinate clauses introduced by as

if/in case

Margaret invited Mr. March in case he should change his mind. ►when trying to get things done, using: i) verbs like demand, command, order or suggest.


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He insisted that Joe should bring Mary to dinner on Sunday.

ii) adjectives like anxious, concerned, eager, essential, important, necessary, vital It was essential that they should make that decision together.

► to suggest an emotional reaction to the verb in the clause introduced by that I am so sorry that my brother should be responsible for this.

WILL

As a modal will is used to express: ► a request (in interrogative sentences):

Will you help me with these letters? (friendly tone) Help me with these letters, will you? (a slightly authoritative tone)

► refusal (in negative assertions): I won’t do this job. (I am not willing to do this job) The locksmith has repaired the lock but the box won’t open.

As these final examples show it, the modal value of will is active both with animate and inanimate subjects.

► persistence/insistence on the part of the sentence subject (with conditional clauses):

If she will go hiking all by herself, it’s her choice. If you will argue with everybody around, you will end up all alone!

WOULD

The modal meanings assigned to would express:

►a highly polite request (in conditional clauses): If you would sign in here, you would get your order before the weekend.

►refusal (in a ‘past tense’ context) The mechanic repaired the engine thoroughly but still it wouldn’t start.

► (emphatically) the idea of volition: “If I had Byron’s genius, and health and liberty, I would make the next three centuries recollect me”. (Carlyle) Would you agree to meeting our manager tomorrow?

►’a condition contrary to fact’ (hypothetical meaning):

Suppose he came back, what would happen? (G09: 284)

►probability or what one might expect (imaginative would):

That would be in the year 1877. (trebuie să fi fost în anul…) Unaware of the details, that’s what most men would say.


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G. Uses and Meanings of Marginal Modal Verbs Marginal modals refer those modal verbs which have the enclitic particle ‘to’ in

their best known pattern, i.e. ought to and used to, on the one hand, and two verbs which overlap meanings and uses of full verbs in some contexts and of modals in other contexts.

OUGHT TO This verb form displays the morpho-syntactic characteristics of modals:

► it shows no third person inflection: She ought to stop smoking. ► it forms the interrogative and the negative according to the central modals:

She oughtn’t to smoke after such a disease. Ought you to study so hard?

N.B. ought to also forms the interrogative and the negative with the help of the do auxiliary, but these patterns are considered dialectal usage: What did we ought to have done with that old car? They didn’t ought to do that sort of thing.

Modal meanings: ►’tentative inference’ (on the basis of his /her previous knowledge, the speaker

tentatively concludes that the proposition (s/he utters is true): The Omu peak ought to be visible from here. (din câte ştiu eu, Omu ar trebui să se vadă de

aici)

► obligation (implying the speaker’s authority; nevertheless the speaker is not convinced that his/her recommendations will be turned into reality) :

She ought to strictly follow the doctor’s recommendations.

N.B. When followed by perfect infinitive, the implicature is that the recommendation has not been turned into reality:

She ought to have followed the doctor’s recommendations (but she didn’t).

USED TO

This modal verb expresses frequency in the past, with reference to a state, a habit,

a process, an event or an activity that existed in the past and which NO longer happens. This particular meaning – frequency in the past – may be conveyed by the modal would but used to is more frequently employed since it is distributed both with processes or events and with states.

Would insists on iterativity in the past or on the fact that a certain thing happened just occasionally. Would suggests the idea of volition or willingness regarding the development of the dynamic verbs and it never appears with state verbs:

She used to/would be talking about her boyfriend for hours. They used to would attend the meetings regularly. She used to be very happy / talkative / judgemental.


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* She would be very happy/talkative/judgemental. (ungrammatical)

While the full verb forms the interrogative and the negative with the do operator, the modal used to expresses the two forms both with the do auxiliary in its past form and according to the modal verbs pattern:

She used not to smoke when she was a student. (BrE) She didn’t use to smoke when she was a student. (BrE) She didn’t used to smoke when she was a student. (AmE)

Used to may lead to difficulty in understanding it because of its resemblance with the main verb to use, which is always transitively used:

They use tiles for their house roof. We do not use a laser printer with our computer.

In addition, use appears as a noun in various contexts, out of which we mention a selection of examples selected from the Webster’s Dictionary (1996:2097)

- he made good use of his spare time, - a dish in daily use, - mother gave my husband the use of her car, - his mistress had the use of the estate for life, - to put learning to practical use, - some people have no use (liking) for modern art

N.B. To express a habit with reference to a present interval the structures: to be in the habit of, to be accustomed to/with, to get used to Lately they have been used to fishing in the Danube twice a week. Harry admitted he had been accustomed to feeding his canary when he had one.

TO NEED AND TO DARE

The verbs need and dare represent a singular phenomenon since they display the

characteristics of full verbs and of modal verbs. As main verbs both need and dare share these common features: ► they take a direct object:

You need a special diet to lose weight and look younger and healthier again. They have dared him to drink vodka and that is why he feels sick.

► they use the do operator for interrogatives and negatives: Do you need his money or do you need him? I don’t need his money, I have told you several times before. What did they dare him to do? They didn’t dare him to play poker but to spend the night in a sexy club.

►they have al the temporal and aspectual forms the other main verbs have: The baby will need the fresh milk tomorrow. (future) They will dare him to play golf when they meet him in Braşov next month. (future) I should dare her with a witty saying if she were more open-minded. (conditional) Mother has been needing you to help her with the chores, so I am here to take you home.


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As modal verbs both need and dare behave as any other modal, revealing all the morphological and syntactic features of central modals. They appear mainly in interrogative and negative sentences:

Need/dare she say anything else? Need I wake up so early tomorrow? (used when a negative answer is expected) Dare they contradict their parents? Needn’t he take the money? He daren’t take the money.

NEED

Need is used in a negative context in order to express:

► lack of necessity or obligation (when followed by a present infinitive): I need to tell you how miserable I felt on that occasion. She needn’t work so hard to earn her daily bread as she is the wife of a succesful businessman. You needn’t copy all those poems you can have them photocopied.

► the uselessness of an action which was nevertheless carried out: She needn’t have bought any pie because we still have some biscuits.

N.B. When an unnecessary situation was NOT carried out the pattern to be used consists of didn’t + have + to + infinitive:

We didn’t have to water the flowers in the garden this evening, so you DID NOT.*(implicature: it had rained in the afternoon).

► obligation in interrogative sentences: Need you leave the house right now?

N.B. In such a question need is replaceable with MUST but it will never be replaced when following wh-words with an interrogative meaning:

* Where need you meet Mary? (ungrammatical) Where must you meet Mary?

DARE

The modal meaning of this verb may roughly be paraphrased as (don’t/didn’t) have (or summon up) the courage to, be courageous/bold enough to. Its most frequently used modal meaning is with the set phrase ‘I dare say’ which seems to occur with two different spellings and senses:

► “I dare say” may suggest certainty, lack of doubt or even supposition: I dare say they will be meeting us at the station. (Presupun, probabil, desigur, nu mă îndoiesc …)

► “I daresay” suggests the speaker’s willingness in accepting a truth: Traveller: But the bracelet was given to me, I didn’t buy it. Customs Officer: I daresay you didn’t, but you will have to pay duty on it all the same. (Bîră 1979:204) ( Ofiţerul de la punctul de control: Sunt de acord, vă înţeleg… )


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Conclusions Modality is a comprehensive concept through which a considerable range of

attitudes may be expressed at different language levels. Phonologically, it is expressed through (1) intonation, (2) stress and (3) rhythm.

Lexically, nouns, adjectives adverbs, interjections, lexical verbs, modal idioms, set phrases, proverbs and sayings also suggest shades of modality. Morphologically, the each of the four finite moods specifically refers to the factual, hypothetical or theoretical meaning of an action. Syntactically, declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences complete the range of means involving modality. Stylistically, the use of epithets, metaphor, metonymy underlie the speaker’s attitude towards a situation. To sum up, modal verbs represent a conglomerate made up of: - pure modals, never to be used as any other kind of verbs (which is the case with can,

could, may, might, must, ought to); - modals which behave as such as well as auxiliaries (shall, should, will, would, have –

which as a modal will always be followed by the infinitival particle to); - modals which play the role of main or modal verbs depending on the context they are

part of (used to – as a past tense form of the main transitive verb to use, always followed by an object, need and dare).

In spite of their diversity, all modal verbs share a cluster of common grammatical features. In addition, some of them behave as nouns or noun phrases:

a) Writing well constructed essays is a must in European colleges and universities.

b) All these might have beens are not my concern for the time to come. This diversity in the verb role play reveals the flexibility of the English language

where words convey their meanings depending on the position they hold at sentence level. A parallel approach to the most frequently used modals is intended to and compare and notice their particulars. Although modals are quite numerous, most of them have their own semantic peculiarities which grant their uniqueness. The vicinity of modal verbs, the lexical verbs/structures following them play an important part in their correct usage. The appendix has four major divisions which were devised according to the distributions of modal verbs in different patterns.


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A PARALLEL DESCRIPTION OF CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT

A. MODALS followed by PRESENT INFINITIVE EXPRESS

1. ABILITY

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

present reference past reference: not used not used I can speak German fluently.

He could ride a horse when he was younger. He could speak four languages.

general lack of ability:

He was a good teacher; he could make anybody understand his explanations.

lack of particular ability:

He was so sensitive that he couldn’t stand such situations.

TO BE ABLE TO future ability: more emphatic: not used not used

He will be able to face the case.

She was able to work long hours when she was younger.

to make decisions about future ability:

not used about particular ability in the past ( to do something on a certain occasion): was able to, managed to, succeed in are used instead:

I’m busy now, but we can talk about that tomorrow. Can you come to Jane’s party on Friday?

How many pages were you able to translate last night/under the circumstances? Harry managed to get some money from his uncle. After a few hours’ hard work we succeeded in bringing it to a good end.

Table 1. Expressing ability


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2. POSSIBILITIES

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

theoretical: actual chance of something to happen

strong possibility for something to happen (in BrE):

weaker possibility (in BrE):

Such things can happen. There could be some flood in April (statistically speaking)

I may go abroad in summer (= Perhaps I will go…) Nick doesn’t answer. He may be at Jane’s, I suppose.

I might go abroad in summer (but I rather doubt; I don’t think I will have the money to).

present possibility in interrogations and negations

present possibility in statements possibility based on the speaker’s knowledge

asking about possibility:

Can it be Mark? It can’t be true.

Will you answer the phone? It could be Dorothy.

He may be sleeping (he usually does). It may rain tonight (it is very cloudy)

I wonder where Jack is. He might be at Jane’s (but I’m not sure). He might be sleeping (but I don’t think so, because he usually doesn’t)

strong possibility in Am E:

weaker possibility in Am E: never used in questions: reporting possibility:

It can rain tonight. (It is very cloudy)

He could be sleeping (but I rather doubt, because usually he doesn’t sleep at this time of the day). It could rain tonight (but I doubt it, because the sky is not overcast).

Is it likely to rain? (not * May it rain?) Do you think Jack is with Timmy? (not * May he be…?)

I think it might rain tonight (but it isn’t very cloudy) He said that it might be a mistake to do that.

Table 2. Expressing possibilities


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3. SUGGESTIONS

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT about possible solutions when

someone is in trouble more “tentative”, less

definite informally used (to suggest something when you think there’s no better choice, special phrase)

about what people should do (may as well)

providing an alternative solution

You can tell him the truth now or you can put it off till he gets it over.

We could discuss his results, if you think I’m wrong.

Things are changing for the worse. We may as well give up.

You might look out for a better job.

not used not used not used to compare an unpleasant situation with another:

There’s nothing else to do. We might as well go back.

Table 3. Expressing suggestions

4. OFFERS, ORDERS AND REQUESTS

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

make an offer: - make an offer, a suggestion more hesitantly than can; makes an offer or a request seem more polite or respectful

more formal

not used

I can lend you some money. Can I take the luggage upstairs?

You could help me lay the table/I could cook the dinner, if you are tired.

May I buy you a beer?)

give an order make a request not used to make a request instead of could

You can help me with the dishes. Can you come right now?

Could you help me wash the car?

You might see to the children to get something to eat.

Table 4. Expressing offers, orders, requests


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5. PERMISSIONS

5.1. IMPLICIT PERMISSION (FREEDOM)

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

general meaning freedom + possibility (general meaning; weaker than can)

not used not used

She can go abroad any time. Can you go by car to work every day? Anybody can learn to drive.

She could go abroad if she wanted to. I could come by car to my office every day if I wanted to. Anybody could learn to drive.

5. 2. ASKING FOR PERMISSION

informal (it is the commonest of all)

(informal) when you are not sure you will be given permission; it is not past tense, it refers to the future (it is more polite)

more formal, more respectful

(not very common) (more tentative or hesitant)

Can I say something?

Could I talk to you if you have a few minutes?

May I interfere?

N.B. - it has future reference: Might I remind you that you made a promise the other day? I wonder if I might have some more soup.

5. 3. GIVING PERMISSION

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

with present reference permission granted in the past (formal) in the present or future not used On Sundays patients can walk in the park (not may walk) Could I disturb him now? Of course, you can.

When I stayed with my grandparents I could watch television whenever I wanted to. When I was a kid I could play in the park every afternoon (not I might play)

You may take the floor now. You may order the book if you are interested.


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it can turn into an order:

not used when used by an authority it gets an imperative force and turns into an order (formal):

not used

You can leave now. You may leave now. not used not used With rules and regulations not used

Patients may leave the wards only after 10 o’clock.

not used not used in answers: not used Might I ask you something?

Of course you may.

not used not used may not used to refuse permission or to forbid. not used Patients may not stand in the hall (must not is

more emphatic)

5. 4. REPORTING PERMISSION

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

reporting permission reporting general permission not used in reported speech as the past tense of may

It’s not fair! Donna can go to the club and I have to read for the exam. (not may go…) Can he leave the like here? (not may he leave…)

As a student I could borrow books from that library.

He said that she might go to the club. She answered that I might take her case (or I could take…)

not used for a particular past action, was/were allowed to is used:

not used not used

not used I was allowed to go and see Jane yesterday. (not I could go…)

not used not used

not used conditional meaning certainty or possibility

not used conditional meaning + possibility:

If the manager agreed, we could get up the If you stopped bothering me, you


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show this month. I couldn’t make both ends meet without your help.

might get something out of me.

impossibility

not used possibility for something not to happen or to be true:

reporting possibility:

She can’t be as old as that (= It is not possible that she is…; I can’t believe that she is…)

She may not be guilty (= It is possible that she is not…)

He said that it might be a mistake to do that

Table 5. Expressing Permissions

6. (characteristic) BEHAVIOUR

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT

characteristic behaviour of people or things characteristic behaviour in the past

characteristic behaviour + possibility with present and past reference

(always followed by but may…but…)

not used

People can be very mean in such situations. Copper can’t be used to make household objects because it is harmful.

My neighbours could be very mean when it came about land.

She may be good-looking but she isn’t very clever. She may have been a beauty in her youth, but now she looks very poorly.

Table 6. Expressing characteristic behaviour


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B. MODALS and PAST TENSE forms

COULD MIGHT

the past tense of can: the past tense of may:

She could play the piano very well when she was younger.

Mum said I might go to the party.

the conditional of can: the conditional of may:

I could invite him too if I wanted.

If you went to bed earlier you might not be so tired.

the subjunctive of can: the subjunctive of may:

I would help her more if I could.

I would come and see you if I might.

for present and future reference:

a distinct modal verb used for present and future reference:

You could be wrong. Could I see you in the afternoon? (strong possibility)

He might be at home now (but I’m not sure). It might snow tonight. (weaker possibility)

lack of particular ability not used

He was so confused that he couldn’t decide on that.

used with a conditional meaning = would be able to: not used

We could take good care of her if she stayed with us.

Table 7. Modals followed by past infinitive


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C. MODALS followed by PERFECT INFINITIVE

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT an action viewed from the present to express possibility + irritation:

theoretical ability: to say that we had the ability to do something but we did not try to do it:

a present possibility that

past events happened

to express the possibility that past events happened (viewed from the past):

Where can she have gone?

I could have told her that straight in the face (= I was so angry that I was capable of telling her… but I didn’t).

He may have been upset by that.

We heard footsteps in the next room; we thought that it might have been the nurse.

impossibility or refusal to believe something:

unrealized past possibility: something that was possible but didn’t happen:

not used to express that a past event was possible but didn’t happen:

He can’t have gone to work – it’s Saturday.

Why did you go there? You could have fallen into the water.

You were a fool to tell him that. He might have got angry with you.

not used to make a reproach; to criticize somebody for not having done something:

not used to make a reproach about things that we expected to happen, but they didn’t:

You could have done it earlier (= you were able to do it why didn’t you do it?)

You might have told me about your intentions. You might have let me know that earlier.

not used used with a conditional meaning : not used not used I could have made a good job of that if I had

stuck to it. (= I would have been able to …)

not used the negative structure used to express lack of ability; past reference

not used not used

I couldn’t have won the competition, so I didn’t go in for it.

Table 8. Modals followed by perfect infinitive


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C.1. MODALS followed by PRESENT/PERFECT INFINITIVES

PERFECT INFINITIVES of VERBS OF MENTAL ABILITY

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT speak, understand, remember, play, imagine the modal it is often omitted without any change of meaning:

the same as can with past reference; but there is a slight change of meaning:

not used not used

Can

Do you speak German? I (can) speak a little Italian

Do

Can you play the piano?

Did

Could you speak German when you stayed with

them?

PRESENT/PERFECT INFINITIVES of VERBS OF PERCEPTION

smell, taste, hear, see. feel

the same as can; with past reference:

not used not used

Can you see Jim’s brother among those young men? Speak louder please, I can’t hear you.

Did

Could you see him among the guests?

When I got home I could smell the cake my mother was making.

Table 9. Modals followed by verbs of perception


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D. MODALS and SUBORDINATION

CAN COULD MAY MIGHT so that- purpose clauses - to refer to the present (more common than may)

so that- purpose clauses - to refer to the past (more common than might)

formal purpose clauses

formal and literary purpose clauses

He works hard so that he can earn an honest penny.

He was trying hard so that he could make great progress.

He is very careful with the details to present so that everybody may accept them.

All this was done so that the landlords might get richer

present and future reference: not used not used not used

He exercises a lot so that he can go in for the competition.

can’t help + gerund (to be forced to do something even if you don’t want to)

couldn’t help + gerund

not used not used

I can’t help going into such details.

I couldn’t help interfering when they mentioned her name.

not used + help but + short infinitive meaningfully similar to the affirmative structure, but not commonly used:

not used not used

Catherine could not but realize what his aims were.

not used not used in formal wishes: not used

May luck attend you! May you be happy!

Table 10. Modals and subordination

Chapter 3. Modality and Modal Verbs

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