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sections
1 MineralsLab Crystal Formation
2 Mineral Identification
3 Uses of MineralsLab Mineral Identification
Virtual Lab How canminerals be defined bytheir properties?
Nature’s Beautiful CreationAlthough cut by gemologists to
enhancetheir beauty, these gorgeous diamondsformed naturally—deep
within Earth. Onerequirement for a substance to be a mineralis that
it must occur in nature. Human-made diamonds serve their purpose
inindustry but are not considered minerals.
Write two questions you would aska gemologist about the minerals
that he or she works with.Science Journal
Minerals
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61
Minerals Make the followingFoldable to help you betterunderstand
minerals.
Fold a verticalsheet of note-book paper fromside to side.
Cut along every third line of only thetop layer to form
tabs.
Label each tab with a question.
Ask Questions Before you read the chapter,write questions you
have about minerals on thefront of the tabs. As you read the
chapter, addmore questions and write answers under theappropriate
tabs.
STEP 3
STEP 2
STEP 1
1. Use a magnifying lens to observe aquartz crystal, salt
grains, and samplesof sandstone, granite, calcite, mica, andschist
(SHIHST).
2. Draw a sketch of each sample.
3. Infer which samples are made of one typeof material and
should be classified asminerals.
4. Infer which samples should be classifiedas rocks.
5. Think Critically In your Science Journal,compile a list of
descriptions for the min-erals you examined and a second list
ofdescriptions for the rocks. Compare andcontrast your observations
of mineralsand rocks.
Distinguish Rocks from MineralsWhen examining rocks, you’ll
notice thatmany of them are made of more than onematerial. Some
rocks are made of many dif-ferent crystals of mostly the same
mineral.A mineral, however, will appear more like apure substance
and will tend to look thesame throughout. Can you tell a rock from
amineral?
Start-Up Activities
Preview this chapter’s contentand activities at
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62 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
What is a mineral?How important are minerals to you? Very
important? You
actually own or encounter many things made from mineralsevery
day. Ceramic, metallic, and even some paper items areexamples of
products that are derived from or include minerals.Figure 1 shows
just a few of these things. Metal bicycle racks,bricks, and the
glass in windows would not exist if it weren’t forminerals. A
mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solidwith a definite
chemical composition and an orderly arrange-ment of atoms. About
4,000 different minerals are found onEarth, but they all share
these four characteristics.
Mineral Characteristics First, all minerals are formed bynatural
processes. These are processes that occur on or insideEarth with no
input from humans. For example, salt formed bythe natural
evaporation of seawater is the mineral halite, but saltformed by
evaporation of saltwater solutions in laboratories isnot a mineral.
Second, minerals are inorganic. This means thatthey aren’t made by
life processes. Third, every mineral is an ele-ment or compound
with a definite chemical composition. Forexample, halite’s
composition, NaCl, gives it a distinctive taste thatadds flavor to
many foods. Fourth, minerals are crystalline solids.All solids have
a definite volume and shape. Gases and liquids likeair and water
have no definite shape, and they aren’t crystalline.Only a solid
can be a mineral, but not all solids are minerals.
Atom Patterns The wordcrystalline means that atoms arearranged
in a pattern that isrepeated over and over again. Forexample,
graphite’s atoms arearranged in layers. Opal, on theother hand, is
not a mineral inthe strictest sense because itsatoms are not all
arranged in adefinite, repeating pattern, eventhough it is a
naturally occur-ring, inorganic solid.
■ Describe characteristics that allminerals share.
■ Explain how minerals form.
You use minerals and productsmade from them every day.
Review Vocabularyatoms: tiny particles that makeup matter;
composed of protons,electrons, and neutrons
New Vocabulary
• mineral • magma• crystal • silicate
Minerals
Figure 1 You probably useminerals or materials made fromminerals
every day without think-ing about it.Infer How many objects in this
pic-ture might be made from minerals?
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SECTION 1 Minerals 63
The Structure of Minerals Do you have a favorite mineral sample
or gemstone? If so,
perhaps it contains well-formed crystals. A crystal is a solid
inwhich the atoms are arranged in orderly, repeating patterns.You
can see evidence for this orderly arrangement of atomswhen you
observe the smooth, flat outside surfaces of crystals. Acrystal
system is a group of crystals that have similar atomicarrangements
and therefore similar external crystal shapes.
What is a crystal?
Crystals Not all mineral crystals have smooth surfaces
andregular shapes like the clear quartz crystals in Figure 2. The
rosequartz in the smaller photo of Figure 2 has atoms arranged
inrepeating patterns, but you can’t see the crystal shape on the
out-side of the mineral. This is because the rose quartz crystals
devel-oped in a tight space, while the clear quartz crystals
developedfreely in an open space. The six-sided, or hexagonal
crystal shapeof the clear quartz crystals in Figure 2, and other
forms of quartzcan be seen in some samples of the mineral. Figure 3
illustratesthe six major crystal systems, which classify minerals
accordingto their crystal structures. The hexagonal system to which
quartzbelongs is one example of a crystal system.
Crystals form by many processes. Next, you’ll learn abouttwo of
these processes—crystals that form from magma andcrystals that form
from solutions of salts.
Figure 2 More than 200 years ago,the smooth, flat surfaces on
crystalsled scientists to infer that mineralshad an orderly
structure inside.
Even though this rose quartzlooks uneven on the outside,its
atoms have an orderlyarrangement on the inside.
The well-formed crystal shapesexhibited by these clear
quartzcrystals suggest an orderly structure.
Inferring Salt’sCrystal SystemProcedure1. Use a magnifying lens
to
observe grains of commontable salt on a dark sheetof
construction paper.Sketch the shape of a saltgrain. WARNING: Donot
taste or eat mineralsamples. Keep hands awayfrom your face.
2. Compare the shapes ofthe salt crystals with theshapes of
crystals shown inFigure 3.
Analysis1. Which characteristics do all
the grains have in common?2. Research another mineral
with the same crystal sys-tem as salt. What is thiscrystal
systemcalled?
(inset)John R. Foster/Photo Researchers, (l)Mark A.
Schneider/Visuals Unlimited
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Figure 3
VISUALIZING CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
64 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
A crystal’s shape depends on how its atoms are arranged.Crystal
shapes can be organized into groups known as crys-tal systems—shown
here in 3-D with geometric models(in blue). Knowing a mineral’s
crystal system helps researchersunderstand its atomic structure and
physical properties.
TETRAGONAL (te TRA guh nul)Zircon crystals are
tetragonal.Tetra-gonal crystals are much like cubiccrystals, except
that one of the princi-pal dimensions is longer or shorterthan the
other two dimensions.
TRICLINIC (tri KLIH nihk) Thetriclinic crystal system
includesminerals exhibiting the leastsymmetry.Triclinic crystals,
suchas rhodonite (ROH dun ite),are unequal in all dimensions,and
all angles where crystal surfaces meet are oblique.
MONOCLINIC (mah nuh KLIH nihk)Minerals in the monoclinic
system,such as orthoclase, also exhibit unequaldimensions in their
crystal structure.Only one right angle forms where crystal surfaces
meet.The other anglesare oblique, which means they don’tform 90º
angles where they intersect.
HEXAGONAL (hek SA guh nul) In hexag-onal crystals, horizontal
distances betweenopposite crystal surfaces are equal.Thesecrystal
surfaces intersect to form 60º or120º angles.The vertical length is
longer orshorter than the horizontal lengths.
CUBIC Fluorite is anexample of a mineralthat forms cubic
crystals.Minerals in the cubiccrystal system are equalin size along
all threeprincipal dimensions.
ORTHORHOMBIC(awr thuh RAHM bihk)Minerals with
orthorhombicstructure, such as barite, havedimensions that are
unequalin length, resulting in crystalswith a brick-like shape.
▼
▼
▼
▼▼▼
(tr)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited, (cl)A.J. Copley/Visuals
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Unlimited
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SECTION 1 Minerals 65
Crystals from Magma Natural processes form minerals inmany ways.
For example, hot melted rock material, calledmagma, cools when it
reaches Earth’s surface, or even if it’strapped below the surface.
As magma cools, its atoms lose heatenergy, move closer together,
and begin to combine into com-pounds. During this process, atoms of
the different compoundsarrange themselves into orderly, repeating
patterns. The typeand amount of elements present in a magma partly
determinewhich minerals will form. Also, the size of the crystals
that formdepends partly on how rapidly the magma cools.
When magma cools slowly, the crystals that form are gener-ally
large enough to see with the unaided eye, as shown inFigure 4A.
This is because the atoms have enough time to movetogether and form
into larger crystals. When magma cools rap-idly, the crystals that
form will be small. In such cases, you can’teasily see individual
mineral crystals.
Crystals from Solution Crystals also can form from miner-als
dissolved in water. When water evaporates, as in a dry climate,ions
that are left behind can come together to form crystals likethe
halite crystals in Figure 4B. Or, if too much of a substance
isdissolved in water, ions can come together and crystals of
thatsubstance can begin to form in the solution. Minerals can
formfrom a solution in this way without the need for
evaporation.
Some minerals form when saltwater evaporates, such as thesewhite
crystals of halite in DeathValley, California.
Labradorite
Crystal FormationEvaporites commonlyform in dry
climates.Research the changesthat take place when asaline lake or
shallow seaevaporates and haliteor gypsum forms.
Figure 4 Minerals form bymany natural processes.
This rock formed as magmacooled slowly, allowing largemineral
grains to form.
(inset)Patricia K. Armstrong/Visuals Unlimited, (r)Dennis
Flaherty Photography/Photo Researchers
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66 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Self Check1. List four characteristics that all minerals
share.
2. Describe two ways that minerals can form from solution.
3. Explain whether diamonds made in the laboratory areconsidered
to be minerals.
4. Describe how crystals of minerals are classified.
5. Think Critically The mineral dolomite, a rock-formingmineral,
contains oxygen, carbon, magnesium, andcalcium. Is dolomite a
silicate? Explain.
SummaryWhat is a mineral?
• Many products used by humans are madefrom minerals.
• Minerals are defined by four maincharacteristics.
The Structure of Minerals
• The crystal shape of a mineral reflects the wayin which its
atoms are arranged.
• Minerals are classified according to the typesof atoms in
their structures and the way thatthe atoms are arranged.
Mineral Compositions and Groups
• Only eight elements form approximately98 percent (by weight)
of Earth’s crust.
• The majority of Earth’s crust is composed ofsilicate
minerals.
6. Graph Make a graph of your own design that showsthe relative
percentages of the eight most commonelements in Earth’s crust. Then
determine theapproximate percentage of the crust that is made upof
iron and aluminum. If one is available, you mayuse an electronic
spreadsheet program to make your graph and perform the
calculation.
Mineral Compositionsand Groups
Ninety elements occur naturally in Earth’scrust. Approximately
98 percent (by weight)of the crust is made of only eight of these
ele-ments, as shown in Figure 5. Of the thou-sands of known
minerals, only a few dozenare common, and these are mostly
composedof the eight most common elements inEarth’s crust.
Most of the common rock-formingminerals belong to a group called
the sili-cates. Silicates (SIH luh kayts) are mineralsthat contain
silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) andusually one or more other elements.
Silicon
and oxygen are the two most abundant elements in Earth’scrust.
These two elements alone combine to form the basicbuilding blocks
of most of the minerals in Earth’s crust andmantle. Feldspar and
quartz, which are silicates, and calcite,which is a carbonate, are
examples of common, rock-formingminerals. Other mineral groups also
are defined according totheir compositions.
Elements in Earth’s CrustPe
rcen
t ab
un
dan
ce
46.6%
27.7%
8.1%5.0% 3.6% 2.8% 2.6% 2.1% 1.5%
Oxyg
enSil
icon
Alum
inum Iro
nCa
lcium
Sodiu
mPo
tassi
umM
agne
sium
Othe
r
Figure 5 Most of Earth’s crust iscomposed of eight elements.
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In this lab, you’ll have a chance to learn howcrystals form from
solutions.
Real-World QuestionHow do crystals form from solution?
Goals■ Compare and contrast the crystals that
form from salt and sugar solutions.■ Observe crystals and infer
how they formed.
Materials250-mL beakers (2) cotton stringcardboard hot
platelarge paper clip magnifying lenstable salt thermal mittflat
wooden stick shallow pangranulated sugar spoon
Safety Precautions
WARNING: Never taste or eat any lab materials.
Procedure1. Gently mix separate solutions of salt in
water and sugar in water in the twobeakers. Keep stirring the
solutions as youadd salt or sugar to the water. Stop mixingwhen no
more salt or sugar will dissolve inthe solutions. Label each
beaker.
2. Place the sugar solution beaker on a hotplate. Use the hot
plate to heat the sugarsolution gently. WARNING: Do not touch
thehot beaker without protecting your hands.
3. Tie one end of the thread to the middle of thewooden stick.
Tie a large paper clip to thefree end of the string for weight.
Place thestick across the opening of the sugar beaker
so the thread dangles in the sugar solution.
4. Remove the beaker from the hot plate andcover it with
cardboard. Place it in a locationwhere it won’t be disturbed.
5. Pour a thin layer of the salt solution into theshallow
pan.
6. Leave the beaker and the shallow panundisturbed for at least
one week.
7. After one week, examine each solution witha magnifying lens
to see whether crystalshave formed.
Conclude and Apply1. Compare and contrast the crystals that
formed from the salt and the sugar solu-tions. How do they
compare with samples oftable salt and sugar?
2. Describe what happened to the saltwatersolution in the
shallow pan.
3. Did this same process occur in the sugarsolution?
Explain.
Crystal Formation
Make a poster that describes your methodsof growing salt and
sugar crystals. Presentyour results to your class.
LAB 67KS Studios
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68 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Physical PropertiesWhy can you recognize a classmate when you
see him or her
in a crowd away from school? A person’s height or the shape
ofhis or her face helps you tell that person from the rest of
yourclass. Height and facial shape are two properties unique to
indi-viduals. Individual minerals also have unique properties
thatdistinguish them.
Mineral Appearance Just like height and facial characteris-tics
help you recognize someone, mineral properties can helpyou
recognize and distinguish minerals. Color and appearanceare two
obvious clues that can be used to identify minerals.
However, these clues alone aren’t enough to recognize
mostminerals. The minerals pyrite and gold are gold in color and
canappear similar, as shown in Figure 6. As a matter of fact,
pyriteoften is called fool’s gold. Gold is worth a lot of money,
whereaspyrite has little value. You need to look at other
properties ofminerals to tell them apart. Some other properties to
studyinclude how hard a mineral is, how it breaks, and its color
whencrushed into a powder. Every property you observe in a
mineralis a clue to its identity.
■ Describe physical propertiesused to identify minerals.
■ Identify minerals using physicalproperties such as hardness
andstreak.
Identifying minerals helps you rec-ognize valuable mineral
resources.
Review Vocabularyphysical property: any character-istic of a
material that you canobserve without changing theidentity of the
material
New Vocabulary
• hardness • streak• luster • cleavage• specific gravity •
fracture
Mineral Identification
Using only color, observers can be fooled when trying
todistinguish between pyrite and gold.
The mineral azurite is identifiedreadily by its striking blue
color.
Gold
Pyrite Azurite
Figure 6 The generalappearance of a mineral oftenis not enough
to identify it.
(l)Mark Burnett/Photo Researchers, (c)Dan Suzio/Photo
Researchers, (r)Breck P. Kent/Earth Scenes
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SECTION 2 Mineral Identification 69
Hardness A measure of how easily a mineral can bescratched is
its hardness. The mineral talc is so softyou can scratch it loose
with your fingernail. Talcumpowder is made from this soft mineral.
Diamonds, onthe other hand, are the hardest mineral. Some dia-monds
are used as cutting tools, as shown in Figure 7.A diamond can be
scratched only by another dia-mond. Diamonds can be broken,
however.
Why is hardness sometimes referredto as scratchability?
Sometimes the concept of hardness is confused with whetheror not
a mineral will break. It is important to understand thateven though
a diamond is extremely hard, it can shatter if givena hard enough
blow in the right direction along the crystal.
Mohs Scale In 1824, the Austrian scientist Friedrich
Mohsdeveloped a list of common minerals to compare their
hard-nesses. This list is called Mohs scale of hardness, as seen in
Table 1. The scale lists the hardness of ten minerals. Talc, the
soft-est mineral, has a hardness value of one, and diamond, the
hard-est mineral, has a value of ten.
Here’s how the scale works.Imagine that you have a clear
orwhitish-colored mineral that youknow is either fluorite or
quartz.You try to scratch it with your fin-gernail and then with an
iron nail.You can’t scratch it with your fin-gernail but you can
scratch it withthe iron nail. Because the hard-ness of your
fingernail is 2.5 andthat of the iron nail is 4.5, you candetermine
the unknown mineral’shardness to be somewhere around3 or 4. Because
it is known thatquartz has a hardness of 7 andfluorite has a
hardness of 4, themystery mineral must be fluorite.
Some minerals have a hard-ness range rather than a
singlehardness value. This is becauseatoms are arranged differently
indifferent directions in their crystalstructures.
Figure 7 Some saw blades havediamonds embedded in them tohelp
slice through materials, suchas this limestone. Blades are keptcool
by running water over them.
Table 1 Mineral Hardness
Mohs Hardness
Hardness ofScale Common Objects
Talc (softest) 1
Gypsum 2 fingernail (2.5)
Calcite 3 piece of copper (2.5 to 3.0)
Fluorite 4 iron nail (4.5)
Apatite 5 glass (5.5)
Feldspar 6 steel file (6.5)
Quartz 7 streak plate (7.0)
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond (hardest) 10
(t)Bud Roberts/Visuals Unlimited, (b)Charles D. Winters/Photo
Researchers, (inset)Icon Images
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70 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Luster The way a mineral reflects light is knownas luster.
Luster can be metallic or nonmetallic.Minerals with a metallic
luster, like the graphiteshown in Figure 8, shine like metal.
Metallic lustercan be compared to the shine of a metal belt
buckle,the shiny chrome trim on some cars, or the shine ofmetallic
cooking utensils. When a mineral does notshine like metal, its
luster is nonmetallic. Examples ofterms for nonmetallic luster
include dull, pearly,silky, and glassy. Common examples of minerals
withglassy luster are quartz, calcite, halite, and fluorite.
Specific Gravity Minerals also can be distinguished by
com-paring the weights of equal-sized samples. The specific gravity
ofa mineral is the ratio of its weight compared with the weight of
anequal volume of water. Like hardness, specific gravity is
expressedas a number. If you were to research the specific
gravities of goldand pyrite, you’d find that gold’s specific
gravity is about 19, andpyrite’s is 5. This means that gold is
about 19 times heavier thanwater and pyrite is 5 times heavier than
water. You could experi-ence this by comparing equal-sized samples
of gold and pyrite inyour hands—the pyrite would feel much lighter.
The term heft issometimes used to describe how heavy a mineral
sample feels.
Figure 8 Luster is an importantphysical property that is used
todistinguish minerals. Graphite hasa metallic luster. Fluorite has
anonmetallic, glassy luster.
How can you identify minerals?
You have learned that minerals are identi-fied by their physical
properties, such asstreak, hardness, cleavage, and color. Useyour
knowledge of mineral properties andyour ability to read a table to
solve the fol-lowing problems.
Identifying the Problem The table includes hardnesses and
streak
colors for several minerals. How can you usethese data to
distinguish minerals?
Solving the Problem 1. What test would you perform to
distinguish hematite from copper? How would
you carry out this test?2. How could you distinguish copper from
galena? What tool would you use?3. What would you do if two
minerals had the same hardness and the same streak
color?
Properties of Minerals
Mineral Hardness Streak
Copper 2.5–3 copper-red
Galena 2.5 dark gray
Gold 2.5–3 yellow
Hematite 5.5–6.5 red to brown
Magnetite 6–6.5 black
Silver 2.5–3 silver-white
Fluorite
Graphite
(l)Andrew McClenaghan/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers,
(r)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers
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SECTION 2 Mineral Identification 71
Streak When a mineral is rubbed across a piece ofunglazed
porcelain tile, as in Figure 9, a streak of pow-dered mineral is
left behind. Streak is the color of a min-eral when it is in a
powdered form. The streak test worksonly for minerals that are
softer than the streak plate.Gold and pyrite can be distinguished
by a streak test.Gold has a yellow streak and pyrite has a
greenish-blackor brownish-black streak.
Some soft minerals will leave a streak even on paper.The last
time you used a pencil to write on paper, you lefta streak of the
mineral graphite. One reason that graphiteis used in pencil lead is
because it is soft enough to leavea streak on paper.
Why do gold and pyrite leave a streak,but quartz does not?
Cleavage and Fracture The way a mineral breaks is anotherclue to
its identity. Minerals that break along smooth, flat sur-faces have
cleavage (KLEE vihj). Cleavage, like hardness, is deter-mined
partly by the arrangement of the mineral’s atoms. Mica isa mineral
that has one perfect cleavage. Figure 10 shows howmica breaks along
smooth, flat planes. If you were to take a layercake and separate
its layers, you would show that the cake hascleavage. Not all
minerals have cleavage. Minerals that break withuneven, rough, or
jagged surfaces have fracture. Quartz is a min-eral with fracture.
If you were to grab a chunk out of the side ofthat cake, it would
be like breaking a mineral that has fracture.
Figure 9 Streak is more usefulfor mineral identification than
ismineral color. Hematite, for exam-ple, can be dark red, gray, or
silverin color. However, its streak isalways dark
reddish-brown.
Figure 10 Weak or fewer bondswithin the structures of mica
andhalite allow them to be brokenalong smooth, flat cleavage
planes. Infer If you broke quartz, would itlook the same?
Halite
Mica
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72 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Self Check1. Compare and contrast a mineral fragment that has
one
cleavage direction with one that has only fracture.
2. Explain how an unglazed porcelain tile can be used toidentify
a mineral.
3. Explain why streak often is more useful for
mineralidentification than color.
4. Determine What hardness does a mineral have if itdoes not
scratch glass but it scratches an iron nail?
5. Think Critically What does the presence of cleavageplanes
within a mineral tell you about the chemicalbonds that hold the
mineral together?
SummaryPhysical Properties
• Minerals are identified by observing theirphysical
properties.
• Hardness is a measure of how easily a mineralcan be
scratched.
• Luster describes how a mineral reflects light.• Specific
gravity is the ratio of the weight of a
mineral sample compared to the weight of anequal volume of
water.
• Streak is the color of a powdered mineral.• Minerals with
cleavage break along smooth,
flat surfaces in one or more directions.
• Fracture describes any uneven manner inwhich a mineral
breaks.
• Some minerals react readily with acid, form adouble image, or
are magnetic.
6. Draw Conclusions A large piece of the mineral haliteis broken
repeatedly into several perfect cubes. How can this be
explained?
Other Properties Some minerals have unique properties.Magnetite,
as you can guess by its name, is attracted to magnets.Lodestone, a
form of magnetite, will pick up iron filings like amagnet, as shown
in Figure 11. Light forms two separate rayswhen it passes through
calcite, causing you to see a double imagewhen viewed through
transparent specimens. Calcite also can beidentified because it
fizzes when hydrochloric acid is put on it.
Now you know that you sometimes need more informationthan color
and appearance to identify a mineral. You also mightneed to test
its streak, hardness, luster, and cleavage or fracture.Although the
overall appearance of a mineral can be differentfrom sample to
sample, its physical properties remain the same.
Observing MineralPropertiesProcedure1. Obtain samples of
some
of the following clear min-erals: gypsum, muscovitemica, halite,
and calcite.
2. Place each sample over theprint on this page andobserve the
letters.
Analysis1. Which mineral can be
identified by observing theprint’s double image?
2. What other special prop-erty is used to identify
thismineral?
Figure 11 Some minerals arenatural magnets, such as
thislodestone, which is a variety ofmagnetite.
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SECTION 3 Uses of Minerals 73
GemsWalking past the window of a jewelry store, you notice a
large selection of beautiful jewelry—a watch sparkling with
dia-monds, a necklace holding a brilliant red ruby, and a gold
ring.For thousands of years, people have worn and prized mineralsin
their jewelry. What makes some minerals special? Whatunusual
properties do they have that make them so valuable?
Properties of Gems As you can see in Figure 12, gems orgemstones
are highly prized minerals because they are rare andbeautiful. Most
gems are special varieties of a particular min-eral. They are
clearer, brighter, or more colorful than commonsamples of that
mineral. The difference between a gem and thecommon form of the
same mineral can be slight. Amethyst is agem form of quartz that
contains just traces of iron in its struc-ture. This small amount
of iron gives amethyst a desirable pur-ple color. Sometimes a gem
has a crystal structure that allows itto be cut and polished to a
higher quality than that of a non-gem mineral. Table 2 lists
popular gems and some locationswhere they have been collected.
Uses of Minerals
■ Describe characteristics of gemsthat make them more
valuablethan other minerals.
■ Identify useful elements that arecontained in minerals.
Minerals are necessary materials fordecorative items and many
manu-factured products.
Review Vocabularymetal: element that typically is ashiny,
malleable solid that con-ducts heat and electricity well
New Vocabulary
• gem • ore
Figure 12 It is easy to see whygems are prized for their
beautyand rarity. Shown here is TheImperial State Crown, made
forQueen Victoria of England in 1838.It contains thousands of
jewels,including diamonds, rubies,sapphires, and emeralds.
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74 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Table 2 Minerals and Their Gems
Fun Facts Mineral Gem ExampleSome Important
Locations
Beryl is named for Beryl Emerald Colombia, Brazil,the element
beryllium, South Africa,which it contains. North CarolinaSome
crystals reachseveral meters in length.
A red spinel in the Spinel Ruby spinel Sri Lanka,
Thailand,British crown jewels Myanmar (Burma)has a mass of
352carats. A carat is 0.2 g.
Purplish-blue examples Zoisite Tanzanite Tanzaniaof zoisite
werediscovered in 1967near Arusha, Tanzania.
The most valuable Topaz (uncut) Topaz (gem) Siberia,
Germany,examples are yellow, Japan, Mexico, Brazil,pink, and blue
varieties. Colorado, Utah, Texas,
California, Maine,Virginia, South Carolina
(l to r, t to b)Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, H.
Stern/Photo Researchers, Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers,
A.J. Copley/Visuals Unlimited, Visuals Unlimited, A.J.
Copley/Visuals Unlimited,Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited, H.
Stern/Photo Researchers
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SECTION 3 Uses of Minerals 75
Fun Facts Mineral Gem ExampleSome Important
Locations
Olivine composes Olivine Peridot Myanmar (Burma),a large part of
Zebirget (Saint John’sEarth’s upper mantle. Island, located in
theIt is also present Red Sea), Arizona,in moon rocks. New
Mexico
Garnet is a common Garnet Almandine Ural Mountains,mineral found
in Italy, Madagascar,a wide variety of rock Czech Republic,
India,types. The red color of Sri Lanka, Brazil,the variety
almandine North Carolina, Arizona,is caused by iron in New
Mexicoits crystal structure.
Quartz makes up Quartz Amethyst Colorless varieties inabout 30
percent Hot Springs, Arkansas;of Earth’s Amethyst in
Brazil,continental crust. Uruguay, Madagascar,
Montana, NorthCarolina, California,Maine
The blue color of Corundum Blue sapphire Thailand,
Cambodia,sapphire is caused Sri Lanka, Kashmirby iron or titaniumin
corundum. Chromiumin corundum producesthe red color of ruby.
(l to r, t to b)University of Houston, Charles D. Winters/Photo
Researchers, Arthur R. Hill/Visuals Unlimited, David Lees/CORBIS,
Doug Martin, A.J. Copley/Visuals Unlimited, Doug Martin,
VaughanFleming/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers
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76 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Important Gems All gems are prized, but some are
trulyspectacular and have played an important role in history.
Forexample, the Cullinan diamond, found in South Africa in 1905,was
the largest uncut diamond ever discovered. Its mass was3,106.75
carats (about 621 g). The Cullinan diamond was cutinto 9 main
stones and 96 smaller ones. The largest of these iscalled the
Cullinan 1 or Great Star of Africa. Its mass is530.20 carats (about
106 g), and it is now part of the Britishmonarchy’s crown jewels,
shown in Figure 13A.
Another well-known diamond is the blue Hope diamond,shown in
Figure 13B. This is perhaps the most notorious of alldiamonds. It
was purchased by Henry Philip Hope around 1830,after whom it is
named. Because his entire family as well as alater owner suffered
misfortune, the Hope diamond has gaineda reputation for bringing
its owner bad luck. The Hope dia-mond’s mass is 45.52 carats (about
9 g). Currently it is displayedin the Smithsonian Institution in
Washington, D.C.
Useful Gems In addition to their beauty, some gems serveuseful
purposes. You learned earlier that diamonds have a hard-ness of 10
on Mohs scale. They can scratch almost any material—a property that
makes them useful as industrial abrasives andcutting tools. Other
useful gems include rubies, which are used toproduce specific types
of laser light. Quartz crystals are used inelectronics and as
timepieces. When subjected to an electric field,quartz vibrates
steadily, which helps control frequencies in elec-tronic devices
and allows for accurate timekeeping.
Most industrial diamonds and other gems are synthetic,which
means that humans make them. However, the study ofnatural gems led
to their synthesis, allowing the synthetic vari-eties to be used by
humans readily.
The Great Star of Africa is partof a sceptre in the collection
ofBritish crown jewels.
Beginning in 1668, the Hope diamond was part of theFrench crown
jewels. Then known as the French Blue, it wasstolen in 1792 and
later surfaced in London, England in 1812.
Topic: Gemstone Data Visit for Weblinks to information about
gems atthe Smithsonian Museum ofNatural History.
Activity List three importantexamples of gems other than
thosedescribed on this page. Prepare adata table with the heads
GemName/Type, Weight (carats/grams),Mineral, and Location. Fill in
thetable entries for the gemstonesyou selected.
earth.msscience.com
Figure 13 These gems areamong the most famous examplesof
precious stones.
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SECTION 3 Uses of Minerals 77
Useful Elements in MineralsGemstones are perhaps the best-known
use of minerals, but
they are not the most important. Look around your home. Howmany
things made from minerals can you name? Can you findanything made
from iron?
Ores Iron, used in everything from frying pans to ships,
isobtained from its ore, hematite. A mineral or rock is an ore if
itcontains a useful substance that can be mined at a
profit.Magnetite is another mineral that contains iron.
When is a mineral also an ore?
Aluminum sometimes is refined, or puri-fied, from the ore
bauxite, shown in
Figure 14. In the process of refining aluminum, aluminum
oxidepowder is separated from unwanted materials that are present
inthe original bauxite. After this, the aluminum oxide powder
isconverted to molten aluminum by a process called smelting.
During smelting, a substance is melted to separate it fromany
unwanted materials that may remain. Aluminum can bemade into useful
products like bicycles, soft-drink cans, foil, andlightweight parts
for airplanes and cars. The plane flown by theWright brothers
during the first flight at Kitty Hawk had anengine made partly of
aluminum.
Figure 14 Bauxite, an ore of aluminum,is processed to make pure
aluminum metalfor useful products.
Bauxite
Historical Mineralogy Anearly scientific descriptionof minerals
was publishedby Georgius Agricola in1556. Use print and
onlineresources to research themining techniques dis-cussed by
Agricola in hiswork De Re Metallica.
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78 CHAPTER 3 Minerals
Vein Minerals Under certain conditions, metallic elementscan
dissolve in fluids. These fluids then travel through weak-nesses in
rocks and form mineral deposits. Weaknesses in rocksinclude natural
fractures or cracks, faults, and surfaces betweenlayered rock
formations. Mineral deposits left behind that fill inthe open
spaces created by the weaknesses are called vein min-eral
deposits.
How do fluids move through rocks?
Sometimes vein mineral deposits fill in the empty spacesafter
rocks collapse. An example of a mineral that can form inthis way is
shown in Figure 15. This is the shiny mineral spha-lerite, a source
of the element zinc, which is used in batteries.Sphalerite
sometimes fills spaces in collapsed limestone.
Minerals Containing Titanium You might own golf clubswith
titanium shafts or a racing bicycle containing titanium.Perhaps you
know someone who has a titanium hip or kneereplacement. Titanium is
a durable, lightweight, metallic ele-ment derived from minerals
that contain this metal in theircrystal structures. Two minerals
that are sources of the element
titanium are ilmenite (IHL muh nite)and rutile (rew TEEL), shown
inFigure 16. Ilmenite and rutile arecommon in rocks that form
whenmagma cools and solidifies. Theyalso occur as vein mineral
depositsand in beach sands.
Figure 16 Rutile and ilmeniteare common ore minerals of
theelement titanium.
Rutile Ilmenite
Figure 15 The mineral sphalerite(greenish when nearly pure) is
animportant source of zinc. Iron oftenis coated with zinc to
prevent rust ina process called galvanization.
(t)Matt Meadows, (bl)Paul Silverman/Fundamental Photographs,
(br)Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers
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SECTION 3 Uses of Minerals 79
Self Check1. Explain why the Cullinan diamond is an important
gem.
2. Identify Examine Table 2. What do rubies and sapphireshave in
common?
3. Describe how vein minerals form.
4. Explain why bauxite is considered to be a useful rock.
5. Think Critically Titanium is nontoxic. Why is thisimportant
in the manufacture of artificial body parts?
SummaryGems
• Gems are highly prized mineral specimensoften used as
decorative pieces in jewelry orother items.
• Some gems, especially synthetic ones, haveindustrial uses.
Useful Elements in Minerals
• Economically important quantities of usefulelements or
compounds are present in ores.
• Ores generally must be processed to extractthe desired
material.
• Iron, aluminum, zinc, and titanium are com-mon metals that are
extracted from minerals.
6. Use Percentages Earth’s average continental crustcontains 5
percent iron and 0.007 percent zinc. Howmany times more iron than
zinc is present in average continental crust?
Uses for Titanium Titanium is used in automobile bodyparts, such
as connecting rods, valves, and suspension springs.Low density and
durability make it useful in the manufacture ofaircraft, eyeglass
frames, and sports equipment such as tennisrackets and bicycles.
Wheelchairs used by people who want torace or play basketball often
are made from titanium, as shownin Figure 17. Titanium is one of
many examples of useful mate-rials that come from minerals and that
enrich humans’ lives.
Figure 17 Wheelchairs used forracing and playing basketball
oftenhave parts made from titanium.
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Real-World QuestionAlthough certain minerals can be identified
by observing only oneproperty, others require testing several
properties to identify them.How can you identify unknown
minerals?
Procedure1. Copy the data table into your Science Journal.
Obtain a set of
unknown minerals.
2. Observe a numbered mineral specimen carefully. Write a star
inthe table entry that represents what you hypothesize is an
impor-tant physical property. Choose one or two properties that you
thinkwill help most in identifying the sample.
3. Perform tests to observe your chosen properties first.a. To
estimate hardness:
■ Rub the sample firmly against objects of known hardnessand
observe whether it leaves a scratch on the objects.
■ Estimate a hardness range based on which items the
mineralscratches.
b. To estimate specific gravity: Perform a density measurement.■
Use the pan balance to determine the sample’s mass, in
grams.
Goals■ Hypothesize which
properties of each min-eral are most useful foridentification
purposes.
■ Test your hypothesis asyou attempt to identifyunknown
mineralsamples.
Materialsmineral samplesmagnifying lenspan balancegraduated
cylinderwaterpiece of copper *copper pennyglass platesmall iron
nailsteel filestreak plate5% HCI with dropperMohs scale of hardness
Minerals Appendix*minerals field guidesafety goggles*Alternate
materials
Safety Precautions
WARNING: If an HCl spilloccurs, notify your teacherand rinse
with cool wateruntil you are told to stop.Do not taste, eat, or
drinkany lab materials.
Mineral Identification
80 CHAPTER 3 MineralsMatt Meadows
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■ Measure its volume using a graduated cylinder partially
filledwith water. The amount of water displaced by the
immersedsample, in mL, is an estimate of its volume in cm3.
■ Divide mass by volume to determine density. This
number,without units, is comparable to specific gravity.
4. With the help of the Mineral Appendix or a field guide,
attemptto identify the sample using the properties from step 2.
Performmore physical property observations until you can identify
thesample. Repeat steps 2 through 4 for each unknown.
Analyze Your Data1. Which properties were most useful in
identifying your samples? Which proper-
ties were least useful?
2. Compare the properties that worked best for you with those
that worked bestfor other students.
Conclude and Apply1. Determine two properties that distinguish
clear, transparent quartz from clear,
transparent calcite. Explain your choice of properties.
2. Which physical properties would be easiest to determine if
you found a mineralspecimen in the field?
LAB 81
For three minerals, list physical propertiesthat were important
for their identification.For more help, refer to the Science
SkillHandbook.
Physical Properties of Minerals
Sample
Hardness
Cleavage Color
Specific
Luster Crystal Other Mineral
Number
or Gravity
and Shape Properties Name
Fracture Streak
1
2
etc.
(t)Doug Martin, (inset)José Manuel Sanchis Calvete/CORBIS,
(bl)Andrew J. Martinez/Photo Researchers, (br)Charles D.
Winter/Photo Researchers
Do not write in this book.
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Trailblazing scientist and humanitarian
SCIENCEANDHISTORY
SCIENCE CAN CHANGE THE COURSE OF HISTORY!
Dr. DorothyCrowfoot Hodgkin
Dr. DorothyCrowfoot Hodgkin
What contributions did Dorothy CrowfootHodgkin make to
science?
Dr. Hodgkin used a method called X-ray crys-tallography (kris
tuh LAH gruh fee) to figure outthe structures of crystalline
substances, includingvitamin B12, vitamin D, penicillin, and
insulin.
What’s X-ray crystallography?Scientists expose a crystalline
sample to
X rays. As X rays travel through a crystal, the crys-tal
diffracts, or scatters, the
X rays into a regular pat-tern. Like an individ-
ual’s fingerprints,each crystalline sub-stance has a unique
diffraction pattern.Crystallography
has applica-tions in thelife, Earth,and physical
sciences. For example, geologists use X-raycrystallography to
identify and study mineralsfound in rocks.
What were some obstacles Hodgkinovercame?
During the 1930s, there were few womenscientists. Hodgkin was
not even allowed toattend meetings of the chemistry faculty
whereshe taught because she was a woman. Eventually,she won over
her colleagues with her intelli-gence and tenacity.
How does Hodgkin’s research help peopletoday?
Dr. Hodgkin’s discovery of the structure ofinsulin helped
scientists learn how to controldiabetes, a disease that affects
more than 15 mil-lion Americans. Diabetics’ bodies are unable
toprocess sugar efficiently. Diabetes can be fatal.Fortunately, Dr.
Hodgkin’s research with insulinhas saved many lives.
Like X rays, electrons arediffracted by crystalline
substances, revealinginformation about theirinternal structures
and
symmetry. This electrondiffraction pattern of
titanium was obtained withan electron beam focused
along a specific direction inthe crystal.
Research Look in reference books or go to the Glencoe ScienceWeb
site for information on how X-ray crystallography is used tostudy
minerals. Write your findings and share them with your class. For
more information, visit
earth.msscience.com/time
1910–1994
(bkgd)Science Photo Library/Custom Medical Stock Photo,
(bl)Bettmann/CORBIS
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-
Copy and complete the following concept map about minerals. Use
the following words and phrases:the way a mineral breaks, the way a
mineral reflects light, ore, a rare and beautiful mineral,
howeasily a mineral is scratched, streak, and a useful substance
mined for profit.
Minerals
1. Much of what you use each day is made atleast in some part
from minerals.
2. All minerals are formed by naturalprocesses and are inorganic
solids withdefinite chemical compositions and orderlyarrangements
of atoms.
3. Minerals have crystal structures in one ofsix major crystal
systems.
Mineral Identification
1. Hardness is a measure of how easily a min-eral can be
scratched.
2. Luster describes how light reflects from amineral’s
surface.
3. Streak is the color of the powder left by amineral on an
unglazed porcelain tile.
4. Minerals that break along smooth, flat sur-faces have
cleavage. When minerals breakwith rough or jagged surfaces, they
are dis-playing fracture.
5. Some minerals have special properties thataid in identifying
them. For example, mag-netite is identified by its attraction to
amagnet.
Uses of Minerals
1. Gems are minerals that are more rare andbeautiful than common
minerals.
2. Minerals are useful for their physical prop-erties and for
the elements they contain.
CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE 83
whichmeans
whichmeans
some properties of some uses
whichmeans
whichmeans
whichis
whichis
Minerals
Color of amineral in powdered
form
GemCleavage and fracture
LusterHardness
earth.msscience.com/interactive_tutor
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Explain the difference between the vocabularywords in each of
the following sets.
1. cleavage—fracture
2. crystal—mineral
3. luster—streak
4. magma—crystal
5. hardness—specific gravity
6. ore—mineral
7. crystal—luster
8. mineral—silicate
9. gem—crystal
10. streak—specific gravity
Choose the word or phrase that best answers thequestion.
11. Which is a characteristic of a mineral?A) It can be a
liquid.B) It is organic.C) It has no crystal structure.D) It is
inorganic.
12. What must all silicates contain?A) magnesiumB) silicon and
oxygenC) silicon and aluminumD) oxygen and carbon
13. What is the measure of how easily a min-eral can be
scratched?A) lusterB) hardnessC) cleavageD) fracture
Use the photo below to answer question 14.
14. Examine the photo of quartz above. Inwhat way does quartz
break?A) cleavage C) lusterB) fracture D) flat planes
15. Which of the following must crystallinesolids have?A)
carbonatesB) cubic structuresC) orderly arrangement of atomsD)
cleavage
16. What is the color of a powdered mineralformed when rubbing
it against anunglazed porcelain tile?A) lusterB) densityC)
hardnessD) streak
17. Which is hardest on Mohs scale?A) talcB) quartzC) diamondD)
feldspar
84 CHAPTER REVIEW
cleavage p. 71crystal p. 63fracture p. 71gem p. 73hardness p.
69luster p. 70
magma p. 65mineral p. 62ore p. 77silicate p. 66specific gravity
p. 70streak p. 71
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18. Classify Water is an inorganic substancethat is formed by
natural processes onEarth. It has a unique composition.Sometimes
water is a mineral and othertimes it is not. Explain.
19. Determine how many sides a perfect saltcrystal has.
20. Apply Suppose you let a sugar solutionevaporate, leaving
sugar crystals behind.Are these crystals minerals? Explain.
21. Predict Will a diamond leave a streak on astreak plate?
Explain.
22. Collect Data Make an outline of how at leastseven physical
properties can be used toidentify unknown minerals.
23. Explain how you would use Table 1 to deter-mine the hardness
of any mineral.
24. Concept Map Copy and complete the con-cept map below, which
includes two crys-tal systems and two examples from eachsystem. Use
the following words andphrases: hexagonal, corundum,
halite,fluorite, and quartz.
25. Display Make a display that shows the sixcrystal systems of
minerals. Research thecrystal systems of minerals and give
threeexamples for each crystal system. Indicatewhether any of the
minerals are found inyour state. Describe any important usesof
these minerals. Present your display tothe class.
CHAPTER REVIEW 85
26. Mineral Volume Recall that 1 mL � 1 cm3.Suppose that the
volume of water in a gradu-ated cylinder is 107.5 mL. A specimen
ofquartz, tied to a piece of string, is immersed inthe water. The
new water level reads 186 mL.What is the volume, in cm3, of the
piece ofquartz?
Use the graph below to answer questions 27 and 28.
27. Zinc Use According to the graph above, whatwas the main use
of zinc consumed in theUnited States between 1978 and 1998?
28. Metal Products According to the graph, approx-imately how
many thousand metric tons of zincwere used to make brass and bronze
productsin 1998?
Cubic
U.S. Slab Zinc Consumption 1978–1998
Con
sum
pti
on(t
hou
san
ds
of m
etri
c to
ns)
pp
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1978 1983 1988 1993 1998Year
Galvanizing to prevent corrosionBrass and bronze
productsZinc-based alloysOther uses
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CrystalSystems
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Record your answers on the answer sheetprovided by your teacher
or on a sheet of paper.
Use the photo below to answer question 1.
1. To which crystal system does the crystalshown above belong?
A. hexagonal C. triclinicB. cubic D. monoclinic
2. Which of the following is a common rock-forming mineral?A.
azurite C. quartzB. gold D. diamond
3. Which term refers to the resistance of amineral to
scratching?A. hardness C. lusterB. specific gravity D. fracture
4. Which is a special property of the mineralmagnetite?A.
attracted by a magnetB. fizzes with dilute hydrochloric acidC.
forms a double imageD. has a salty taste
5. Which causes some minerals to break alongsmooth, flat
surfaces?A. streak C. lusterB. cleavage D. fracture
6. Which of these forms in cracks or alongfaults?A. bauxiteB.
silicatesC. vein mineralsD. rock-forming minerals
7. Which is the most abundant element inEarth’s crust?A. silicon
C. ironB. manganese D. oxygen
Use the table below to answer questions 8–10.
8. Which mineral in the table is softest?A. diamond C. talcB.
feldspar D. gypsum
9. Which mineral will scratch feldspar butnot topaz?A. quartz C.
apatiteB. calcite D. diamond
10. After whom is the scale shown abovenamed?A. Neil ArmstrongB.
Friedrich MohsC. Alfred WegenerD. Isaac Newton
86 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
If you are taking a timed test, keep track of time during
thetest. If you find that you’re spending too much time on
amultiple-choice question, mark your best guess and move on.
Mineral Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
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STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE 87
Record your answers on the answer sheetprovided by your teacher
or on a sheet of paper.
11. What is the definition of a mineral?
12. Why are gems valuable?
13. Explain the difference between fractureand cleavage.
14. Why is mineral color sometimes not help-ful for identifying
minerals?
Use the conversion factor and table below to answer
questions 15–17.
1.0 carat = 0.2 grams
15. How many grams is the Uncle Samdiamond?
16. How many carats is the Punch Jonesdiamond?
17. How many grams of diamond were pro-duced in western
Australia in 2001?
18. What is the source of most of the diamondsthat are used for
industrial purposes?
19. Explain how minerals are useful to society.Describe some of
their uses.
Record your answers on a sheet of paper.
Use the photo below to answer question 20.
20. The mineral crystals in the rock aboveformed when magma
cooled and are visi-ble with the unaided eye. Hypothesizeabout how
fast the magma cooled.
21. What is a crystal system? Why is it usefulto classify
mineral crystals this way?
22. How can a mineral be identified using itsphysical
properties?
23. What is a crystal? Do all crystals havesmooth crystal faces?
Explain.
24. Are gases that are given off by volcanoesminerals? Why or
why not?
25. What is the most abundant mineral groupin Earth’s crust?
What elements always arefound in the minerals included in
thisgroup?
26. Several layers are peeled from a piece ofmuscovite mica?
What property of miner-als does this illustrate? Describe this
prop-erty in mica.
Diamond Carats Grams
Uncle Sam: 40.4 ?largest diamond found in United States
Punch Jones: ? 6.89second largest U.S. diamond; named after boy
who discovered it
Theresa: 21.5 4.3discovered in Wisconsin in 1888
2001 diamond 21,679,930 ?production from western Australia
earth.msscience.com/standardized_test
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Glencoe Earth ScienceContents in BriefStudent Edition Table of
ContentsUnit 1: Earth MaterialsChapter 1: The Nature of
ScienceLaunch Lab: Measure in SIFoldablesSection 1: Science All
AroundScience OnlineIntegrate Life ScienceMiniLAB: Designing an
ExperimentVisualizing the History of Earth Science Technology
Section 2: Scientific EnterpriseScience OnlineMiniLAB: Observing
a Scientific LawIntegrate CareerApplying Science: How can bias
affect your observations?Lab: Understanding Science ArticlesLab:
Testing Variables of a PendulumScience and Language Arts: "The
Microscope"
Chapter 1 Study GuideChapter 1 ReviewChapter 1 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 2: MatterLaunch Lab: Change the State of
WaterFoldablesSection 1: AtomsMiniLAB: Searching for
ElementsIntegrate Health
Section 2: Combinations of AtomsScience OnlineMiniLAB:
Classifying Forms of MatterLab: Scales of Measurement
Section 3: Properties of MatterApplying Math: Calculating
DensityScience OnlineVisualizing States of MatterLab: Determining
DensityScience Stats: Amazing Atoms
Chapter 2 Study GuideChapter 2 ReviewChapter 2 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 3: MineralsLaunch Lab: Distinguish Rocks from
MineralsFoldablesSection 1: MineralsMiniLAB: Inferring Salt's
Crystal SystemVisualizing Crystal SystemsIntegrate PhysicsLab:
Crystal Formation
Section 2: Mineral IdentificationApplying Science: How can you
identify minerals?MiniLAB: Observing Mineral Properties
Section 3: Uses of MineralsScience OnlineIntegrate Social
StudiesLab: Mineral IdentificationScience and History: Dr. Dorothy
Crowfoot Hodgkin
Chapter 3 Study GuideChapter 3 ReviewChapter 3 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 4: RocksLaunch Lab: Observe and Describe
RocksFoldablesSection 1: The Rock CycleMiniLAB: Modeling
RockVisualizing the Rock Cycle
Section 2: Igneous RocksScience OnlineIntegrate ChemistryLab:
Igneous Rock Clues
Section 3: Metamorphic RocksScience Online
Section 4: Sedimentary RocksMiniLAB: Classifying
SedimentsIntegrate CareerApplying Math: Coal FormationLab:
Sedimentary RocksScience and Society: Australia's Controversial
Rock Star
Chapter 4 Study GuideChapter 4 ReviewChapter 4 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 5: Earth's Energy and Mineral ResourcesLaunch Lab:
Finding Energy ReservesFoldablesSection 1: Nonrenewable Energy
ResourcesIntegrate Life Science Science OnlineVisualizing Methane
HydratesMiniLAB: Practicing Energy Conservation
Section 2: Renewable Energy ResourcesIntegrate CareerScience
OnlineLab: Soaking Up Solar Energy
Section 3: Mineral ResourcesMiniLAB: Observing the Effects of
InsulationApplying Science: Why should you recycle?Lab: Home Sweet
HomeOops! Accidents in Science: Black Gold!
Chapter 5 Study GuideChapter 5 ReviewChapter 5 Standardized Test
Practice
Unit 2: The Changing Surface of the EarthChapter 6: Views of
EarthLaunch Lab: Describe LandformsFoldablesSection 1:
LandformsMiniLAB: Profiling the United StatesIntegrate
PhysicsScience Online
Section 2: ViewpointsMiniLAB: Interpreting Latitude and
LongitudeIntegrate Social Studies
Section 3: MapsIntegrate PhysicsVisualizing Topographic
MapsScience OnlineApplying Science: How can you create a cross
section from a geologic map?Lab: Making a Topographic MapLab:
Constructing LandformsScience and History: Location, Location
Chapter 6 Study GuideChapter 6 ReviewChapter 6 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 7: Weathering and SoilLaunch Lab: Stalactites and
StalagmitesFoldablesSection 1: WeatheringScience OnlineMiniLAB:
Observing the Formation of Rust
Section 2: The Nature of SoilVisualizing Soil FormationMiniLAB:
Comparing Components of SoilIntegrate ChemistryApplying Math: Soil
TextureLab: Soil Texture
Section 3: Soil ErosionIntegrate CareerScience OnlineLab:
Weathering ChalkScience and Language Arts: Landscape, History, and
the Pueblo Imagination
Chapter 7 Study GuideChapter 7 ReviewChapter 7 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 8: Erosional ForcesLaunch Lab: Demonstrate Sediment
MovementFoldablesSection 1: Erosion by GravityMiniLAB: Modeling
SlumpIntegrate Physics
Section 2: GlaciersScience OnlineLab: Glacial Grooving
Section 3: WindIntegrate HistoryApplying Science: What factors
affect wind erosion?MiniLAB: Observing How Soil Is Held in
PlaceScience OnlineVisualizing How Dunes Form and MigrateLab:
Blowing in the WindScience Stats: Losing Against Erosion
Chapter 8 Study GuideChapter 8 ReviewChapter 8 Standardized Test
Practice
Chapter 9: Water Erosion and DepositionLaunch Lab: Model How
Erosion WorksFoldablesSection 1: Surface WaterIntegrate
CareerScience OnlineVisualizing Stream DevelopmentScience
OnlineMiniLAB: Observing Runoff Collection
Section 2: GroundwaterMiniLAB: Measuring Pore SpaceApplying
Math: Groundwater FlowIntegrate Chemistry
Section 3: Ocean ShorelineLab: Classifying Types of SandLab:
Water Speed and ErosionScience and Society: Sands in Time
Chapter 9 Study GuideChapter 9 ReviewChapter 9 Standardized Test
Practice
Unit 3: Earth's Internal ProcessesChapter 10: Plate
TectonicsLaunch Lab: Reassemble an ImageFoldablesSection 1:
Continental DriftScience OnlineMiniLAB: Interpreting Fossil
Data
Section 2: Seafloor SpreadingIntegrate ChemistryLab: Seafloor
Spreading Rates
Section 3: Theory of Plate TectonicsScience OnlineApplying
Science: How well do the continents fit together?Visualizing Plate
BoundariesMiniLAB: Modeling Convection CurrentsIntegrate
CareerIntegrate PhysicsLab: Predicting Tectonic ActivityScience and
Language Arts: Listening In
Chapter 10 Study GuideChapter 10 ReviewChapter 10 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 11: EarthquakesLaunch Lab: Why do earthquakes
occur?FoldablesSection 1: Forces Inside EarthSection 2: Features of
EarthquakesIntegrate PhysicsVisualizing Seismic WavesScience
OnlineMiniLAB: Interpreting Seismic Wave DataLab: Epicenter
Location
Section 3: People and EarthquakesIntegrate CareerScience
OnlineApplying Math: Earthquake EnergyMiniLAB: Modeling
Seismic-Safe StructuresLab: Earthquake DepthsScience Stats: Moving
Earth!
Chapter 11 Study GuideChapter 11 ReviewChapter 11 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 12: VolcanoesLaunch Labs: Map a VolcanoFoldablesSection
1: Volcanoes and Earth's Moving PlatesIntegrate CareerMiniLAB:
Modeling Magma Movement
Section 2: Types of VolcanoesScience OnlineVisualizing
LavaIntegrate HealthMiniLAB: Modeling Volcanic ConesLab:
Identifying Types of Volcanoes
Section 3: Igneous Rock FeaturesApplying Math: Classifying
Igneous RocksScience OnlineLab: How do calderas form?Oops!
Accidents in Science: Buried in Ash
Chapter 12 Study GuideChapter 12 ReviewChapter 12 Standardized
Test Practice
Unit 4: Change and Earth's HistoryChapter 13: Clues to Earth's
PastLaunch Lab: Clues to Life's PastFoldablesSection 1:
FossilsMiniLAB: Predicting Fossil PreservationIntegrate Social
StudiesIntegrate Life Science
Section 2: Relative Ages of RocksScience OnlineVisualizing
UnconformitiesScience OnlineLab: Relative Ages
Section 3: Absolute Ages of RocksMiniLAB: Modeling Carbon-14
DatingScience OnlineApplying Science: When did the Iceman die?Lab:
Trace FossilsOops! Accidents in Science: The World's Oldest Fish
Story
Chapter 13 Study GuideChapter 13 ReviewChapter 13 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 14: Geologic TimeLaunch Lab: Survival Through
TimeFoldablesSection 1: Life and Geologic TimeSection 2: Early
Earth HistoryIntegrate ChemistryMiniLAB: Dating Rock Layers with
FossilsVisualizing Unusual Life-FormsScience OnlineLab: Changing
Species
Section 3: Middle and Recent Earth HistoryScience OnlineApplying
Math: Calculating Extinction By Using PercentagesMiniLAB:
Calculating the Age of the Atlantic OceanLab: Discovering the
PastScience Stats: Extinct!
Chapter 14 Study GuideChapter 14 ReviewChapter 14 Standardized
Test Practice
Unit 5: Earth's Air and WaterChapter 15: AtmosphereLaunch Lab:
Observe Air PressureFoldablesSection 1: Earth's AtmosphereScience
OnlineApplying Science: How does altitude affect air
pressure?MiniLAB: Determining if Air Has MassIntegrate Life
ScienceLab: Evaluating Sunscreens
Section 2: Energy Transfer in the AtmosphereIntegrate
PhysicsMiniLAB: Modeling Heat Transfer
Section 3: Air MovementScience OnlineVisualizing Global
WindsLab: The Heat Is OnScience and Language Arts: Song of the Sky
Loom
Chapter 15 Study GuideChapter 15 ReviewChapter 15 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 16: WeatherLaunch Lab: What causes rain?FoldablesSection
1: What is weather?Integrate Life Science MiniLAB: Determining Dew
PointApplying Math: Dew Point
Section 2: Weather PatternsScience OnlineScience
OnlineVisualizing TornadoesIntegrate Environment
Section 3: Weather ForecastsMiniLAB: Measuring RainLab: Reading
a Weather MapLab: Measuring Wind SpeedScience and Society:
Rainmakers
Chapter 16 Study GuideChapter 16 ReviewChapter 16 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 17: ClimateLaunch Lab: Tracking World
ClimatesFoldablesSection 1: What is climate?MiniLAB: Observing
Solar RadiationIntegrate PhysicsApplying Science: How do cities
influence temperature?
Section 2: Climate TypesSection 3: Climatic ChangesMiniLAB:
Modeling El NiñoVisualizing El Niño and La NiñaIntegrate
CareerScience OnlineScience OnlineLab: The Greenhouse EffectLab:
MicroclimatesScience and History: The Year There Was No Summer
Chapter 17 Study GuideChapter 17 ReviewChapter 17 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 18: Ocean MotionLaunch Lab: Explore How Currents
WorkFoldablesSection 1: Ocean WaterSection 2: Ocean CurrentsScience
OnlineMiniLAB: Modeling a Density CurrentIntegrate CareerApplying
Math: Density of Salt Water
Section 3: Ocean Waves and TidesMiniLAB: Modeling Water Particle
MovementVisualizing Wave MovementScience OnlineIntegrate Life
ScienceLab: Wave PropertiesLab: Sink or Float?Science and Language
Arts: "The Jungle of Ceylon"
Chapter 18 Study GuideChapter 18 ReviewChapter 18 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 19: OceanographyLaunch Lab: How deep is the
ocean?FoldablesSection 1: The SeafloorScience OnlineApplying Math:
Calculating a Feature's SlopeMiniLAB: Modeling the Mid-Atlantic
RidgeLab: Mapping the Ocean Floor
Section 2: Life in the OceanIntegrate CareerIntegrate
ChemistryMiniLAB: Observing PlanktonScience OnlineVisualizing the
Rocky Shore Habitat
Section 3: Ocean PollutionLab: Resources from the OceansOops!
Accidents in Science: Strange Creatures from the Ocean Floor
Chapter 19 Study GuideChapter 19 ReviewChapter 19 Standardized
Test Practice
Unit 6: You and the EnvironmentChapter 20: Our Impact on
LandLaunch Lab: What happens as the human population
grows?FoldablesSection 1: Population Impact on the
EnvironmentScience OnlineIntegrate Career
Section 2: Using LandMiniLAB: Modeling Earth's FarmlandApplying
Science: How does land use affect stream discharge?Integrate
PhysicsLab: What to Wear?
Section 3: Conserving ResourcesMiniLAB: Classifying Your Trash
for One DayVisualizing Trash DisposalLab: A World Full of
PeopleScience and Society: Hazardous Waste
Chapter 20 Study GuideChapter 20 ReviewChapter 20 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 21: Our Impact on Water and AirLaunch Lab: Is pollution
always obvious?FoldablesSection 1: Water PollutionApplying Math:
Surface Water PollutionVisualizing Sewage TreatmentIntegrate
CareerIntegrate HealthScience OnlineLab: Elements in Water
Section 2: Air PollutionMiniLAB: Identifying Acid RainScience
OnlineMiniLAB: Examining the Content of AirLab: What's in the
air?Science and History: Meet Rachel Carson
Chapter 21 Study GuideChapter 21 ReviewChapter 21 Standardized
Test Practice
Unit 7: AstronomyChapter 22: Exploring SpaceLaunch Lab: An
Astronomer's ViewFoldablesSection 1: Radiation from SpaceIntegrate
HealthMiniLAB: Observing Effects of Light PollutionLab: Building a
Reflecting Telescope
Section 2: Early Space MissionsApplying Math: Drawing by
NumbersIntegrate CareerVisualizing Space ProbesScience
OnlineMiniLAB: Modeling a Satellite
Section 3: Current and Future Space MissionsScience
OnlineScience OnlineLab: Star SightingsScience and Society: Cities
in Space
Chapter 22 Study GuideChapter 22 ReviewChapter 22 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 23: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemLaunch Lab: Model Rotation
and RevolutionFoldablesSection 1: EarthIntegrate Life Science
MiniLAB: Making Your Own CompassScience OnlineScience Online
Section 2: The Moon—Earth's SatelliteMiniLAB: Comparing the Sun
and the MoonScience OnlineIntegrate CareerVisualizing the Moon's
SurfaceApplying Science: What will you use to survive on the
Moon?Lab: Moon Phases and Eclipses
Section 3: Exploring Earth's MoonScience OnlineLab: Tilt and
TemperatureScience and History: The Mayan Calendar
Chapter 23 Study GuideChapter 23 ReviewChapter 23 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 24: The Solar SystemLaunch Lab: Model Crater
FormationFoldablesSection 1: The Solar SystemScience
OnlineIntegrate PhysicsVisualizing the Solar System's FormationLab:
Planetary Orbits
Section 2: The Inner PlanetsMiniLAB: Inferring Effects of
GravityScience OnlineApplying Math: Diameter of Mars
Section 3: The Outer PlanetsMiniLAB: Modeling PlanetsIntegrate
Language Arts
Section 4: Other Objects in the Solar SystemLab: Solar System
Distance ModelOops! Accidents in Science: It Came from Outer
Space!
Chapter 24 Study GuideChapter 24 ReviewChapter 24 Standardized
Test Practice
Chapter 25: Stars and GalaxiesLaunch Lab: Why do clusters of
galaxies move apart?FoldablesSection 1: StarsMiniLAB: Observing
Star PatternsApplying Science: Are distance and brightness
related?
Section 2: The SunScience OnlineLab: Sunspots
Section 3: Evolution of StarsScience OnlineIntegrate
ChemistryIntegrate History
Section 4: Galaxies and the UniverseMiniLAB: Measuring Distance
in SpaceVisualizing the Big Bang TheoryLab: Measuring
ParallaxScience Stats: Stars and Galaxies
Chapter 25 Study GuideChapter 25 ReviewChapter 25 Standardized
Test Practice
Student ResourcesScience Skill HandbookScientific MethodsSafety
SymbolsSafety in the Science Laboratory
Extra Try at Home LabsTechnology Skill HandbookComputer
SkillsPresentation Skills
Math Skill HandbookMath ReviewScience Applications
Reference HandbooksWeather Map SymbolsRocks MineralsPeriodic
Table of the ElementsTopographic Map Symbols
English/Spanish GlossaryIndexCredits
Feature ContentsCross-Curricular ReadingsNational GeographicUnit
OpenersVisualizing
TIME Science and SocietyTIME Science and HistoryOops! Accidents
in ScienceScience and Language ArtsScience Stats
LABSLaunch LABMiniLABMiniLAB Try at HomeOne-Page LabsTwo-Page
LabsDesign Your Own LabsModel and Invent LabsUse the Internet
Labs
ActivitiesApplying MathApplying ScienceIntegrateScience
OnlineStandardized Test Practice
Student WorksheetsChapter 1: The Nature of ScienceChapter 2:
MatterChapter 3: MineralsChapter 4: RocksChapter 5: Earth's Energy
and Mineral ResourcesChapter 6: Views of EarthChapter 7: Weathering
and SoilChapter 8: Erosional ForcesChapter 9: Water Erosion and
DepositionChapter 10: Plate TectonicsChapter 11: EarthquakesChapter
12: VolcanoesChapter 13: Clues to Earth's PastChapter 14: Geologic
TimeChapter 15: AtmosphereChapter 16: WeatherChapter 17:
ClimateChapter 18: Ocean MotionChapter 19: OceanographyChapter 20:
Our Impact on LandChapter 21: Our Impact on Water and AirChapter
22: Exploring SpaceChapter 23: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemChapter 24:
The Solar SystemChapter 25: Stars and GalaxiesProbeware LabsTo the
StudentGetting Started with ProbewareSafety in the LabSafety
SymbolsLife Science LabsLab 1: Size Limits of CellsLab 2: Exercise
and Heart RateLab 3: Cooking with BacteriaLab 4: Sweat is CoolLab
5: Biodiversity and Ecosystems
Earth Science LabsLab 6: The Effect of Acid Rain on LimestoneLab
7: The Formation of CavesLab 8: Measuring EarthquakesLab 9:
Predicting the WeatherLab 10: How are distance and light intensity
related?
Physical Science LabsLab 11: How fast do you walk?Lab 12:
Transforming EnergyLab 13: Endothermic and Exothermic ProcessesLab
14: Thermal ConductivityLab 15: Let the Races Begin!
Appendix A: Using the TI-73 to Create a HistogramAppendix B:
Using the TI-83 Plus Graphing Calculator to Create a
HistogramAppendix C: Using the TI-73 Graphing Calculator to Create
a Box Plot and Display StatisticsAppendix D: Using the TI-83 Plus
Graphing Calculator to Box Plot and Display StatisticsAppendix E:
Using the TI-73 Graphing Calculator to Create a Circle Graph
Reading EssentialsChapter 1: The Nature of ScienceChapter 2:
MatterChapter 3: MineralsChapter 4: RocksChapter 5: Earth's Energy
and Mineral ResourcesChapter 6: Views of EarthChapter 7: Weathering
and SoilChapter 8: Erosional ForcesChapter 9: Water Erosion and
DepositionChapter 10: Plate TectonicsChapter 11: EarthquakesChapter
12: VolcanoesChapter 13: Clues to Earth's PastChapter 14: Geologic
TimeChapter 15: AtmosphereChapter 16: WeatherChapter 17:
ClimateChapter 18: Ocean MotionChapter 19: OceanographyChapter 20:
Our Impact on LandChapter 21: Our Impact on Water and AirChapter
22: Exploring SpaceChapter 23: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemChapter 24:
The Solar SystemChapter 25: Stars and Galaxies
Mastering Standardized Tests - Student EditionChapter 1: The
Nature of ScienceChapter 2: MatterChapter 3: MineralsChapter 4:
RocksChapter 5: Earth's Energy and Mineral ResourcesChapter 6:
Views of EarthChapter 7: Weathering and SoilChapter 8: Erosional
ForcesChapter 9: Water Erosion and DepositionChapter 10: Plate
TectonicsChapter 11: EarthquakesChapter 12: VolcanoesChapter 13:
Clues to Earth's PastChapter 14: Geologic TimeChapter 15:
AtmosphereChapter 16: WeatherChapter 17: ClimateChapter 18: Ocean
MotionChapter 19: OceanographyChapter 20: Our Impact on LandChapter
21: Our Impact on Water and AirChapter 22: Exploring SpaceChapter
23: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemChapter 24: The Solar SystemChapter
25: Stars and Galaxies
Science Inquiry LabsSafety SymbolsSafety GuidelinesSI Reference
SheetLaboratory EquipmentScience as InquiryActivity 1: It's a Small
WorldActivity 2: Designing a Classification SystemActivity 3:
Effects of Acid RainActivity 4: Growth Rings as Indicators of
ClimateActivity 5: Radiation and Its Effects on SeedsActivity 6:
Survival in Extreme ClimatesActivity 7: Upfolds and
DownfoldsActivity 8: Making WavesActivity 9: A Trip Around the
WorldActivity 10: Investigating DiatomiteActivity 11: Coal: What's
My Rank?Activity 12: Tornado in a JarActivity 13: Identifying
Metals and NonmetalsActivity 14: The Inside Story of
PackagingActivity 15: Lenses that MagnifyActivity 16: Electrolytes
and ConductivityActivity 17: Curds and WheyActivity 18: Cabbage
ChemistryActivity 19: States of MatterActivity 20: Isotopes And
Atomic Mass
Study Guide and ReinforcementChapter 1: The Nature of
ScienceChapter 2: MatterChapter 3: MineralsChapter 4: RocksChapter
5: Earth's Energy and Mineral ResourcesChapter 6: Views of
EarthChapter 7: Weathering and SoilChapter 8: Erosional
ForcesChapter 9: Water Erosion and DepositionChapter 10: Plate
TectonicsChapter 11: EarthquakesChapter 12: VolcanoesChapter 13:
Clues to Earth's PastChapter 14: Geologic TimeChapter 15:
AtmosphereChapter 16: WeatherChapter 17: ClimateChapter 18: Ocean
MotionChapter 19: OceanographyChapter 20: Our Impact on LandChapter
21: Our Impact on Water and AirChapter 22: Exploring SpaceChapter
23: The Sun-Earth-Moon SystemChapter 24: The Solar SystemChapter
25: Stars and Galaxies
Reading and Writing Skills ActivitiesActivity 1Activity
2Activity 3Activity 4Activity 5Activity 6Activity 7Activity
8Activity 9Activity 10Activity 11Activity 12Activity 13Activity
14Activity 15Activity 16Activity 17Activity 18Activity 19Activity
20Activity 21Activity 22Activity 23Activity 24Activity 25Activity
26
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