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Oliver and
Schafer
1894-
1895
Found that a rise in blood pressure occurred after administration of an extract from the medulla, which they
called adrenalin
Os le r 1896 Adminis te red an adrena l extract to temporarily treat Addison's disease
Abel 1897 Referred to Oliver and Schafer's extract called "adrenalin" (see above) as "ep inephrine"
Takamine and
Aldrich
1901 Working independently, they both isolated epinephrine/adrenalin
Blum 1901 Found that adrenal extracts caused glycosuria
Kohn 1902 Demonstrated that the cells of the adrenal medulla, the carotid body, the abdominal paraganglia, and the
organ o f Zuckerkandl contained cells positive to chromaffin; described the "chromaffin system"
Stolz 1904 Synthesized epinephrine and norepinephrine
Pick 1912 First used the term pheochromocytoma
Cushing 1912-
1932
Described the syndrome of pituitary basophilism (Cushing's syndrome) and connected it with pituitary-adrenal
hyperactivity
Ellio t 1913 Described the association of the adrenal medulla with the sympathet ic nervous system
Sargent 1914 Removed a 1,025-gram adre nal tumor
Rogoff and
Stewart
1921 Wrote a series of reports on the removal of the adrenal glands
Vaquez and
Donzelot
1926 Made the first clinical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma
Roux(Switzerland)
1926 Independently extirpated pheochromocytomas
Mayo (U.S.)
Hartman, Dean
and McArthur
1928 Purified adrenocortical extracts and published a pape r about this new isolate which prolonged life in
adrenalectomized animals
P inco ffs 1929 Firs t to preoperative ly diagnose pheochromocytoma
Rabin 1929-
1930
Identified an epinephrine-type subs tance in a pheochromocytoma
Crile 1932 Surgically denervated an adrenal gland
Broster 1933 Used a trans thoracic approach during surgery of the adrena ls
Walters 1934 Used a lateral lumbar approach during surgery of the adrenals
Kendall 1934 Isolated cortisone
Young 1936 Noted the importance of direct observation of both adrenals. Recommended bilateral subtotal adrenalectomy
to treat bilateral hyperplasia.
Holtz, Credner
and Kronenberg
1945 Rediscovered norepinephrine
Roth and Kwale 1945 Introduced the histamine provocative test
Huggins and
Scott
1945 Attempted to treat advanced prostatic cancer with a bilateral total adrenalectomy
Von Euler 1946 Reported that norepinephrine can be found in sympathetic nerve endings
Holtz 1947 Found norepinephrine in the adrenal medulla
Langino 1949 Introduced the Regitine (phentolamine ) te st
Thorn andForsham
1949 Used cortisone acetate to treat Addison's disease
Wendlet 1950 Synthesized cortisol
Priestley 1951 With his colleagues at the Mayo Clinic, reported 29 patients who underwent subtotal adrenalectomy to treat
Cushing's disease, noting that perioperative cortisol treatment greatly decreased postoperative complications
Patio 1951 Successful transplantation of human fetal adrenal cort ical t issue in patient with Addison's disease
Grundy and
Reichstein
1952 Isolated aldosterone
Conn 1955 Described primary aldosteronism (Conn's syndrome)
Liddle 1961 Labeled hydrocort isone as the most important hormone in the adrenal cortex, noting its secretion after ACTH
stimulation
Bartte r 1962 Reported sodium-wasting condition (Bartte r's syndrome)
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Pearce 1968-
1978
Described APUD (amine precursor uptake decarboxylation) system, including cells that produced peptide
hormones of neural crest or neuroectodermal origin
Vingerhoeds e t
al.
1976 Described primary cortisol and glucocorticoid resistance
Viveros et al. 1979 Discovered enkephalins in the chromaffin vesicle
Forest et al. 1982 Studied (and discounted) relationship between adrenarche and gonadarche
Hricak & Williams 1984 Studied normal and pathologic adrenal anatomy with MRI
Madrazo et al. 1987 Autologous transplation of medullary tissue to treat Parkinson's disease
Counts et al. 1987 Studied (and discounted) relationship between adrenarche and gonadarche
History table compiled by David A. McClusky III and John E. Skandalakis.
Recommended Reading (History):
Bourne GH. The Mammalian Adrenal Gland. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949, pp. 1-28.
DeGroot LJ (ed). Endocrinology (3rd ed). Vol. II Part VI. Adrenal Cortex. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1995, pp. 1627-1880.
Hughes S, Lynn J. Surgical anatomy and surgery of the adrenal glands. In: Lynn J, Bloom SR (eds). Surgical Endocrinology. London:
Butterworth Heinemann, 1993, pp. 458-467.
Scott HW. Surgery of the Adrena l Glands . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1990, pp. 1-16.
Note to readers:We have used the term "adrenal" rather than "suprarenal" in this text because in spoken language such lengthy
terms as "suprarenalectomy" are so cumbersome they are not used.
EMBRYOGENESIS
Normal Development
The adrenal glands form from two separate primordia: the neuroectodermal component develops into the adrenal medulla, and
the mesodermal component becomes the adrenal cortex. The cells of the future medulla are identified by the 21st to the 22nd
day, and are among the wide variety of cells that migrate out of the neural crest (neuroectoderm) in the sixth and seventh
weeks2(Fig. 27-1). These cells travel along the nerves of the 6th to 12th segments into the developing cortical primordia.
Fig. 27-1.
Formation of neural tube and origin of cells of neural crest from neuroectode rm. (Modified from Skanda lakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr.
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na om ca omp ca ons n enera urgery. ew or : c raw- , ; w perm ss on.
Within the cortical tissue, the migrating cells proliferate and differentiate into chromaffin cells at around the third month of
gestation. This process is not complete until 12 to 18 months after birth. Some cells do not reach the adrenal organs, but
differentiate into chromaffin cells along the aorta. They form nodules of extraadrenal medullary tissue.
The mesodermal component of the cortex is visible as early as the fourth week. The first indication of the cortex is increased
division among the peritoneal epithelial cells of the posterior abdominal wall in the groove between the mesentery and the cranial
end of the mesonephric ridge (Fig. 27-2). From this epithelium, cords of cells invade the mesenchyme, while surface cells form a
cap over the region (Fig. 27-3A). This epithelial cap represents the future zona glomerulosa of the permanent cortex (Fig. 27-
3B). Other derivatives of the neural crest cells such as chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and the aortic bodies are shown in
Fig. 27-4 and Table 27-2.
Table 27-2. Derivatives of the Neural Crest Cells
Dorsal root ganglion cells
Sympathe tic trunk ganglia
Parasympathetic ganglia
Schwann cells
Ultimobranchial bodies
Epidermal pigment cells
Glial cells of peripheral ganglia (the satellite or capsule cells)
Leptomeninx
Parts of all the cranial nerve ganglia (except olfactory), connective tissue surrounding the eye and the ciliary muscle
All derivatives of the pharyngeal arches (except skeletal muscles), dermis, and hypodermis of the face and neck, and truncoconal
septum (heart outflow tracts)
Fig. 27-2.
Mesothelial cells from mesenteric root differentiate to form cortex. (Modified from Sadler TW. Langman's Medical Embryology (8th ed).
Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2000; w ith permission.)
Fig. 27-3.
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Derivatives of neural crest. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in Gene ral Surgery. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with pe rmission.)
Differentiation of cortical zones begins in the eighth week. The outer layer will become the adult zona glomerulosa. Beneath this
is the proportionally large "fetal cortex" (Fig. 27-5A), which will decrease in relative size and form the zona fasciculata and the
zona reticularis of the adult. These zones may be distinguished at birth (Fig. 27-5B), although they do not appear in the final
adult form until the fourth year of postnatal life (Fig. 27-5C).
Fig. 27-5.
Relative proportions of components of adrenal gland: A,fifth month of gestation; B,at birth; C,adult. (Modified from Skanda lakis JE,
Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New York: McGraw Hill, 1983; with permission. Data from Sucheston
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ME, Cannon MS. Development of zonular patterns in the human adrenal gland. J Morphol 1968;126:477.)
In the words of Sucheston and Cannon,3the adult zones appear to be established by "proliferation of the permanent cortex,
maturation of the fetal cortex and growth of the medulla," and are finally completed by 11 to 15 years of age. However, some
writers disagree with that view, and believe that shortly after birth, the fetal cortex degenerates and is replaced or reorganized,
or that the fetal zone cells remodel and reduce in size.5
Due to the large size of the fetal cortex, the volume of the adrenal glands of the human fetus is 20 times larger than that of the
adult gland in relation to the weight of the body. The adrenal medulla, however, is small, and enlarges slightly after birth.
At birth, the volume of the adrenals is about 40 ml. Two months after birth, the volume has decreased to about 10 ml, owing toregression and replacement of the fetal cortex (by whatever means). Growth begins again in the second year of postnatal life
and accelerates after puberty. Final adult size (40 ml) is reached by age 17. 6
Bocian-Sobkowska7studied the adrenal gland in the first postnatal year:
The postnatal decrease in adrenal volume was caused mainly by a rapid fall of fetal zone volume (from 70% to 3% of total
adrenal volume) that can be divided into two phases: rapid phase (from birth to the end of the second week) and a slow
phase from the 3rd week on. Involution was accompanied by increase of zona glomerulosa (from 10% to 25% of total
adrenal volume), zona fasciculata (from 10% to 38%) and zona reticularis volume (from 1% to 23%). During the whole
investigated period the volume of medulla remained constant. The volume fraction of stroma (connective tissue and blood
vessels) was highest at the beginning of the first postnatal week and then decreased rapidly at the end of the 2nd week,
with the most pronounced changes in the fetal zone and medulla.
The adrenal glands maintain their position in the abdomen, neither ascending with the kidney, nor descending with the testis.
Their arterial supply is from segmental mesonephric arteries, greatly altered in their arrangement.
Congenital Anomalies
Congenital anomalies of the adrenal glands are shown in Table 27-3 and Figure 27-6.
Table 27-3. Anomalies of the Adrenal Glands
Anomaly Prenatal Age at Onset First Appearance (or
Other Diagnostic
Clues)
Sex Chiefly
Affected
Relative Frequency Remarks
Agenesis ofthe adrenals 4th week None, when unilateral ? Uncommon Associated with absenceof kidney on the same
side
Fusion of the
adrenals
6th week None Male Rare Associated with fused
kidneys
Hypoplasia of
the adrenals
Probably late in
gestation
At birth Male Very rare, except in
anencephalic infants
Usually lethal in infancy
Heterotopia of
the adrenals
8th week None ? Uncommon Usually found within the
capsule of the liver or the
kidney
Accessory
adrenal glands
4th-6th weeks None Probably
equal
Common Rarely contain medullary
tissue
Adrenal gland
hemorrhage
At birth Hypovolemic shock or
corticosteroid
deficiency at birth
? Rare; second most common
source of hemoperitoneum
in newborn
Neuroblastoma Approximately 4-5
weeks (?) (Originates
in neural crest)
2-5 ye ars of age Males slightly
more than
females
In up to 1:7000 children;
most frequent s olid tumor in
children
It has been noted to
occur with other
congenital syndromes
Modified from Skanda lakis JE, Gray SW. Embryology for Surgeons (2nd ed). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1994, p. 726. Used with
permission.
Fig. 27-6.
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Chief congenital anomalies of adrenal glands. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW. Embryology for Surgeons (2nd ed). Baltimore:
Williams & W ilkins, 1994; with permission.)
Agenesis of the Adrenal Glands
Unilateral adrenal agenesis is almost always associated with renal agenesis on the same side, but in 90 percent of patients with
unilateral renal agenesis, the adrenal gland is present. Absence of the kidney is usually the result of defective ureteric buddevelopment, which does not affect the adrenal gland. Only a failure of formation of the entire nephrogenic ridge results in the
absence of both the kidney and the adrenal gland.
Fusion of the Adrenal Glands
Fusion of the adrenal glands behind the aorta may accompany fusion of the kidneys (horseshoe kidney). 8
Hypoplasia of the Adrenal Glands
Adrenal hypoplasia is represented by two types: anencephalic and the type in which the marginal fetal cortex does not exist.
According to Kerenyi,9Winquist,10and others all patients survived no longer than a few months.
Adrenal Heterotopia
Occasionally, the adrenal gland is in its normal location but is also beneath the capsule of the kidney (adrenorenal heterotopia) or
that of the liver (adrenohepatic heterotopia) (Fig. 27-7A). Renal tubules or bile ducts may be intermingled with adrenal cells in
the area of fusion of the organs. Such fusion renders adrenalectomy more difficult.
Fig. 27-7.
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Sites o f heterotopic adrenal glands and nodules o f cortical tissue (A),and chromaffin tissue (B).Masses (colored black) on and near
aorta are retroperitoneal extraadrenal paraganglia. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in
General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
Accessory Adrenal Tissue
Small nodules of adrenal tissue may be found throughout the abdomen (Figs. 27-8 and 27-9). The largest may contain both
cortical and medullary tissue.11These are true accessory adrenal glands. They are usually found near the aorta, between the
origin of the celiac axis and that of the superior mesenteric artery.
Fig. 27-8.
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Reported locations of adrenocortical and medullary tissue. (Modified from Fonkalsrud EW . The adrena l glands. In: O'Neill JA, Rowe MI,
Grosfeld JL, Fonkalsrud EW, Coran AG (eds). Ped iatric Surgery, 5th ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1998, pp. 1155-1574; with permission.)
Fig. 27-9.
Most frequent location of accessory gland (shaded area) on aorta be tween celiac and superior mesenteric arteries. (Modified from
Graham LS. Celiac accessory suprarenal glands. Cancer 1953;6:149-152.)
Accessory cortical tissue alone is not rare. Most such cortical nodules are under the renal capsule, in the broad ligament in the
female or in the spermatic cord of the male.12,13These sites have surgical significance when the suspected lesion is not found
within the substance of the normally situated adrenal glands. All these cortical structures are as susceptible to adenomas as is
the normal adrenal gland (Fig. 27-7A).
Chromaffin tissue distributed around the aorta near the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery, in the lumbar sympathetic chain,
and in and about the celiac plexus is normal (Fig. 27-7B). Such tissue represents chromaffin cells from the neural crest that were
not incorporated into the adrenal medulla. The largest of these are the paraaortic bodies (organs of Zuckerkandl); they regress
in size with age.14
These structures may be sites of pheochromocytomas in childhood. They may also be sites of "nonfunctioning" paragangliomas
15
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.
frequently found than is cortical tissue, and is more frequently associated with hyperfunction than is cortical tissue. O'Riordain e
al.16studied extraadrenal functional paragangliomas and their locations (Fig. 27-10).
Fig. 27-10.
Anatomic location of extraadrenal tumors. Numbers indicate number of patients with tumors in particular location. (Note: patients with
multiple tumors are counted more than once if they had tumors at different locations .) (Modified from O'Riordain DS, Young WF Jr, Grant
CS, Carney JA, van Heerden JA. Clinical spectrum and outcome of functiona l extraadrenal paraganglioma. World J Surg 1996;20:916-
922.)
Pheochromocytoma
Pheochromocytoma is a benign or malignant medullary tumor. "Functioning" tumors produce catecholamines, either epinephrine,
norepinephrine, or both. Hypertension, tachycardia, sudoresis, and anxiety reaction result from the hormonal excess.17
Lo et al.18stated that "[a]drenal pheochromocytoma is potentially lethal if undetected and is associated with long-term
morbidity." They cited the results of studies in which pheochromocytoma was diagnosed in 4 of 8486 autopsies (0.05%); in 3 of
these cases, it was the immediate c ause of death.
Ito et al.19stated that parenchymal degeneration of pheochromocytomas produces paroxysmal hypertension in most cases.
Pheochromocytoma is a rare tumor that is found in only 0.1% of patients with diastolic hypertension, according to Favia et al.
20
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They presented 55 patients with pheochromocytoma as a rare cause of hypertension.
Adrenal Gland Hemorrhage
Adrenal gland hemorrhage is the second most common source of hemoperitoneum in newborns. The right side is involved in 70%
of cases, the left in 25%; the condition is bilateral in 5%.21This phenomenon has several etiologic factors. The large size of the
neonatal adrenal gland makes it vulnerable to traumatic injury. Involution of the inner fetal cortical zone leaves central vessels
unsupported.
Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma is the second most common tumor of infancy, and the most common abdominal tumor of infancy. Fifty percent ofthe tumors originate in the adrenal gland; the remainder originate in the sympathetic chain. Genetic basis, autosomal dominance,
autosomal recessive inheritance pat terns, and chromosomal abnormalities are probably all responsible for the genesis of
neuroblastoma.
We quote Alexander22:
Neuroblastoma is a malignant tumor of neural crest origin that may arise anywhere along the sympathet ic ganglia or within
the adrenal medulla. The median age of diagnosis is 2 years; however occurrence is skewed toward younger children, with
nearly 35% of cases occurring under 1 year of age and the remainder under 10 years of age. Seventy-five percent of
neuroblastomas originate within the abdomen or pelvis, and half of these occur within the adrenal medulla, whereas 20%
originate within the posterior mediastinum and 5% within the neck.
Adrenal Cyst
Dermoid cyst of the adrenal gland has been reported.23
SURGICAL ANATOMY
Topography and Morphology
The adult adrenal gland weighs 4 to 8 g and measures 4 x3 x1 cm. It is larger in women than in men. The adrenal glands are
composed of two distinct parts, with differing functions and embryonic origins (see "Embryogenesis"). The volume of the larger
portion, the cortex, is 8 to 20 times that of the medulla.6
The adrenal glands lie on the anteromedial surface of the kidneys near the superior poles; both the glands and the kidneys are
retroperitoneal. The two glands differ in shape. The left is more flattened and has more extensive contact with the kidney. It is
crescentic or semilunar in form, and may extend on the medial surface of the kidney almost to the hilum. The right gland is moretriangular or pyramidal and lies higher on the kidney. This positioning is the reverse of that of the kidneys, in that the left kidney
is higher. Each gland is capsulelike, covered by a thin connective tissue stroma.
Each adrenal gland, together with the associated kidney, is enclosed in the renal fascia (of Gerota) and is surrounded by fat,
although the adrenal gland is separated from the kidney by a partition of connective tissue. The perirenal fat is more yellow and
of a firmer consistency than fat elsewhere in the abdomen.
The adrenal glands are firmly attached to the fascia, which is in turn firmly attached to the abdominal wall and to the diaphragm.
The inferior phrenic arteries pass superior to the adrenals to reach the diaphragm. The inferior phrenic arteries give off a series o
branches, the superior adrenal arteries, like teeth of a comb. These, their associated connective tissue, and other adrenal
arteries and veins assist in holding the adrenal glands in situ.
A layer of loose connective tissue separates the capsule of the adrenal gland from that of the kidney. Because the kidney and
the adrenal gland are thus separated, the kidney can be ectopic or ptotic without a corresponding displacement of the gland.Fusion of the kidneys, however, is often accompanied by fusion of the adrenal glands.8
Occasionally, the adrenal gland is fused with the kidney so that separation is almost impossible. Davie24found six such cases in
1,500 autopsies. A partial or total nephrectomy in such individuals would require a coincidental adrenalectomy.
Normal adrenal glands can be visualized with computed tomography. They appear as triangular shadows, 2 cm in width, with thei
bases over the upper poles of the kidneys.25Linos and Stylopoulos26reported that computed tomography underestimates the
actual size of adrenal tumors; even when corrected, the size of the tumor cannot predict its clinical behavior.
Anand et al.27reported that "[t]he commonest shape of the [adrenal] glands on the left side was semilunar but on the right side
it was highly variable: triangular, tetrahedral, inverted Y or V shaped. On comparison of the gross measurements with available
ultrasound and CT scan data it was found that both the length and thickness in the population studied were greater than
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reported in the literature. A knowledge of these variations is very important in diagnosis of abnormalities of the [adrenal] gland,
of which tumoral enlargement is rather common."
Relations
Each adrenal gland has only an anterior and posterior surface. Their relationships to other structures are as follows: (Figs. 27-11
and 27-12)
Right adrenal gland:
Anterior surface:
Superior: "bare area" of the liver
Medial: inferior vena cava
Lateral: "bare area" of the right lobe of the liver
Inferior: peritoneum (very rarely, if ever) and first part of the duodenum (occasionally)
Pos terior surface:
Superior: diaphragm
Inferior: anteromedial aspect of the right kidney
Left adrenal gland:
Anterior surface:
Superior: peritoneum (posterior wall of the omental bursa) and the stomach
Inferior: body of the pancreas
Pos terior surface:
Medial: left crus of the diaphragm
Lateral: medial aspect of the left kidney
Fig. 27-11
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. Relations of adrenal glands from anterior approach. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in
General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
Fig. 27-12.
Anatomy of adrenal glands. Ao, Aorta (Modified from Hughes S, Lynn J. Surgical anatomy and surgery of the suprarena l glands. In:
Lynn J, Bloom SR (eds). Surgical Endocrinology. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1993, pp. 458-467; with permission.)
The medial borders of the right and left adrenal glands are about 4.5 cm apart. In this space, from right to left, are the inferior
vena cava, the right crus of the diaphragm, part of the celiac ganglion, the celiac trunk, the superior mesenteric artery, the
other part of the celiac ganglion, and the left crus of the diaphragm.
Remember
The right adrenal gland is located posterior to the duodenum and the right lobe of the liver.
In many cases, the medial part of the right adrena l gland is related to the inferior vena cava.
The right adrenal gland may be closely related to the right hepatic vein as it pas ses to drain into the inferior vena cava.
The right adrena l vein is short, and is difficult to ligate.
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The right adrenal gland is anterior to the diaphragmatic and pleural reflections.
The left adrenal gland is located posterior to the stomach and pancreas and medial to the splenic porta.
The left adrenal gland is located in front of the reflections of the diaphragm and the pleura.
The left adrenal gland is related to the medial aspect of the upper pole of the left kidney, occasionally extending to the left renal
porta.
Adrenal Zones
The outer portion of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex, is composed of three zonae: glomerulosa, fasciculata, and reticularis.
The innermost region of the adrenal gland is the medulla. Figs. 27-4 and 27-7 demonstrate chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla
and of heterotopic adrenal glands.
To help the student remember the layers of the adrenal gland, every year in our clinical and surgical anatomy classes we repeat
the mnemonic "Good For Reason Mother" (Fig. 27-13). Another mnemonic device which is currently popular with medical student
relates the architecture of the cortical region of the adrenal gland and its regulatory functions: Great fat rats: salt, sugar, sex.
Fig. 27-13.
Summary of embryology, anatomy, physiology, and pa thology of adrena l glands. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW. Embryology
for Surgeons (2nd ed). Baltimore: Williams & W ilkins, 1994.)
Vascular Supply
Arterial Supply
The adrenal glands and the thyroid gland are the viscera having the greatest blood supply per gram of tissue. As many as 60
arterial twigs may enter the adrenal gland. The arterial supply of the adrenal glands arises, in most cases, from three sources(Fig. 27-14):
The superior adrena l arteries. A group of six to eight arteries arises separately from the inferior phrenic arteries. One artery may be
larger than the others, or all may be of similar size.
The middle adrena l artery arises from the aorta just proximal to the origin of the rena l artery. It can be single, multiple, or absent. It
supplies the perirenal fat only.
One or more inferior adrenal arteries arise from the renal artery, an accessory renal artery, or a superior polar artery. Small twigs may
arise from the upper ureteric artery.
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. - .
Arterial supply and venous drainage of adrena l glands. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in
General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
All these arteries branch freely before entering the adrenal gland, so 50-60 arteries penetrate the capsule over the entire
surface.28It is possible that this branching of arteries before entering the adult adrenal gland indicates the outline of the surface
of the much larger gland of the embryonic period, when the fetal cortex was present.
The sources of arterial supply to the adrenal gland are subject to variation.29-31In 61 percent of individuals, the supply by
middle or inferior adrenal arteries may be lacking; the superior adrenals are absent in only about 2 percent of cases. In about 5
percent of individuals, the arterial supply is derived wholly from one source a singular vessel supplying the superior, middle,
and inferior branches.
Venous Drainage
The adrenal venous drainage does not accompany the arterial supply, and is much simpler (Fig. 27-14). A single vein drains the
adrenal gland, emerging at the hilum. The left vein passes downward over the anterior surface of the gland. This vein is joined by
the left inferior phrenic vein before entering the left renal vein.
The right vein is typically very short; it may be 0.5 cm long, or even less. The right adrenal vein passes obliquely to open into
the posterior side of the inferior vena cava. The right adrenal vein does not usually have any tributaries other than from the
adrenal gland. If the adrenal gland must be mobilized or removed, it is wise to ligate the right adrenal vein first, then divide and
ligate the arteries later, because the right vein is so easily torn from the inferior vena cava.
The right adrenal vein may drain into the right hepatic vein, close to the junction of the hepatic vein with the inferior vena
cava.32Occasionally there are two veins: one having a normal course, and an accessory vein entering the inferior phrenic
vein.33In his 40 years in the dissecting room, the senior author of this chapter (JES) has encountered accessory veins several
times. Some variations of the venous drainage are shown in Fig. 27-15.
Fig. 27-15.
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Venous drainage of adrenals. HV, hepa tic vein; Rt. RV, right renal ve in; Inf. VC, inferior vena cava; TV, testicular vein; Lt. RV, left renal
vein; OV, ovarian vein; Sp. V, suprarenal vein. (Modified from Johnstone FRC. The surgical anatomy of the suprarenal glands with
particular reference to the suprarenal vein. Surg Clin North Am 1964;44: 1315-1385; with permission.)
When using the posterior approach to the adrenal gland, the left adrenal vein is found on the anterior surface of the gland. The
right adrenal vein is found between the inferior vena cava and the gland. Careful mobilization of the gland is necessary for good
ligation of the vein.
In the early studies of Dobbie and Symington,34
it was observed that the adrenal gland appeared to be divisible into threeregions: the head, the body, and the tail. The head region, in which the medullary tissue was most prominent, was that part
closest to the emergence of the adrenal vein from the gland. The tail, where medulla was almost absent, was the most lateral
part. The ventral surface of the gland was characterized by an anterior groove. The dorsal surface possessed a ridgelike
elevation, the crest, which increased in prominence near the lateral tip of the gland. The crest is flanked by two alar parts.
The central adrenal vein carries with it a c uff of c ortical t issue into the substance of the gland. The vein is characterized by
unique longitudinal muscle fibers, especially thick on its dorsal surface, which may be related to effective closure of its tributaries
upon contraction. Shortly after entering the adrenal gland, the central vein receives a large muscular branch which curves
backwards and drains the head of the gland. Several other main tributaries enter the main vein from the body and tail region.
In the studies of Monkhouse and Khalique,35in almost all cases venous interconnections were found between the adrenal venous
system and the azygos, hemiazygos, and lumbar veins, in addition to accessory connections with the renal veins. The study was
initiated by the finding (in a patient with a left-sided pheochromocytoma) of high levels of catecholamines in the superior venacava and right atrium, rather than in the inferior vena cava, as one would normally expect.
Lymphatic Drainage
The lymphatics of the adrenal gland are usually said to consist of a profuse subcapsular plexus that drains with the arteries and
a medullary plexus that drains with the adrenal veins. Merklin36could find no evidence of lymphatic vessels within the
parenchyma of the adrenal glands.
Drainage is to renal hilar nodes, lateral aortic nodes, and to nodes of the posterior mediastinum above the diaphragm by way of
the diaphragmatic orifices for the splanchnic nerves (Fig. 27-16). Rouvire37stated that lymphatics from the upper pole of the
right adrenal gland may enter the liver. The majority of capsular lymphatic vessels pass directly to the thoracic duct without the
intervention of lymph nodes.36
Fig. 27-16.
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Lymphatics of adrenal glands. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with pe rmission.)
Innervation
The adrenal cortex appears to have only vasomotor innervation. Most of the fibers reaching the gland from the splanchnic
nerves, the lumbar sympathetic chain, the celiac ganglion, and the celiac plexus enter the medulla (Fig. 27-17). These fibers are
preganglionic38and end on the medullary chromaffin cells. This arrangement is not as anomalous as it might appear; chromaffin
cells arise from the same embryonic source as do the postganglionic neurons elsewhere. Most of these preganglionic fibers in
humans are nonmyelinated.39
Fig. 27-17.
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reduced adrenaline secretion is an acquired feature of human obesity, a finding that fits in well with the hypothesis that
the hormonal milieu, particularly sex steroids and cortisol, plays a role in the determination of blunted AM activity.
Catecholamines have been recently demonstrated to play a role also in the regulation of the whole energy balance.
Adrenaline in fact acutely reduces both leptin mRNA as well as circulating leptin in human obese subjects, suggesting that
catecholamines may influence the cross-talk between energy stores and the centrally mediated modulation of food intake.
SURGICAL APPLICATIONS
...it should be recognized that the surgical approach and exposure to the suprarenal gland will be tailored to the underlying
disease process...Richard Bihrie and John P. Donahue45
Surgery is the treatment of choice for all benign functioning or malignant adrenal tumors. Stratakis and Chrousos46summarized
several studies of adrenal cancer, which showed these neoplasias accounting for 0.05-0.2% of all cancers and occurring at
every age:
A bimodal age distribution has been reported, with the first peak occurring before the age of 5 years and the second in
the fourth to fifth decade. In all published series, females predominate, accounting for 65% to 90% of the reported cases.
Several studies have shown a left-sided prevalence in adrenal cancer, whereas others have reported a right-sided
preponderance. In approximately 2% to 10% of patients, adrenal cancer is found bilaterally.
Khorram-Manesh et al.47reported the rarity of adrenocortical carcinoma and the need for better treatment alternatives. Though
surgery is the treatment of choice, its role in advanced disease has been questioned.
Cook and Christie
48
reminded us that a unilateral adrenal mass may be secondary to Mycobacterium kansasiiin patients withAIDS. The only conservative treatment applies to congenital adrenal hyperplasia with adrenal hyperfunction syndromes.
The adrenal glands may be approached by three open methods. These are: anterior, posterior, and lateral (transthoracic).
Harrison et al.49reported that the prognosis of adrenocortical carcinomas after curative resection depends on tumor size,
hemorrhage, and mitotic count.
Paul et al.50advocated adrenalectomy for isolated adrenal metastases for selected patients presenting with long disease-free
intervals and favorable tumor biology. Tsui et al.51provided a thoughtful analysis of the role of adrenalectomy in radical
nephrectomy:
With a low incidence of 0.6%, adrenal involvement is not likely in patients with localized, early stage renal cancer cell
carcinoma and adrenalectomy is unnecessary, particularly when CT is negative. In contrast, the 8.1% incidence of adrenal
involvement with advanced renal cell carcinoma supports the need for adrenalectomy. Careful review of preoperative
imaging is required to determine the need for adrenalectomy in patients at increased risk with high stage lesions, renal vein
thrombus and upper pole or multifocal intrarenal tumors. With a negative predictive value of 99.4%, negative CT should
decrease the need for adrenalectomy. In contrast, positive findings are less reliable...[and] may not necessarily indicate
adrenalectomy....
Anterior Approach for Left Adrenalectomy
The anterior approach is preferred when
Adrenal disease is bilateral (10 percent of patients)52
Tumor is over 10 cm in size
Adrenal tumor has invaded surrounding structures
The anterior approach has the advantage of enabling the surgeon to inspect, palpate, and biopsy both glands. The incision
chosen for an anterior approach may be vertical, midline or paramedian, transverse, or chevron. The chevron transabdominal
incision provides bilateral exposure (Fig. 27-21).
Fig. 27-21.
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Incisions for ante rior exposure of adrenal glands. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in
General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
Exposure and Mobilization of Left Adrenal GlandExposure of the left adrenal gland begins with the incision of the posterior parietal peritoneum lateral to the left colon. The
incision is carried upward, dividing the splenorenal ligament (Fig. 27-22). Care must be taken to avoid injury to the spleen, the
splenic capsule, or the splenic vessels and the tail of the pancreas. The latter are enveloped by the splenorenal ligament.
Fig. 27-22.
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Incision of parietal peritoneum lateral to left colon. Incision divides splenorena l ligament. (Modified from Skanda lakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe
JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
Another approach to the left adrenal gland is by opening the lesser sac through the gastrocolic omentum, which may be incised
longitudinally outside the gastroepiploic arcade (Fig. 27-23). In this approach, care must be taken to avoid traction on the
spleen or the splenocolic ligament. The ligament may contain tortuous or aberrant inferior polar renal vessels or a left
gastroepiploic artery.
Fig. 27-23.
Approach to the left adrenal through the gastrocolic omentum by opening the lesser sac. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW,
Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
Following either approach, the peritoneum under the lower border of the pancreas should be incised halfway along the tail; the
incision should be extended laterally for about 10 cm. The pancreas can be gently retracted upward, avoiding injury. This
maneuver will expose the left adrenal gland on the superior pole of the left kidney; both the gland and the kidney are covered
with renal fascia (of Gerota). The adrenal gland will be lateral to the aorta, about 2 cm cranial to the left renal vein. Incision ofthe renal fascia exposes the adrenal gland completely, and permits access to the adrenal vein. If the operation is for
pheochromocytoma, the adrenal vein should be ligated at once to prevent the release of catecholamines into the circulation
during subsequent manipulation of the gland.
A retractor must be placed gently to avoid tearing the inferior mesenteric vein from the splenic vein. Although the inferior
mesenteric vein may be ligated without sequelae, it is prudent to refrain from the use of retractors in this area if possible.
A third approach, useful in patients whose left adrenal lesion is anterior, is exposure of the gland by an oblique incision of the left
mesocolon (Fig. 27-24). The arcuate vessels can be divided and the marginal artery can be sectioned, but the major branches o
the middle and left colic arteries must be preserved. Care to avoid excessive retraction will prevent injury to the wall of the left
colon.
Fig. 27-24.
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Approach to the adrenal by incision of the left mesocolon near the splenic flexure. (Modified from Skanda lakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr.
Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with pe rmission.)
In some lesions, such as primary aldosteronism, the adrenal gland is hypervascular and friable; meticulous attention to
hemostasis is essential. Adenoma can be disguised or mimicked by hematomas from operative trauma.53The surgeon can use a
part of the adjacent periadrenal fascia to handle the gland. Manipulation should be with fine forceps only. Hemostasis from the
numerous arteries can be maintained by clips, ligatures, or by electrocoagulation.
Dissection should start at the inferolateral aspect of the left adrenal gland and should proceed superiorly (Fig. 27-25). The
surgeon should keep in mind the possible presence of a superior renal polar artery. The gland can be retracted superiorly.
Remember that the left adrenal gland extends downward, close to the left renal artery and vein.
Fig. 27-25.
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The left adrenal gland exposed by an upward dissection. Note position of left adrenal vein. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW,
Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983; with permission.)
After removal of the adrenal gland, its bed should be inspected for bleeding points. Surrounding organs, especially the spleen,
should be inspected for injury. Splenic injury can be repaired with sutures over a piece of retroperitoneal fat, Gelfoam, or
Avitene. More severe injury may require partial or even total splenectomy.
Anterior Approach for Right Adrenalectomy
Exposure and Mobilization of Right Adrenal Gland
On the right, the anterior approach to the adrenal gland begins with the mobilization of the hepatic flexure of the colon. Sharp
dissection is necessary to divide posterior adhesions of the liver to the peritoneum. Remember that medial attachments can
contain hepatic veins.
Mobilization of the colon will expose the duodenum. The second portion of the duodenum is freed by incision of its lateral
avascular peritoneal reflection. It can now be separated from retroperitoneal structures and reflected forward and to the left
(Kocher maneuver). This maneuver will expose the vena cava, the right adrenal gland, and the upper pole of the right kidney
(Fig. 27-26). The surgeon must remember that the common bile duct and the gastroduodenal artery are in this area.
Fig. 27-26.
Right adrenal gland and upper pole of right kidney are exposed following Kocher maneuver. Note position of right adrenal vein.
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(Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in General Surgery. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1983; with
permission.)
Unlike the left adrenal gland, the right gland rarely extends downward to the renal pedicle. The right adrenal vein usually leaves
the gland on its anterior surface close to the cranial margin, and enters the vena cava on its posterior surface (Fig. 27-26). To
prevent the release of catecholamines and to avoid stretching the vein, hemostatic clips should be placed as soon as both
borders of the vein are visible. Stretching the vein invites hemorrhage from the vena cava.
Tominaga et al.54advised resection of pheochromocytoma by completely isolating the IVC and using extracorporeal charcoal
hemoperfusion, thereby prevent ing systemic distribution of catecholamines during manipulation of the tumor.
Posterior Approach for Adrenalectomy
Exposure and Mobilization
In spite of the advantage of being able to inspect, palpate, or biopsy both glands by using the anterior approach, improvements
in preoperative diagnosis (such as computed tomography and selective adrenal angiography) have increased the use of the
posterior approach.55The posterior approach can be used for any adrenalectomy except that in which a large or ectopic tumor
is a strong possibility.
Nagesser et al.56have different parameters for surgery: "Although laparoscopic adrenalectomy is the treatment of choice for
small and benign adrenal lesions, larger lesions and/or adrenal malignancy require open adrenalectomy. In these cases the
retroperitoneal approach is the preferred route."
With the patient prone, a curvilinear incision is made through the latissimus dorsi muscle to the posterior lamella of thethoracolumbar fascia (Fig. 27-27). This will expose the erector spinae muscle. Lumbar cutaneous vessels must be ligated or
cauterized. The surgeon must be sure to be over the 12th, not the 11th, rib. Dissection of the pleural fold at the 11th rib can
result in pneumothorax. Remove the 12th rib on the left, and the 11th rib on the right. 57
Fig. 27-27.
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Incisions for posterior approach to adrenal glands. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications in
General Surgery. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1983; with permission.)
The erector spinae muscle attachments to the dorsal aspect of the 12th rib should be detached, exposing the rib. The rib must
be removed subperiosteally to avoid damaging the underlying pleura. Periosteum should be stripped on the superior surface from
medial to lateral and on the inferior surface from lateral to medial. Avoid injury to the 12th intercostal nerve bundle at the inferior
angle of the rib. The nerve is separate from, but parallel with, the blood vessels. The vessels can be ligated if necessary.
The pleura must be separated from the upper surface of the diaphragm, and the diaphragm should be incised from lateral to
medial. The fascia can be opened, and the upper pole of the kidney identified. Inferior retraction of the kidney will usually bring
the adrenal gland into the field. Care must be taken to avoid tearing the renal capsule or stretching a possible superior polar
artery.
Dissection of the left adrenal gland should begin on the medial aspect, with clips for the arteries encountered. Remember that
the pancreas lies just beneath the gland; it is easily injured. In this approach, the last step is to identify the left adrenal vein,
which usually emerges from the medial aspect of the gland and courses obliquely downward to enter the left renal vein. Undue
traction on the gland can tear the renal vein.
The right adrenal gland is approached by retracting the superior pole of the right kidney inferiorly; the posterior surface of the
adrenal gland can then be dissected free from fatty tissue. The liver must be retracted upward as the apex of the gland is
reached. The lateral borders are freed up, leaving only the medial margins attached.
The right adrenal gland should be retracted laterally. Branches from the inferior phrenic artery, aorta, and right renal artery to
the gland should be ligated. The right adrenal vein, also, should be ligated (Fig. 27-26). We recommend freeing the vena cava far
enough to ensure room for an angle clamp should hemorrhage from the vena c ava or the adrenal vein require it. After removing
the gland, carefully inspect for air leaks and bleeding before closing the incision.
Thoracoabdominal Approach for Adrenalectomy
Exposure and Mobilization
The thoracoabdominal approach provides a better exposure for large tumors of a single adrenal gland.58It will permit removal of
the spleen and the distal pancreas, should they be involved with the adrenal tumor.59
The incision starts at the angle of the 8th to the 10th rib. It extends across the midline to the midpoint of the contralateral
rectus muscle just above the umbilicus (Fig. 27-28). The 10th rib is removed, the pleura is opened, and the diaphragm is incisedfrom above. The remainder of the procedure is the same as for the anterior approach.
Fig. 27-28.
Incision for thoracoabdominal approach to adrenal gland. (Modified from Skandalakis JE, Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr. Anatomical Complications
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n Genera Surgery. New Yor : McGraw- H , 1983; w t perm ss on.
LAPAROSCOPIC ADRENALECTOMY
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy may be performed by a lateral transabdominal or a posterior retroperitoneal approach. Duh et al.60
reported that both methods are safe. They used the posterior approach for bilateral tumors; for tumors of more than 6 cm, the
lateral approach was preferable. Walz et al.61supported the posterior retroperitoneoscopic approach for adrenalectomy.
Imai et al.62stated that laparoscopic transperitoneal lateral adrenalectomy is the technique of choice for removing functioning
adenomas and adrenal masses less than 6 cm in diameter. They reported that patients undergoing the laparoscopic procedure
experience greater comfort, less blood loss, and shorter hospital stays with no increase in cost.
Thompson et al.63found transabdominal laparoscopic adrenalectomy preferable to open posterior adrenalectomy, despite its
greater expense. They reported improved patient comfort and satisfaction, and "dramatically" fewer complications. Rutherford et
al.64presented 67 successful adrenalectomies employing the unilateral transabdominal approach; postoperative bleeding
occurred in 1.5% of cases, as did port site herniation.
Basso et al.65advised that laparoscopic supragastric approach for left adrenalectomy gives a good visualization of the left
adrenal, avoiding anatomic complications during mobilization of the spleen, pancreatic tail, and splenic flexure of the colon. Good
visualization of the left adrenal vein is also accomplished.
Horgan et al.66found laparoscopic adrenalectomy safe and effective for benign adrenal tumors. Jossart et al.67stated
"Laparoscopic adrenalectomy can now be considered the standard of care for most adrenal neoplasms." Using data on
pheochromocytoma surgery, Fernndez-Cruz et al.68reached the same conclusion. Walther et al.69reported the following:
"Laparoscopic partial adrenalectomy is technically feasible in patients with a hereditary form of pheochromocytoma, and may
preserve adrenocortical function. Laparoscopic ultrasound was necessary to identify 2 of the seven pheochromocytomas
removed."
Shen et al.70advised laparoscopic adrenalectomy for patients with primary hyperaldosteronism. The authors report that this
laparoscopic procedure yields similar results with respect to blood pressure and hypokalemia and is accompanied by lower
morbidity than the open procedure. Patients with less severe hypertension and hypokalemia are now undergoing this procedure.
A seven-year study of laparoscopic adrenalectomies by Brunt et al.71concluded the following:
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy is a safe and effective procedure and has several advantages over open adrenalectomy.
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy should become the preferred operative approach for the treatment of patients with small,
benign adrenal neoplasms.
In commentary on the Washington University findings, Prinz72wisely stated that adrenal glands should be removed in toto with
their capsule intact. Prinz agreed with Brunt and colleagues that increased tumor size greatly decreased the advisability of
laparoscopy. Siperstein et al.73stated that laparoscopic posterior adrenalectomy should be considered in patients with tumors
less than 6 cm. Staren and Prinz74concluded that more than 60 percent of surgically treatable adrenal disease may be
approached laparoscopically.
Walz et al.75stated that in selected cases subtotal adrenalectomy via posterior approach retroperitoneoscopically is a safe
procedure.
Kollmorgen et al.76compared acute-phase response and wound healing in laparoscopic and open posterior adrenalectomy in 40
pigs. They concluded that laparoscopic adrenalectomy compared favorably enough that study of its use should continue. Ting et
al.77stated that laparoscopic adrenalectomy is replacing posterior adrenalectomy.
Barry et al.78stated that for small incidentalomas considered benign or nonfunctioning the appropriate treatment is conservative
management, rather than laparoscopic removal.
Barresi and Prinz79stated the following:
Conventional surgical approaches, particularly the transabdominal and thoracoabdominal approaches, will undoubtedly be
required to treat certain lesions of the adrenal gland. This is especially true when dealing with larger tumors, and those
suspicious for malignancy. Surgeons with an interest in treating patients with adrenal disorders must become proficient in
the technique of lapraroscopic adrenalectomy. This will allow them to offer their patients the most appropriate means of
operative therapy suitable for their individual problems.
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. .
can be ligated.84Hepatic resection after major hepatic vein ligation is necessary in some animals, but not in humans.
INFERIOR VENA CAVA
Avoid aggressive lateral retraction of the adrenal gland. Traction on the right adrenal vein may rupture the vena cava;
hemorrhage here is difficult to control, and immediate repair is nec essary.
SUPERIOR RENAL POLAR ARTERY
As on the left, the occasional polar artery lies close to the operative field and can be injured. If injured, it can be ligated.
GASTRODUODENAL ARTERY
The gastroduodenal artery should be identified and avoided during the Kocher maneuver. If it is injured, ligation is necessary.
Organ Injury
LIVER
Injury to the liver can result from excessive retraction. Pressure, cautery, Gelfoam, or Avitene can be used in repair.
DUODENUM
Mobilization and reflection can injure the duodenum and may result in a catastrophic postoperative duodenal fistula. Avoid sharp
dissection, and be prepared to repair the defect.
Posterior Approach for Adrenalectomy
Vascular Injury
SUPERIOR RENAL POLAR ARTERIES
As in other approaches, the superior renal polar arteries, which are inconstant, are vulnerable to inadvertent injury. They can be
ligated if necessary.
LEFT ADRENAL VEIN
Before mobilizing and clamping the left adrenal vein, the inferior vena cava should be freed up sufficiently to place a clamp on it
in case ligation of either vessel should become necessary.
RIGHT HEPATIC VEIN
The right hepatic vein lies just cephalad to the right adrenal vein. It can be torn by excessive traction. It can be ligated.
INFERIOR VENA CAVA
In a right adrenalectomy, the vena cava can be injured by retraction or sharp dissection. Such injury must be repaired.
Remember in retracting the liver that the veins from the caudate lobe often drain directly into the anterior surface of the inferior
vena cava. Such veins, like the right adrenal vein, are often very short.
Organ Injury
PLEURA
The pleura at the 12th rib must be identified and pushed out of the way. Flint and Bartels58found 4 cases of perforated pleura
among 29 exposures of the adrenal glands.
If perforation occurs, it is necessary to evacuate air from the pleural cavity by catheter, with pulmonary inflation. Repair the
pleural defect if possible.
TWELFTH SUBCOSTAL NERVE
The 12th subcostal nerve should be protected. Its injury will result in hyperesthesia or dysesthesia in the groin.
RENAL CAPSULE
Excessive retraction can tear the renal capsule. Repair it if necessary. The adrenal gland, in some cases, receives inferior adrena
arterial supply from capsular branches of the renal arteries.
PANCREAS
Remember that in the posterior approach, the pancreas lies just beneath the left adrenal gland. See details in the "Anterior
Approach for Left Adrenalectomy" section.
Thoracoabdominal Approach for Adrenalectomy
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Vascular Injury
These injuries are the same as in anterior approaches.
Organ Injury
In the thoracoabdominal approach, the lung and phrenic nerve are at risk in addition to the organs that are subject to injury in
an anterior approach to the adrenal glands (splenic capsule and spleen, pancreas, left renal capsule, left colon, liver, duodenum)
If the pleura is entered, there is a possibility of injury to the lung; such injury must be repaired.
Incision of the diaphragm must be planned to avoid sectioning major branches of the phrenic nerve. Fig. 27-29 shows permissible
incisions of the diaphragm from above.85
Fig. 27-29.
Schematization showing chief branches of phrenic nerves on cranial surface of diaphragm. Dashed linesindicate location of incisions
that will avoid phrenic nerves. A,The diaphragmatic component of a combined abdominothoracic incision extending down into the
esophageal hiatus. B,C ircumferential incision. C, D,Incisions extending from lateral (midaxillary) and posterior costa l areas into thecentral tendon (from above). (Modified from Merendino KA. The intrad iaphragmatic distribution of the phrenic nerve. Surg Clin North Am
1964;44:1217; with permission.)
In a select group of patients with Cushing's syndrome, bilateral adrenalectomy is necessary and effective. However, this surgery
is associated with occasional morbidity and mortality. According to O'Riordain et al.,86long-term sequelae are not well known.
NOTE:For further reading about the adrenal glands, the authors highly recommend Surgery of the Suprarenal Glands,edited by H
William Scott, Jr.87
Read an Editorial Comment
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