-
State of Israel established.1948
Egypt‘s President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez
Canal.
1956
Iran-Iraq War begins.1980
Israel‘s prime minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated.
1995
20001972 1944
24C h a p t e r
1945–Present
The Middle East
> Nationalism The cold war andrival nationalisms affect the
politicsof the Middle East. Section 1
> Cooperation Middle Easternnations take steps toward
peaceafter years of conflict. Section 2
> Cultural Diffusion Middle Easterncountries search for a
reconciliationbetween traditional and modernvalues. Section 3
SThetoryteller
In the fall of 1993, a remarkable event occurred that, to
many people, seemed like a miracle. Yitzhak Rabin, the prime
minister of Israel, and Yasir Arafat, the chairman of the
Pales-
tine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed an agreement to
end
the decades-long conflict between Israel and the Palestinian
Arabs.
In 1995 Rabin’s assassination stunned Israel and the
world, revealing that the quest for peace is often an uphill
strug-
gle marked by tragedy. Since 1945 the Middle East has shown
itself to be a complex region where violence has been a
constant
feature of life but where hopes for peace remain
unquenchable.
How have Middle Eastern developments affected worldaffairs since
1945? What steps have the nations of the MiddleEast taken to
resolve their differences?
Historical Significance
724
Chapter Themes
-
Chapter 24 The Middle East 725
Create an illustrated time line ofconflicts and peace
conferences or accordsin the Middle East beginning in 1948and
ending at the present. Illustrate yourtime line with symbols of
peace and war.
Your History Journal
Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) is Turkey’s largest cityand
one of the busiest ports in the Middle East.History
Visualizing
Chapter Overview
Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at world
history.me.glencoe.com and clickon Chapter 24—Chapter Overview to
previewthe chapter.
http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter24/overview.html
-
I n the decades after World War II, nation-alist movements took
hold in the MiddleEast. For more than 20 years, GreatBritain and
France had governed much of the areaunder the terms of post–World
War I agreements.Gradually the presence of foreign officials
andtroops on Middle Eastern soil revived the desire
forindependence, as it did in Asia and Africa.
While most Middle Eastern countries shook offEuropean control in
the postwar years, foreigninfluence in the region remained strong.
With itsvaluable waterways and oil reserves, the MiddleEast became
the scene of superpower maneuveringfor influence during the cold
war.
Arab IndependenceSeveral Arab countries, such as Egypt and
Iraq, had achieved independence before World WarII. During the
1940s, other European-ruled Arabterritories followed. The
Mediterranean coastallands of Lebanon and Syria won their
freedomfrom France. In Lebanon, Christian and Muslimleaders agreed
to share power under a new consti-tution, while Syria elected its
first parliamentarygovernment. The largely desert kingdom
ofTransjordan (present-day Jordan) gained its inde-pendence from
Great Britain. In all of these newstates, however, Western
influences remainedstrong after independence.
As independent Arab states emerged, Pan-Arabism, a movement
aimed at building clos-er cultural and political ties among Arabs,
grewstronger, especially among the educated urbanmiddle class. In
1945, leaders of Egypt, Iraq,Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi
Arabia, andYemen formed the Arab League. Its mission was tounify
the Arab world.
726 Chapter 24 The Middle East
Israel and Arab statesfight first conflict. 1948 Iran
nationalizes foreign-
owned oil industries.1951 Political crisis
engulfs Lebanon.1958
1945 19651955
In spite of the separate living arrangements,members of a
kibbutz family do not becomestrangers to one another.… Kibbutz
parents spenda great deal of their free time with their
children.…Parents and children enjoy each other all the more
when they meet just for fun andcompanionship.
Kibbutz-niks[residents of a kibbutz] takegood care of their elderly
par-ents, too. There is less frictionamong kibbutz
grandparents,parents, and children.… Thereis less divorce—fewer
marriageproblems.
—adapted from Israel Today,Harry Essrig and AbrahamSegal,
1977
S e c t i o n 1
Nationalism in the Middle East
SThetoryteller
Children in akibbutz
> Terms to DefinePan-Arabism, kibbutzim, nationalize,pact
> People to MeetDavid Ben-Gurion, Gamal AbdelNasser, Hussein
I, Mohammad RezaPahlavi, Mohammad Mossadeg
> Places to LocateEgypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia, Yemen, Israel, SuezCanal, Turkey, Iran
Read to Find Out Main Idea Nationalism helped to estab-lish
independent nations and create conflictin the Middle East after
World War II.
-
Formation of IsraelBy 1947, Palestine remained the only
significant
European-ruled territory in the region. Arabs, whohad lived in
Palestine for centuries, wanted theBritish to honor their promise
of freedom made inthe early 1900s. Zionist Jews wanted to build
aJewish state on the same land—land that theirancestors had claimed
since Biblical times and thatthe British had also promised to
them.
The Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Europe hadboosted support in
Western countries for theZionist movement. Fearing that the British
wouldallow increased Jewish immigration, Arabs inPalestine
increased attacks on Jewish settlers. Manyof Palestine’s Jews lived
on kibbutzim, or collectivefarms, where they struggled to turn
swamps andboulder-strewn hillsides into productive farms. Todefend
themselves, Jewish settlements relied on amilitary force called the
Haganah. Meanwhile,Jewish underground forces carried out attacks
onBritish soldiers and Palestinian Arabs. As hostilitiesmounted,
Great Britain admitted its inability tokeep the peace and turned
Palestine over to theUnited Nations in 1947.
For months, world leaders debated the futureof Palestine. The
United States, the Soviet Union,and much of the West wanted to
divide Palestineinto a Jewish and an Arab state. Arab nations,
alongwith several European and Pacific nations, rejectedthe idea
and called for a single Palestinian state. OnNovember 29, 1947, the
General Assembly voted topartition Palestine and to place Jerusalem
underUN control.
Jewish leaders were quick to accept the UNpartition plan, while
embittered Arab leaders reject-ed it. Great Britain relinquished
control of Palestineon May 14, 1948, as Prime Minister David
Ben-Gurion proclaimed the new state of Israel. Within24 hours, the
armies of Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Egypt,and Transjordan attacked the
new Jewish state.With foreign aid and effective civilian and
militaryorganization, the Israelis defeated the Arab forcesin nine
months.
When the fighting ended in early 1949, Israelheld more
territory. Jerusalem was divided, withthe eastern part of the city
in Arab hands.Transjordan annexed East Jerusalem and the WestBank
of the Jordan River. Egypt held the Gaza Strip.The war was a
resounding victory for Israel. To theArabs, the war spelled
disaster. As a result of parti-tion, more than 700,000 Palestinians
became home-less. Many fled to neighboring Arab lands, where alarge
number settled in refugee camps hoping toeventually return
home.
Arab UnityThe 1948–1949 war had other serious conse-
quences for the Arab world. In Egypt, many peopleblamed rich,
corrupt King Farouk for the Arabdefeat and the country’s weak
economy. In 1952army officers seized control of the government
andproclaimed a republic. Within a year, ColonelGamal Abdel Nasser,
a leader of the coup, tookover as president.
Nasser profoundly disliked Western influencein the Middle East,
and quickly launched new poli-cies through which he hoped Egypt
would lead theArab world to greatness. In an extremely popularmove,
Nasser broke up the estates of wealthyEgyptian landowners and gave
plots of land to thepeasants. Then he negotiated the British
withdraw-al from the Suez Canal. Finally, he set out to mod-ernize
Egypt and build up its military muscle toconfront Israel.
The Suez CrisisNasser wanted to help Egypt by building a dam
at Aswan in the Upper Nile River valley. Known asthe Aswan High
Dam, the massive structure—36stories high and more than 2 miles (3
km) wide—would end flooding, increase irrigation, and givefarmers
two extra harvests a year. Electricity gener-ated by the dam would
power new industries.
Seeking political influence, the United Statesoffered Egypt a
$270 million loan to build the dam.However, Nasser also wanted
weapons to modern-ize his army, but the West refused to sell arms
tohim. Nasser then made an arms deal with theSoviets. This caused
the United States to angrily
Chapter 24 The Middle East 727
Despite British restrictions on immi-gration, Jews aboard the
Exodus tried
to migrate to Palestine in 1947. Why did Great Britainturn
Palestine over to the United Nations in 1947?
HistoryVisualizing
-
withdraw its offer. In July 1956 Nasser retaliatedagainst the
Western powers by nationalizing, orbringing under government
control, the SuezCanal. He vowed to use millions of dollars in
canalfees to finance the building of the dam.
President Eisenhower was opposed to Westernintervention, and the
United States tried to negotiatean end to the crisis. Great Britain
and France, how-ever, feared that Nasser might close the canal and
cutoff shipments of oil between the Middle East andWestern Europe.
In October, the two European pow-ers joined Israel in invading
Egypt. Great Britain and
France hoped to overthrow Nasser and seize thecanal. Israel
wanted to end Egyptian guerrillaattacks on its borders. The United
States immediate-ly sponsored a United Nations resolution calling
forBritish and French withdrawal from Egypt. TheRussians threatened
rocket attacks on British andFrench cities. Eisenhower, opposed to
Soviet inter-ference, put the Strategic Air Command on alert.
Inface of this pressure, the three nations pulled out ofEgypt.
United Nations forces were sent to patrol theEgyptian-Israeli
border. Nasser then accepted theSoviet offer to build the Aswan
High Dam.
728 Chapter 24 The Middle East
Cairo
Jerusalem
Beirut Damascus
Amman
Baghdad
Manama
DohaMuscat
San‘a
Abu Dhabi
Riyadh
Kuwait
Ankara
Tehran
EGYPT
YEMEN
SAUDIARABIA
UNITED ARABEMIRATES
OMAN
QATAR
BAHRAIN
KUWAIT
IRAQIRAN
JORDAN
ISRAELLEBANON
SYRIA
Golan Heights
West BankGaza Strip
SINAIPENINSULA
TURKEY
N
E
S
W
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
0 200
200
400 mi.
0 400 km
Disputed boundaryUndefined boundary Arabian
SeaNile River
Red
Sea
CaspianSea
Persian Gulf
MediterraneanSea
Black Sea
of Horm u z
Strait
The Middle East
Middle Eastern politics are directly affected by the region’s
location and resources.Region Why do you think the Strait of Hormuz
is of crucial importance to the United States, Western Europe,
Japan, and other parts of the world?
MapStudy
30°E 50°E
40°N
20°N
-
Arab NationalismNasser emerged from the Suez crisis as a
pow-
erful Arab leader. He had embarrassed GreatBritain and France,
won control of the Suez Canal,and had stopped Israel from taking
more territory.Pro-Nasser parties began forming throughout theArab
world. It seemed that Nasser might rise tolead a unified Arab
world.
In early 1958 Syria and Egypt merged to form aNasser-led state
called the United Arab Republic(UAR). The union lasted about three
years. At thatpoint, Syrian leaders had grown resentful of the
lossof their power, and Syria withdrew from the UAR.
That same year, Nasser’s brand of Arab nation-alism seemed to be
taking hold in Iraq. There, KingFaisal II, Nasser’s strongest Arab
opponent and afriend of the West, was killed by radical
politicaland military forces who set up a one-party regimelike
Nasser’s and broke ties with the West.
In the face of pro-Nasser pressure, some Arableaders turned to
the West for support. Jordan’sHussein I asked for British and
American help whenpro-Nasser forces threatened his government.
InLebanon, violence broke out between the Christians,who dominated
the nation, and a huge Muslim pop-ulation that sympathized with
Nasser and the UAR.Christian President Camille Chamoun, a
supporterof the West, sought election to a new term. Anti-Western
elements revolted, and a civil war followed.Chamoun asked for
Western help to stop the vio-lence. At first, Eisenhower refused.
However, whenan unexpected coup overthrew the government ofIraq,
Eisenhower decided to uphold political stabilityin the region. He
sent 15,000 Marines to Lebanon inJuly 1958. When order was restored
that fall, thetroops pulled out.
By 1960 Arab nationalism had made gains, butthe Middle East was
in a state of uncertainty. Afragile truce held between Arabs and
Israelis; com-peting Arab groups were at an impasse; and
neithersuperpower had managed to achieve dominance inthe
region.
Pro-Western TierTwo other Middle Eastern countries, Turkey
and Iran, experienced the upheaval of nationalismand rapid
modernization. Both bordered the SovietUnion, making them pawns in
cold war struggles.
TurkeyAt the end of World War II, Turkey received
American aid to modernize its economy and toward off Soviet
advances. During the 1950s, theTurks joined NATO and the Baghdad
Pact, alliancesaimed at blocking Soviet expansion. Turkey alsomade
strides toward democracy, encouraged for-eign investment, and
strengthened its capitalisteconomy. By the 1960s, however,
government cor-ruption, inflation, and a huge international
debtdiscredited Turkey’s ruling politicians andincreased the
political influence of the military.
IranBy contrast, Western influence in oil-rich Iran
was shaken after World War II. The young shah,Mohammad Reza
Pahlavi, relied on Western helpto block Soviet influence. Many
Iranian people,however, resented the West. For decades, the
Britishhad grown rich on Iranian oil at Iran’s expense.
In 1951, a wealthy politician, MohammadMossadeg, became prime
minister. He nationalizedthe British-owned oil industry and
declared that alloil money would be used for social and
economicreforms. Great Britain called for a world boycott ofIranian
oil. As Iranians began to suffer, their hatredof the West and the
shah grew.
In 1953 growing support for Mossadeg forcedthe shah to flee the
country. He returned after a mil-itary coup—promoted by the United
States—deposed Mossadeg. The shah increased his ties tothe United
States and signed the Baghdad Pact. Apact is a treaty between two
or more nations. Healso signed an agreement with Western oil
compa-nies. The shah was firmly in control by the 1960s.
Chapter 24 The Middle East 729
Main Idea1. Use a web diagram like the one
below to identify effects ofnationalism in the Middle Eastafter
World War II.
Recall2. Define Pan-Arabism,
kibbutzim, nationalize, pact.3. Identify David Ben-Gurion,
Gamal Abdel Nasser, UnitedArab Republic, Hussein I,Mohammad Reza
Pahlavi,Mohammad Mossadeg.
Critical Thinking4. Applying Information How
did the Holocaust contribute tothe development of Israel?
Understanding Themes5. Nationalism How was Nasser
viewed by the Arab world afterhe nationalized the Suez
Canal?
SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT
Effects ofNationalism
-
F rom the 1960s to the 1990s, many sweep-ing changes came to the
Middle East.Wars broke out between various nationsand groups in the
region, but hopes for peace werealso high, especially in the early
1990s.
As the 1960s opened, the most bitter dispute wasbetween Israel
and its Arab neighbors, especially thePalestinians. In their
struggle for nationhood, thePalestinians in 1964 formed the
Palestine LiberationOrganization (PLO) to eliminate Israel and to
create aPalestinian state. Later, however, many Palestiniansand
Israelis favored a two-state solution: a state forIsraelis and a
state for Palestinians.
Arab-Israeli ConflictThe cease-fire between Israel and its
Arab
neighbors fell apart during the 1960s. A new radicalregime in
Syria sought the end of Israel and the cre-ation of an Arab
Palestine. Syrian and Israeli troopsengaged in border clashes in
early 1967. Egypt’sPresident Nasser aided Syria by closing the Gulf
ofAqaba to Israel and by having United Nationsforces removed from
the Israeli-Egyptian border.
Six-Day WarFearing possible attack, Israel responded with
force on June 5, 1967. At 8:45 A.M., Israeli fighter jetsbore
down on 17 Egyptian airfields, destroying 300of Egypt’s 350
warplanes. Hundreds of miles away,Israeli jets also demolished the
air forces of Iraq,Jordan, and Syria. Israeli land troops invaded
partsof Egypt and Syria. The war ended on June 11.
In the Six-Day War, Israeli forces tripled Israel’sland
holdings, seizing the Sinai Peninsula and theGaza Strip from Egypt,
and the Golan Heights
730 Chapter 24 The Middle East
Israel and Arab nations fight Six-Day War.
1967 Israelis and Palestinians agree to end their conflicts.
1993 Iraq invades Kuwait. 1990 Revolution establishes
Islamic republic in Iran. 1979
1965 1975 19951985
When Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi wasoverthrown in 1979, Iran had
male tailors fitting
women’s clothes and male teachersin girls’ classrooms. The
revolu-tionaries, however, refused toallow unrelated men and
womento work closely together. Theresult: many more job
opportuni-ties for women. In the media, forexample, the need for
women tocover women’s sports opened jobsfor directors and
reporters.
—adapted from Nine Parts ofDesire, The Hidden World of
IslamicWomen, Geraldine Brooks, 1995
S e c t i o n 2
War and Peace in the Middle East
SThetoryteller
Shah MohammadReza Pahlavi
> Terms to Definedisengagement, cartel, intifada, embargo
> People to MeetYasir Arafat, Anwar el-Sadat, Menachem Begin,
Hosni Mubarak,Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres, EhudBarak, Abdullah II,
Ayatollah RuhollahKhomeini, Saddam Hussein
> Places to LocateGaza Strip, Golan Heights, West
Bank,Beirut, Strait of Hormuz, Kuwait
Read to Find Out Main Idea Since the mid-1960s, issues ofpeace
and war in the Middle East have beendecided both violently and
diplomatically.
-
from Syria. When Jordan entered the war, Israelitroops also took
East Jerusalem.
In a move that spawned decades of upheaval,Israel occupied the
West Bank of the Jordan River.The West Bank was land that had been
designated aspart of Arab Palestine in the United Nations
partitionplan in 1947. Palestinian Arabs had never
achievedself-rule, however; they had been under Jordanianrule ever
since 1949, when Jordan annexed the WestBank. Now, as a result of
the Six-Day War, the area’smore than 1 million Palestinians found
themselvesunder Israeli military occupation.
Thousands more Palestinians fled to neighbor-ing countries such
as Lebanon. They turned morethan ever to the PLO and its militant
leader, YasirArafat, who vowed to use armed struggle to estab-lish
a Palestinian state.
The United Nations asked Israel to pull out ofoccupied
territories and asked Arab nations to recog-nize Israel’s right to
exist. Both sides refused. Terroristattacks and border raids
continued for many years.
Oil and ConflictNasser died in 1970. His successor,
President
Anwar el-Sadat, led Arab forces in a new waragainst Israel. On
October 6, 1973, Egyptian andSyrian forces launched a surprise
attack on Israelimilitary positions on the Jewish holy day of
YomKippur and during the Muslim holy month ofRamadan. In early
battles, many Israeli planes wereshot down. Egyptian troops crossed
over into theSinai, and Syria moved into the Golan Heights.With an
American airlift of weapons, Israel struckback. Israeli troops
crossed the Suez Canal andoccupied Egyptian territory. The fighting
rageduntil the UN negotiated a cease-fire. Secretary ofState Henry
Kissinger negotiated a disengagement,or military withdrawal,
agreement in early 1974.
American support of Israel during the 1973 warangered Arab
countries. Attempting to halt Westernsupport, Arab oil countries
imposed an embargo onoil sales to Israel’s allies in 1973.
Additional pres-sure came from the Organization of
PetroleumExporting Countries (OPEC), a cartel, or group
ofbusinesses formed to regulate production andprices among its
members. OPEC, which includedArab and non-Arab oil producers,
quadrupled theprice of oil. However, the embargo threatened
suchdire economic problems for the world, includingArab countries,
that it was lifted in 1974.
The Camp David AccordsIn 1977, Egypt’s President Sadat acted
inde-
pendently to break the deadlock. He accepted aninvitation to
visit Israel, becoming the first Arab
leader to step in peace on Israeli soil. In a speechbefore
Israel’s parliament, Sadat called for Arabacceptance of Israel, a
just solution to thePalestinian problem, and an end to hostilities
be-tween Israelis and Arabs.
The next year Sadat accepted an invitation fromUnited States
President Jimmy Carter to meet with Israeli Prime Minister Menachem
Begin(BAY•gihn). The 12 days of meetings at CampDavid in Maryland
resulted in the Camp DavidAccords, the basis for an Arab-Israeli
peace treaty.
Sadat and Begin signed the treaty in March1979—the first time an
Arab nation recognizedIsrael’s right to exist. In return, Israel
gave up theSinai Peninsula. Many nations applauded Sadat’sactions,
but several Arab states broke ties withEgypt. Sadat’s separate
peace with Israel, they said,threatened Arab unity.
In 1981 Muslim extremists assassinated Sadat,and Hosni Mubarak
succeeded him as president.Mubarak supported Egypt’s peace with
Israel butalso worked to improve Egypt’s relations withother Arab
nations in the region. At home, he facedeconomic pressures caused
by Egypt’s soaring pop-ulation and lack of resources. Another
challenge toMubarak came from a growing opposition move-ment led by
Islamicist groups that wanted to endWestern influences in
Egypt.
Chapter 24 The Middle East 731
Yasir Arafat became chairman of thePalestine Liberation
Organization
(PLO) in 1969. He is now president of the PalestinianAuthority.
Why was the PLO formed?
HistoryVisualizing
-
The Palestinian IssueFor 20 years after the 1967 war, Arabs
and
Israelis could not agree on the future of the WestBank and Gaza
Strip. Resenting Israeli rule,Palestinians lived in a smoldering
rage. Most couldget only low-paying jobs; those who protestedcould
be arrested. During this time, the PLO stagedhijackings and
bombings in Israel and in foreigncountries.
In 1987 the Palestinians carried out an intifada,or uprising,
against the Israelis. The uprising spreadfrom the Gaza Strip to the
West Bank. Workers wenton strike, and protesters hurled stones at
Israeli soldiers and civilians. The intifada focused worldattention
on the Palestinian issue.
In 1988 the PLO’s leader Arafat stated that hewould renounce
terrorism and accept Israel’s rightto exist. However, believing
that Arafat would notbe true to his word, Israel refused to hold
talks withthe PLO and to halt the growth of Jewish settle-ments in
the West Bank.
The Peace Process Despite continuing tensions in the Middle
East,
the United States pressed the Arabs and Israelis tohold peace
talks beginning in 1991 in Madrid,Spain. The Israeli Prime Minister
Yitzhak Rabin(YIHT•zahk rah•BEEN), elected in 1992, agreed
inprinciple to exchange some of the occupied land forsecurity
guarantees and to accept self-rule by thePalestinians. Many Arab
leaders also showed a newflexibility in their positions.
In 1993, Israel and the PLO recognized eachother and agreed to
eventual self-rule forPalestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza
Strip.The Israelis also stated they would gradually with-draw
militarily from both areas. By mid-1996, thePalestinians had gained
significant self-rule withYasir Arafat as their first
president.
The peace process also reached out to Israel’sArab neighbors:
Jordan and Syria. In 1994, Israeland Jordan signed a peace treaty,
the first suchagreement between Israel and an Arab countrysince the
Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty of 1979. Syria
of theof the
Living in theMiddle East
Daily life in the Middle Easttoday is a blend of modern
andtraditional ways as well asurban and rurallifestyles.
732
Beirut,Lebanon, isrebuilding its neigh-borhoods after a long
peri-od of civil war.
Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, is amodern port city on the Red Seathat
has prospered from thecountry’s oil wealth.
-
and Israel began talks, but a major obstacle betweenthem was the
future status of the Golan Heights,occupied by Israel since the
1967 war.
Increased TensionsAlthough many Israelis and Palestinians
sup-
ported the peace process, a large number on bothsides opposed
it. Some Palestinians feared thatpeace would lead to a
less-than-independentPalestinian state subject to Israeli
restrictions.Israeli opponents of the process feared that a
self-governing Palestinian state could threaten Israel.
Unexpectedly, in November 1995, Rabin wasshot to death by an
Israeli student who opposed thepeace process. Rabin’s successor,
Shimon Peres(shee•MOHN PEHR•ehs), pledged to continueefforts toward
peace, and Yasir Arafat made thesame commitment. However, events
followed thatheightened tensions and hardened positions onboth
sides.
Opposed to the peace process, the militantPalestinian group
Hamas in early 1996 began a
series of suicide bombings that killed a number ofIsraelis.
Shocked by the violence, Israeli voters thatMay narrowly elected
Benjamin Netanyahu(neh•tahn•YAH•hoo), leader of the
conservativeLikud party, over Peres and the Labor party.
After the Israeli elections, Hamas stepped up itsattacks on
Israeli citizens. To keep would-bebombers out of Israeli cities,
Netanyahu closed offPalestinian areas from Israel. He refused to
carry outpromises to withdraw military forces from remain-ing
Palestinian areas (except for the town ofHebron) until the bombings
stopped.
During the late 1990s, Israelis feared continuedattacks, while
Palestinians protested what they feltwere Israeli efforts to block
progress toward theirfreedom. Palestinians especially opposed
Jewishsettlements in the West Bank. As turmoil threat-ened, the
United States tried to get the two sidestogether.
With the help of Jordan’s King Hussein, talksheld outside of
Washington, D.C., in late 1998 final-ly moved the peace process
forward. In the Wye
REFLECTING ON THE TIMES
1. What impact has oil had on various countriesof the Middle
East?
2. What country in the Middle East is rebuildingafter a long
period of civil war?
733
The Galilee region of Israel has areas whereswamps and lakes
have been drained to create pro-ductive farmlands.
Kuwait on the PersianGulf has an economybased on oil.
Anincreasing number ofwomen in the MiddleEast, as in other areas
ofthe world, earn univer-sity degrees and work inbusinesses.
-
River Memorandum, Israel agreed to hand overmore land to the
Palestinians, and the Palestiniansagreed to combat terrorism.
Progress seemed to fade, however, whenNetanyahu refused to turn
over the agreed-uponland. Another setback was the Jordanian
king’sdeath in early 1999.
In May of 1999, Israelis elected a new leader,Ehud Barak. The
former chief of staff of the IsraeliDefense Forces, Barak promised
to renew the peaceprocess. Jordan’s new King Abdullah II
alsopledged to work toward this goal.
LebanonThe Palestinian issue also affected neighboring
Lebanon. In 1975 a civil war broke out betweenLebanon’s
Christian and Muslim groups. As theMuslim population grew to
outnumber Christians,unrest had spread. Adding to these tensions
wasthe presence of armed PLO forces in the country.Most Lebanese
Muslims supported the PLO; mostLebanese Christians did not.
As fighting erupted, the weakened Lebanesegovernment asked Syria
to send in troops to keep
order. In 1982 the Israelis invaded southernLebanon to wipe out
PLO bases housing Israel’sattackers. A multinational peacekeeping
force finally arranged a PLO withdrawal to other Arabcountries;
however, private armies continued fight-ing among themselves. After
foreign troops becamevictims of terrorist bombings, the
peacekeepingforce departed by 1985.
In the early 1990s, some signs of hopeappeared. Lebanon agreed
to give Muslims anequitable say in the political process, and the
vari-ous private armies in Beirut pulled out of the city,which made
rapid strides in rebuilding. By themid-1990s, Lebanon had made
progress towardstability. Tensions remained, however, and bothSyria
and Israel kept troops in the country.
Iran’s RevolutionDuring the 1960s and 1970s, Iran became a
major military power in the Persian Gulf area. ShahMohammad Reza
Pahlavi worked to build a mod-ern industrial economy based on oil.
Shiite Muslimreligious leaders, however, disliked the influx
ofWestern values into Iran and called for a return toMuslim
traditions. The shah silenced all protestsand dissent.
In the late 1970s, anti-shah forces rallied aroundAyatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini (ko•MAY•nee), apowerful Shiite Muslim leader,
living in exile inFrance. Khomeini had long preached the
overthrowof the shah and the creation of a republic. ByJanuary
1979, widespread unrest forced the shah toflee Iran. Khomeini
returned to form a governmentbased on Islamic laws and
traditions.
Iranian hatred for the shah was also directed atthe United
States. The Americans had long sup-ported the shah, valuing Iran as
a major supplier ofoil and a reliable buffer against Soviet
expansion.Anti-American feelings were so strong that onNovember 4,
1979, militants stormed the Americanembassy in Tehran, the capital,
and took 52 Ameri-cans hostage. United States President Carter’s
effortsto free the hostages were unsuccessful, thus sealinghis
defeat in the 1980 presidential election. Onlyafter his successor,
Ronald Reagan, was sworn in onJanuary 20, 1981, did Iran release
the Americans.
During most of the 1980s, Iran fought a devastat-ing war with
neighboring Iraq. The Iraqis first seized a disputed border area
and then pushed into Iran. The Iranians, hoping to spread their
revolution into Iraq, responded with a fierce counter-attack. The
Iraqis had superior weapons and usedpoison gas; the Iranians,
however, had more troops.
734 Chapter 24 The Middle East
Israel’s most decorated war hero,Ehud Barak, was elected
prime
minister in 1999. What was Barak’s position regarding the peace
process?
HistoryVisualizing
-
Chapter 24 The Middle East 735
This giant portrait of Iraqi President SaddamHussein (left)
overlooks a Baghdad street.An inscription under the portrait in
redArabic characters praises the Arab forces inIraq’s struggle with
its Islamic but non-Arab enemyneighbor, Iran. In Iran the stern
gaze of the AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini peers from a mural
behindwomen attending the departure of soldiers for the
bat-tlefront in September 1988. With his zealous view ofIslam,
Khomeini, who died in 1989, regarded the sec-ular Saddam Hussein as
both an enemy and an infidel.
The Middle East has changed profoundly sinceWorld War II. What
was once an area largely held bythe Ottoman Empire and then by
European colonialpowers is now a region of independent nations.
Withthe end of imperialism came the rise of nationalism.At the same
time parts of the Islamic world have wit-nessed the rise of a
fiercely held fundamentalism thatviews the secular world, even the
Muslim secularworld, as evil and corrupt. In this context Iran
andIraq fought a long and devastating war that lastedfrom 1980 to
1988. �
Mortal Enemies�
PICTURING HISTORY
Steve McCurry, Magnum Mohsen Shandiz, SYGMA
-
When both sides targeted commercial vessels in thePersian Gulf,
the United States sent naval forces toprotect the vital shipping
lanes running throughthe Strait of Hormuz. In 1988 Iran and Iraq,
bothexhausted, agreed to end the fighting.
After Khomeini’s death a year later, Iran’s lead-ers worked to
rebuild Iran’s crippled economy. In1997 a moderate religious
leader, MohammadKhatami, became president. Khatami supported
areduction in press censorship and closer economicties with the
West. Some Iranian leaders, however,opposed Khatami’s
liberalization measures. Astruggle between the moderates who
supportKhatami and the militant conservatives continuesto preoccupy
Iran.
Iraq’s Bid for PowerThe war with Iran left Iraq near collapse
and in
debt to its small, but oil-rich, neighbor, Kuwait. InAugust
1990, Iraq’s President Saddam Husseinsent Iraqi forces into Kuwait,
claiming that thecountry was a historic part of Iraq. In
occupyingKuwait, Hussein also wanted to expand Iraq’sinfluence in
the Persian Gulf region.
The Persian Gulf WarFearing an Iraqi attack, oil-rich Saudi
Arabia
asked the United States for protection. United
States President George Bush responded by send-ing troops to the
Saudi desert. Eight Arab nationsalso sent forces to Saudi Arabia.
At the urging of theUN, Western nations, the Soviet Union, and
Japanimposed a trade embargo, or a ban on the export ofgoods,
against Iraq.
In January 1991, after a UN deadline for anIraqi withdrawal
expired, the United States rainedmedium-range missiles on the Iraqi
capital ofBaghdad. During the next month, coalition forcesfrom the
United States, Great Britain, France, Syria,Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
and Kuwait conducted a mas-sive air war against Iraq. Iraq
responded by launch-ing missiles against Saudi Arabia and Israel.
Iraqiforces in Kuwait also set fire to oil fields. When Iraqstill
refused to withdraw, coalition land forcesmoved into Iraq and
Kuwait, defeating the Iraqisafter a mere 100 hours of fighting.
With Kuwaitfreed, a cease-fire went into effect. Allied wardeaths
totaled just over 100, with tens of thousandsof Iraqi soldiers
believed killed.
Iraq After the WarAfter their victory, coalition forces
withdrew
from Iraq. Saddam Hussein, however, remained inpower. He
brutally crushed Kurdish and Shiitegroups in Iraq that used the war
to rebel against his authority. He also appeared to be rebuilding
hisstocks of chemical and biological weapons.
In 1997 a prolonged confrontation with SaddamHussein began after
Iraq expelled the Americanmembers of the UN team monitoring Iraq
for chem-ical and biological weapons. The following year,Iraq
expelled the entire UN monitoring team, inviolation of UN
agreements signed after the end ofthe Persian Gulf War.
In 1998 and 1999 the United States and Britainattacked Iraq in
an operation known as DesertFox. The purpose of the strikes was to
hit militaryand security targets that allow Iraq to produce,store,
maintain, and deliver weapons of massdestruction.
736 Chapter 24 The Middle East
Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one
below to summarize the issuesof peace and war in the MiddleEast
since the mid-1980s.
Recall2. Define disengagement, cartel,
intifada, embargo.3. Identify Yasir Arafat, Anwar el-
Sadat, Menachem Begin, HosniMubarak, Yitzhak Rabin, ShimonPeres,
Ehud Barak, Abdullah II,Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini,Saddam
Hussein.
Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information
How did the Persian Gulf War affect the Middle East?
Understanding Themes5. Cooperation What were the
major points of the 1993 agree-ment between Israel and
thePalestinians?
War and theEnvironmentDuring the Persian Gulf War,
Iraqi troops spilled an estimated 250 million gallons(947
million I) of Kuwait’s oil into the PersianGulf. Thousands of
birds, fish, and other marinelife perished when the oil spill
spread for 350miles (563 km) along the Persian Gulf coastline.
SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT
Issues of War and Peace
-
Chapter 24 The Middle East 737
In the last chapter, you wrote a research reporton some topic of
interest. To complete yourreport, you have one more step—preparing
abibliography.
Learning the SkillA bibliography is a list of sources used in
a
research report. These sources include: books;articles from
newspapers, magazines, and jour-nals; interviews; films,
videotapes, audiotapes,and compact discs.
There are two main reasons to write a bibli-ography. First,
those who read your report maywant to learn more about the topic.
Second, a bib-liography supports the reliability of your
report.
A bibliography should follow a definite for-mat. The entry for
each source must contain allthe information needed to find that
source:author, title, publisher information, and publica-tion date.
You should have this informationalready on note cards.
In a bibliography, arrange entries alphabeti-cally by the
author’s last name. The following are accepted formats for
bibliography entries, followed by sample entries.
BooksAuthor’s last name, first name. Full Title. Place
of publication: publisher, copyright date.Holiday, Laurel.
Children of Israel, Children of
Palestine: Our Own True Stories. New York:Washington Square
Press, 1999.
ArticlesAuthor’s last name, first name. “Title of Article.”
Name of Periodical in which article appears,Volume number (date
of issue): page numbers.
Watson, Bruce. “The New Peace Corps in theNew Kazakhstan.”
Smithsonian, Vol. 25(August 1994): pp. 26–35.
Other SourcesFor other kinds of sources, adapt the format
for book entries.
Practicing the SkillReview the sample bibliography below for
a
report on Mexico. Then answer the questions thatfollow.
Castañeda, Jorge G. The Mexican Shock: ItsMeaning for the United
States. New York:The New Press, 1995.
Oppenheimer, Andres. Bordering on Chaos:Mexico’s Roller-Coaster
Journey toProsperity. New York, New York, Little,Brown & Co,
1998.
Cockburn, A., “The Fire This Time.” Condé NastTraveller, Vol. 30
(June 1995): pp. 104–113.
Smith, G. “The Brave New World of MexicanPolitics.” Business
Week (August 28, 1995)pp. 42–44.
1. Are the bibliography entries in the correctorder? Why or why
not?
2. What is wrong with the second book listing?3. What is missing
from the second article listing?
Applying the SkillCompile a bibliography for your research
report. Include at least five sources, preferably amix of books
and articles. Exchange bibliogra-phies with another student and
check each otherfor proper format and arrangement.
For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter
Assessment on page 747 for more practice inpreparing a
bibliography.
Preparing a Bibliography
Study and WritingStudy and Writing
The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides
instruction and practice in key social studies skills.
-
T he tragic cycle of violence, warsbetween nations, and civil
wars withinnations have brought much suffering tothe people of the
Middle East since the end ofWorld War II. Since 1948 Israelis and
Arabs havefought four major wars. The civil war in Lebanonlargely
destroyed the country and killed andwounded thousands of civilians.
Besides the lostlives, billions of dollars of precious resources
arespent each year on weapons. If you speak to MiddleEasterners
about their hopes for the future, theyconsistently include peace
and stability. But peaceand stability have been hard to
achieve.
War and PeaceSince Egypt and Israel agreed to peace in 1979,
major steps have been taken in ending the state ofwar between
Israel and the rest of the Arab world.In 1993, the Israelis and the
Palestinians signed anagreement known as the Oslo Accords. A year
later,Jordan and Israel finally ended their conflict.Contacts also
began between Israel and Syria forthe settlement of issues related
to the Six-Day War.
West Bank and Gaza StripAfter successful peace efforts in the
early 1990s,
Israeli-Palestinian relations worsened in 1997.Hamas bombings
and the tough position of Israel’sconservative government
threatened the peaceprocess. Increasing tensions delayed
indefinitelyany resolution of the major issues dividing Israelisand
Palestinians. These issues include the timing ofIsraeli military
withdrawals from Palestinian areasin the West Bank and Gaza Strip,
the status ofJerusalem, and the future of Israeli Jewish settlerson
the West Bank. The election of Ehud Barak, how-ever, raised hopes
and gave the peace process anew momentum.
Jordan and Israelend their state of war.
1994 Israel and Egyptsign peace treaty. 1979 Arab nations
form
the Arab League.1945
1944 20001972
King Hussein ofJordan dies.
1999
An Israeli observer records the expulsion ofArabs from
Israeli-held territory: “Masses of peo-ple marched on behind the
next. Women bore bun-dles and sacks on their heads; mothers
draggedchildren after them. From close up it was sad towatch this
trek of thousands going into exile. As
soon as they left thecity, they began todivest themselves
ofthings … and theroads were clutteredwith the belongingsthat
people had aban-doned to make theirwalk easier.”
—from The People ofNowhere, DannyRubenstein, 1991
S e c t i o n 3
Challenges Facingthe Middle East
SThetoryteller
Palestinian Arabs in exile
738 Chapter 24 The Middle East
> Terms to Definesovereignty, desalination,
fundamentalism
> People to MeetShimon Peres, Hafez al-Assad, Benjamin
Netanyahu, Golda Meir,Tansu Çiller
> Places to LocateWest Bank, Gaza Strip, Jerusalem,Golan
Heights, Saudi Arabia, Cairo,Turkey, Euphrates River
Read to Find Out Main Idea People in the Middle East havehandled
the conflict between traditional cultureand modern values in
various ways.
-
Still another major issue is the resettlement ofPalestinians who
fled their homes beginning in the1948 Arab-Israeli conflict. Today,
more than 6 million Palestinian Arabs live in the Middle East,North
Africa, Europe, and the Americas. About 2 million Palestinians live
in the West Bank andGaza Strip. In addition, about 850,000 Israeli
Arabslive inside Israel itself and try to combine Israeli
citizenship with their Arab heritage.
Golan Heights and LebanonRelations between Israel and its
northern
neighbor, Syria, also need to improve before a gen-eral peace
can be achieved. The Golan Heights,which has been in Israeli hands
since 1967, is amajor area of dispute. Israeli Prime MinisterShimon
Peres and Syrian President Hafez al-Assad committed themselves to
settling this issue,but talks between Israel and Syria were
deadlockedafter the election of Israeli Prime MinisterBenjamin
Netanyahu in 1996. Three years later,Ehud Barak’s election enabled
negotiations toresume.
In neighboring Lebanon, the civil war hasended, and the country
is fast rebuilding its econo-my. In the south of Lebanon, Israeli
forces hold astrip of land for security purposes. They are
opposedby Shiite Muslim guerrillas. Attacks occur repeated-ly
between the two sides.
The Elusive DreamUnity among Arab people has long been a
powerful desire. For centuries, people throughoutthe Arab world
have shared strong cultural ties,such as language, traditions,
religious beliefs, and acommon history. British and French
imperialism inthe 1800s and 1900s increased division among theArabs
and created numerous states with artificialboundaries. Many Arabs
thought that with inde-pendence from foreign powers they would be
ableto achieve unity. They began to take steps tostrengthen the
common links among them.
In 1945 political unity seemed within reachwhen Egypt,
Transjordan (present-day Jordan),Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi
Arabia, and Yemenformed the Arab League. By 1995 its membershiphad
grown to 22 participants (including the PLO),with a population of
about 200 million. But disputesamong nations and their
unwillingness to give upsovereignty, or independent decision-making
pow-ers, blocked moves toward further unity.
Some political leaders and government officials have advocated a
cautious move toward
Chapter 24 The Middle East 739
unity. They formed cooperative councils amongtheir countries to
coordinate trade, economic devel-opment, and travel. Peoples’
aspirations and politi-cal realities, in time, may lead to some
type ofloose union in which each state retains indepen-dence and
contributes to stability in the region.
Economic DevelopmentsIn the past 40 years the Middle East has
seen
greatly changed economic and social conditions.Light and heavy
industry has been developed inmost countries of the region.
Irrigation for agricul-ture spread as hydroelectric projects were
con-structed on major rivers. At the same time as pro-duction rose
and jobs became available, the region’spopulation grew rapidly. If
the current rate ofincrease continues, the population will double
inthe next 25 years. The increase has been mostapparent in major
urban centers. By the year 2000,more than 7 cities had populations
exceeding 3 mil-lion each. The largest is Cairo, Egypt’s capital,
with12 million people. It is also the largest city on theentire
African continent. The needs and the chal-lenges of rapidly growing
populations are on theminds of every major leader in the Middle
East.
Oil and WaterOil-producing countries of the Middle East
have built wealthy and highly developed societies
Banking and financial services areimportant to the economies of
many
Middle Eastern countries. In what other ways haveMiddle Eastern
economies changed in the past 40 years?
HistoryVisualizing
-
CON
NECTIONS
CO
NNE
CTIONS
Compare water technology todaywith that used in the past. What
peo-ples relied on the Euphrates in ancienttimes? What lands depend
on theEuphrates today? Does Turkey have aright to build dams on the
river?
in recent years. The region’s highest per capitaincomes, or the
total national incomes divided bythe number of people in each
nation, are found inthe Persian Gulf countries. Their prosperity,
how-ever, contrasts sharply with the poverty of someother countries
in the region. Hoping to lessen thegap between rich and poor
nations, oil-producingcountries have invested in and loaned large
sums ofmoney to the non-oil producing countries.
Another valuable, but scarce, resource in theMiddle East is
water. The region has long had criti-cal water shortages caused by
an unequal distribu-tion of water. However, as Middle Eastern
coun-tries develop industrially and face population
increases, they are working to meet their waterneeds. For
example, Turkey has built dams andother water facilities on the
Euphrates River to irri-gate fertile, but dry, areas.
Other countries with water shortages includeIsrael, Syria, and
Jordan. If all three countries settletheir political differences,
they will be able to coor-dinate their water resources and build
plants fordesalination, the removal of salt from seawater tomake it
usable for drinking and farming. In 1997Israel and Jordan settled a
dispute about the shar-ing of water. At present, both countries are
con-structing dams on the Yarmuk River, which servesas part of the
Jordanian-Israeli border.
Social ChangeThroughout the Middle East, modernization
has turned traditional societies upside down. Withthe discovery
of oil, desert cities bloomed and newindustrial areas were created.
Urban areas now contain high-rise offices, shopping centers,
andfreeways. Foreign investment has created new jobsand raised
living standards. New wealth has led to
740 Chapter 24 The Middle East
Water From the EuphratesLike their ancient ancestors, people
in
the Middle East today rely on the EuphratesRiver for water. The
technology used for
obtaining the water, however, haschanged considerably over
thecenturies. To ensure their watersupply, the people of Turkey
todayrely on a series of huge dams onthe Euphrates. The dams’
reser-voirs provide water for Turkey’sexpanding industries and
urbancenters.
Turkey’s solution for its waterproblem, however, deprives
Syria
and Iraq of water from the same river. Iraqpotentially is the
worst off because it is thelast country that is situated along the
river.
The Turks claim they need the river tobetter their economy. They
hope to turnmore of the Anatolian Peninsula into farm-land. Crops
grown there are needed to feed
Turkey’s growing population, they say.Syria and Iraq claim that
Turkey does not
own the entire Euphrates River. They pointout that not only will
they lose water fromthe reduced flow, but that more will be lost
through evaporation from the Turkishreservoirs.
Experts state that this crisis can be easedby all three
countries repairing existing equipment, improving irrigation and
waterconservation methods, expanding water recycling, and sharing
water equitably. Thecountries also need to grow some crops thatdo
not require so much water. Above all,experts state that the
countries need to better manage their population growth.
Turkish dam on theEuphrates River
Student Web Activity 24
Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at
worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 24—Student Web
Activities for an activity relating to the Euphrates River.
http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter24/webact.html
-
better education and health care. In addition,women in the
region have made a growing impacton business and politics. In
politics, for example,Golda Meir (meh•IHR), who served as
Israeliprime minister from 1969 to 1974, was the modernMiddle
East’s first female head of government. In the early 1990s Tansu
Çiller (TAHN•soosee•LAHR) of Turkey became the first female
primeminister to govern a Middle Eastern Muslim country.
ChallengesRapid change in the Middle East also had its neg-
ative side. Crime rose, and the gap between the richand the poor
grew. The greater independence of fam-ily members led to a
loosening of traditional familyties. The availability of cars, TVs,
VCRs, and personalcomputers brought a new materialism to daily
life.Many people in the Middle East blamed the West forthe new
social trends that they did not like.
Saudi ArabiaIn Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Islam, most
people have fiercely resisted undesirable Westerncultural
influences. For hundreds of years, the landthat is now Saudi Arabia
was divided among manytribes. During the early 1900s, these groups
joinedtogether under the Saud family to form the king-dom of Saudi
Arabia. Beginning in the mid-1900s,the Saudi royal family used
income from the oilindustry to support modernization
programs.However, the family, despite its conservative poli-cies,
faces opposition from traditional Saudis whoresist change. By
contrast, more liberal lifestylesprevail in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria,
Jordan, Egypt, andIsrael.
A Return to ReligionIn recent years many Middle Easterners
have
sought solutions to their problems in fundamental-ism, or
adherence to traditional religious values.This development has also
occurred, although indifferent ways, in other parts of the world.
In the
United States, conservative Protestantism has flour-ished and
has expressed itself politically; in India,Hindu nationalists have
won much support.
Some observers view fundamentalism as a nat-ural reaction by
people who are overwhelmed bymassive change and desire security in
long-valuedtraditions. Other experts, however, point out thatthe
continued growth of religious fundamentalismdeepens mistrust and
hardens divisions at a timewhen the world’s peoples need to develop
greaterunderstanding and cooperation.
In the Middle East, the revival of traditional reli-gion has
increased the political influence of Islam inmany countries. Since
1979, Shiite Muslim religiousleaders have ruled Iran. In Turkey,
Egypt, andJordan, the political power of Islam poses a
seriouschallenge to secular forms of government. Israel’sJewish
right-wing religious parties, although smallin size, have
contributed to the rising strength ofpolitical conservatism and
nationalism there.
The most direct confrontation in the MiddleEast between
traditional religion and secularismhas occurred in Turkey. In 1996
Necmettin Erbakanbecame Turkey’s first prime minister from
anIslamic party. Military leaders, however, sawErbakan’s
pro-Islamicist policies as a threat toTurkey’s secular political
traditions. They forcedErbakan from power in 1997, and secular
politiciansthen formed a new government. Many of the newleaders
believe that the country’s Islamic schoolspromote militancy among
students. They have proposed a plan that would force the closing
ofmany Islamic schools. Islamicist supporters haveprotested this
plan as a violation of their religiousfreedom.
Egypt also has seen religious conflict. Since1992, groups in
southern Egypt have sought to oustPresident Hosni Mubarak’s secular
governmentand establish a government based on Islamic prin-ciples.
By 2000, stability seemed to have come toEgypt as the government
placed more emphasis oneconomic growth and social well-being.
Chapter 24 The Middle East 741
Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below
to show how Middle Easterncountries dealt with conflictbetween
traditionalism andmodernism.
Recall2. Define sovereignty,
desalination, fundamentalism.3. Identify Shimon Peres, Hafez
al-Assad, Benjamin Netanyahu,Arab League, Golda Meir,
TansuÇiller.
Critical Thinking4. Applying Information How
has religious fundamentalismimpacted the Middle East?
Understanding Themes5. Cultural Diffusion How
have foreign influences affected modern Middle Eastern
society?
SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT
Political ResponseTraditionalism vs. Modernism
Religious Response
-
742 Chapter 24 The Middle East
M odern poets havecontinued to exploreboth universalthemes, such
as friendship and loneli-ness, as well as individual preferencesfor
a particular place or group of people.
T he following poem was written by one ofMexico’s greatest
writers, Jaime TorresBodet, who was born in 1902 and was active in
poli-tics. Bodet served the government as an administratorand
diplomat. In this poem, Bodet urges people to takerisks in their
lives. Bodet died in 1974.
The WindowTranslated from Spanish by George Kearns
You closed the window, And it was the world,the world that
wanted to enter, all at once,the world that gave that great
shout,that great, deep, rough cryyou did not want to hear—and
nowwill never call to you again as it called today,asking your
mercy!
The whole of life was in that cry:the wind, the sea, the
landwith its poles and its tropics,the unreachable skies,the
ripened grain in the resounding wheat field,the thick heat above
the wine presses,dawn on the mountains, shadowy woods,parched lips
stuck together longing forcool water condensed in pools,and all
pleasures, all sufferings,all loves, all hates,were in this day,
anxiouslyasking your mercy …
But you were afraid of life,And you remained alone,behind the
closed and silent window,not understanding that the world calls to
a manonly once that way, and with that kind of cry,with that great,
rough, hoarse cry!
ModernPoems
by Jaime Torres Bodet,Nazim Hikmet, and
Gabriel Okara
from
-
Chapter 24 The Middle East 743
N azim Hikmet, who lived from 1902 to 1963, often criticized the
governmentof his native Turkey for serving only the wealthy. In
1951 he left Turkey,never to return, and settled in Europe. His
sympathy for the peasants of his country, hislove of nature, and
his hope for humanity are all suggested in the following poem.
The World, My Friends, My Enemies,You, and the EarthTranslated
from Turkish by Randy Blasing and Mutlu Konuk
I’m wonderfully happy I came into the world,I love its earth,
its light, its struggle, and its bread.Even though I know its
dimensions from pole to pole to the
centimeter,and while I’m not unaware that it’s a mere toy next
to the sun,the world for me is unbelievably big.I would have liked
to go around the worldand see the fish, the fruits, and the stars
that I haven’t seen.However,I made my European trip only in books
and pictures.In all my life I never got one letter
with its blue stamp canceled in Asia.Me and our corner
grocer,we’re both mightily unknown in America.Nevertheless,from
China to Spain, from the Cape of Good Hope to Alaska,in every
nautical mile, in every kilometer, I have friends and
enemies.Such friends that we haven’t met even once—we can die
for the same bread, the same freedom, the same dream.And such
enemies that they’re thirsty for my blood,
I am thirsty for their blood.My strengthis that I’m not alone in
this big world.The world and its people are no secret in my
heart,
no mystery in my science.Calmly and openly
I took my placein the great struggle.
And without it,you and the earth
are not enough for me.And yet you are astonishingly
beautiful,
the earth is warm and beautiful.
Nazim Hikmet
-
744 Chapter 24 The Middle East
G abriel Okara, born in 1921, is one of many Nigerian writers to
achieve inter-national acclaim since the 1960s. Others include
Chinua Achebe,Christopher Okigbo, and Wole Soyinka. Some of Okara’s
poems deal with the prob-lems of living in a country that is
influenced by European culture. Others deal withfamily, friends,
and daily life.
Once Upon a TimeOnce upon a time, son,they used to laugh with
their heartsand laugh with their eyes;but now they only laugh with
their teeth,while their ice-block-cold eyessearch behind my
shadow.
There was a time indeedthey used to shake hands with their
hearts;but that’s gone, son.Now they shake hands without
heartswhile their left hands searchmy empty pockets.
“Feel at home,” “Come again,”they say, and when I comeagain and
feelat home, once, twice,there will be no thrice—for then I find
doors shut on me.
So I have learned many things, son.I have learned to wear many
faceslike dresses—homeface,officeface, streetface, hostface,
cock-tailface, with all their conforming smileslike a fixed
portrait smile.
And I have learned, too,to laugh with only my teethand shake
hands without my heart.I have also learned to say, “Goodbye,”when I
mean, “Good-riddance”;to say “Glad to meet you,”without being glad;
and to say “It’s been nice talking to you,” after being bored.
-
Chapter 24 The Middle East 745
But believe me, son.I want to be what I used to bewhen I was
like you. I wantto unlearn all these muting things.Most of all, I
want to relearnhow to laugh, for my laugh in the mirrorshows only
my teeth like a snake’s bare fangs!
So show me, son,how to laugh; show me howI used to laugh and
smileonce upon a time when I was like you.
1. In your own words, define “the great strug-gle” that Hikmet
refers to near the end of hispoem.
2. Explain whether you think the poem by Bodetis written just to
the people of Mexico orwhether it applies to people throughout
the
world.3. What is the main point of the poem by
Okara?4. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment How
does each poet view individuals who are will-ing to act
boldly?
RESPONDING TO LITERATURE
National unity has been difficult for Nigeria to achievebecause
of its diverse ethnic groups. How does the author
remember his childhood years before strife divided the
country?
HistoryVisualizing
-
Reviewing Facts1. History Use a diagram like the one below
to
identify positive and negative effects of mod-ernization in the
Middle East.
2. Geography Discuss how geography helpedmake the Middle East a
scene of cold war rivalry.
3. History Explain the link between the AswanHigh Dam and the
Suez crisis of 1956.
4. History Describe United States President JimmyCarter’s role
in improving relations betweenIsrael and Egypt.
5. Geography Explain the importance of the WestBank, the Gaza
Strip, and the Golan Heights.
6. History Explain why the United States gavesupport to Turkey
and to Iran.
7. History State the reasons for Saddam Hussein’sinvasion of
Kuwait in 1990.
8. Citizenship Discuss why Iran’s Muslim leadersopposed the rule
of the shah.
9. Citizenship Describe the factors that sparkedthe outbreak of
the Palestinian intifada.
Critical Thinking1. Evaluate Do you think that terrorism can
be
justified as a means of attaining political goals?Why or why
not?
Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence.
Then write a sentence for each term not chosen.
a. disengagement g. sovereigntyb. nationalized h. Pan-Arabismc.
fundamentalism i. pactd. intifada j. desalinatione. kibbutzim k.
cartelf. embargo
1. In 1974 United States Secretary of State HenryKissinger
negotiated a ______, or military with-drawal, agreement between
Egypt and Israel.
2. In the quest for regional unity, some Arabnations refuse to
yield their ________ to aninternational body.
3. Some Jewish immigrants to Palestine settled on_________, or
collective farms.
4. In recent years, some Middle Easterners havesupported
religious ________ in their efforts todefend traditional values and
to oppose govern-ments they dislike.
5. In 1987, Palestinians in the West Bank and GazaStrip carried
out an ________ to oppose Israelirule of their areas.
746 Chapter 24 The Middle East
CHAPTER 24 ASSESSMENT
Write an essay about an unresolvedMiddle Eastern issue shown on
your timeline. Gather information about the issue,consider ways of
solving the problems itposes, and evaluate which resolution
youbelieve is most effective.
Using Your History Journal
Modernization in
Middle East
Positive Effects Negative Effects
Self-Check Quiz
Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at
worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 24—Self-Check Quiz
to prepare for the Chapter Test.
Using the Internet Use theInternet to search for anon-line
newspaper with cur-rent articles about the Middle East. Find a
recentarticle pertaining to any news from the MiddleEast. Evaluate
your findings by writing a reportthat contains the source of
information, title,date, and summary of the article. Include
anopinion of whether or not this particular currentevent impacts
your life.
Technology Activity
http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=005&CHAPTER=24&TITLE=The+Middle+East
-
2. Apply How have women’s roles changed in theMiddle East in
recent years? Compare the posi-tion of women in the Middle East
today withthose of women in other parts of the world.
3. Evaluate To what degree do you think humanrights and
democratic government have madeadvances in the Middle East since
1945?
4. Evaluate Saddam Hussein justified Iraq’s inva-sion of Kuwait,
in part, on the grounds ofnationalism and Arab unity. Analyze this
rea-soning. Do you think it is justified?
Geography in History1. Place Refer to the map below. What
country of
the Middle East produced the most oil?2. Location The four main
producers of oil in the
Middle East all border what body of water?3. Region What
correlation is there between the
size, in area, and the amount of oil produced inthe countries
shown?
Understanding Themes1. Nationalism How did the cold war
contribute
to the development of the Suez crisis in 1956?2. Cooperation Why
can the Camp David
Accords be considered a turning point in thehistory of the
modern Middle East?
3. Cultural Diffusion Do you think Saudi Arabia
will succeed in resisting unwanted foreigninfluences while
developing its economy andsociety? Explain.
1. When the state of Israel was founded in1948, Israelis and
Palestinians were bitterenemies. What was the basic issue
thatdivided them in 1948? By 1999, how hadtheir relationship
changed? What issuescontinue to divide them?
2. Religion continues to influence life in theMiddle East. What
recent developmentsreflect this influence? How have religiousideas
and movements shaped events inother parts of the world since World
War II?What impact will they have in the future?
Skill PracticeReview the sample bibliography below for a report
onthe South American country of Brazil. Then answerthe questions
that follow.
Page, Joseph A. The Brazilians. Perseus Press, 1996.McGowan,
Chris and Ricardo Pessanha. The
Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and thePopular Music of
Brazil. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press, 1998.
Skidmore, Thomas. Brazil: Five Centuries ofChange. Oxford
University Press, 1999.
J. F. Hage, “Fulfilling Brazil’s Promise: aConversation with
President Cardoso.”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74, July–August 1995: pp.
62–75.
Levine, J. “The Dance Drink: Brazil’s Samba SoftDrink to be
Marketed in the U.S.” Vol. 154: p. 232.
1. The entries presented above are not listed in thecorrect
order. What author do you think shouldbe listed first?
2. What is missing from the Joseph A. Page booklisting?
3. What is wrong and/or missing in the ThomasSkidmore book
listing?
4. Rewrite the J. F. Hage article listing correctly.5. What do
you think is missing from the J. Levine
listing?
Chapter 24 The Middle East 747
CHAPTER 24 ASSESSMENT
N
E
S
W
10 million metric tons per year
EGYPT
44
TURKEY4
SYRIA
23
IRAN
159
IRAQ
101
KUWAIT60
SAUDIARABIA
320
UNITED ARABEMIRATES
102
Lambert Conic Conformal Projection
0 400
400
800 mi.
0 800 km ArabianSea
Red
Sea
Persian Gulf
MediterraneanSea
Major Oil Producers in the Middle East
World History: The Human Experience, The Modern EraTable of
ContentsReference AtlasWorld (Physical)World (Political)United
States (Political)Middle America (Physical/Political)North America
(Political)South America (Political)Europe (Political)Asia
(Political)Oceania (Physical/Political)Africa (Political)Arctic
Ocean (Physical)Antarctica (Physical)Pacific Rim (Physical)World
(Land Use)Ocean Floor
Historical Atlas and World Data BankGeography HandbookThe Five
Themes of GeographyThemes in World HistoryReading for
InformationUnit 1: The World Before Modern TimesChapter 1: The Rise
of CivilizationsSection 1: Human BeginningsSection 2: Civilizations
in Africa and the Middle EastSection 3: Civilizations in Asia and
the AmericasChapter 1 Assessment
Chapter 2: The Advance of CivilizationsSection 1: GreeceSection
2: Rome and Early ChristianitySection 3: AfricaSection 4:
AsiaSection 5: The AmericasChapter 2 Assessment
Chapter 3: Regional CivilizationsSection 1: Eastern Christian
LandsSection 2: Islamic CivilizationSection 3: Early Medieval
EuropeSection 4: Asia's Pacific RimChapter 3 Assessment
Chapter 4: Toward a New WorldSection 1: Asian EmpiresSection 2:
A New EuropeSection 3: African Kingdoms and City-StatesSection 4:
The AmericasChapter 4 Assessment
Primary Sources Library: Unit 1Standardized Test Practice: Unit
1
Unit 2: Emergence of the Modern WorldChapter 5: Renaissance and
ReformationSection 1: The Italian RenaissanceSection 2: The
Northern RenaissanceSection 3: The Protestant ReformationSection 4:
The Spread of ProtestantismSection 5: The Catholic
ReformationChapter 5 Assessment
Chapter 6: Expanding HorizonsSection 1: Early
ExplorationsSection 2: Overseas EmpiresSection 3: Changing Ways of
LifeChapter 6 Assessment
Chapter 7: Empires of AsiaSection 1: Muslim EmpiresSection 2:
Chinese DynastiesSection 3: The Japanese EmpireSection 4: Southeast
AsiaChapter 7 Assessment
Chapter 8: Royal Power and ConflictSection 1: SpainSection 2:
EnglandSection 3: FranceSection 4: The German StatesSection 5:
RussiaChapter 8 Assessment
Primary Sources Library: Unit 2Standardized Test Practice: Unit
2
Unit 3: Age of RevolutionChapter 9: Scientific RevolutionSection
1: New Scientific IdeasSection 2: Impact of ScienceSection 3:
Triumph of ReasonChapter 9 Assessment
Chapter 10: English and American RevolutionsSection 1: Civil
WarSection 2: A King Returns to the ThroneSection 3: Road to
RevoltSection 4: A War for IndependenceChapter 10 Assessment
Chapter 11: The French RevolutionSection 1: The Old OrderSection
2: Constitutional GovernmentSection 3: Dawn of a New EraSection 4:
Napoleon's EmpireSection 5: Peace in EuropeChapter 11
Assessment
Primary Sources Library: Unit 3Standardized Test Practice: Unit
3
Unit 4: Industry and NationalismChapter 12: Age of
IndustrySection 1: Living from the LandSection 2: The Beginnings of
ChangeSection 3: The Growth of IndustrySection 4: A New
SocietyChapter 12 Assessment
Chapter 13: Cultural RevolutionSection 1: New IdeasSection 2:
The New ScienceSection 3: Popular CultureSection 4: Revolution in
the ArtsChapter 13 Assessment
Chapter 14: Democracy and ReformSection 1: Reform in Great
BritainSection 2: The DominionsSection 3: Political Struggles in
FranceSection 4: Expansion of the United StatesSection 5: Latin
American IndependenceChapter 14 Assessment
Chapter 15: Reaction and NationalismSection 1: The Unification
of ItalySection 2: The Unification of GermanySection 3: Bismarck's
RealmSection 4: Empire of the CzarsSection 5: Austria-Hungary's
DeclineChapter 15 Assessment
Chapter 16: The Age of ImperialismSection 1: Pressures for
ExpansionSection 2: The Partition of AfricaSection 3: The Division
of AsiaSection 4: Imperialism in the AmericasChapter 16
Assessment
Primary Sources Library: Unit 4Standardized Test Practice: Unit
4
Unit 5: World in ConflictChapter 17: World War ISection 1: The
Seeds of WarSection 2: The SparkSection 3: The WarSection 4: The
Russian RevolutionSection 5: Peace at LastChapter 17 Assessment
Chapter 18: Between Two FiresSection 1: The Postwar WorldSection
2: The Western DemocraciesSection 3: Fascist DictatorshipsSection
4: The Soviet UnionChapter 18 Assessment
Chapter 19: Nationalism in Asia, Africa, and Latin
AmericaSection 1: New Forces in the Middle East and AfricaSection
2: India's Struggle for IndependenceSection 3: China's Drive for
ModernizationSection 4: Militarism in JapanSection 5: Nationalism
in Latin AmericaChapter 19 Assessment
Chapter 20: World War IISection 1: The Path to WarSection 2: War
in EuropeSection 3: A Global ConflictSection 4: Turning
PointsSection 5: Allied VictoriesChapter 20 Assessment
Primary Sources Library: Unit 5Standardized Test Practice: Unit
5
Unit 6: The Contemporary WorldChapter 21: The Cold WarSection 1:
The East-West SplitSection 2: The Communist BlocSection 3: Western
EuropeSection 4: The United States and CanadaChapter 21
Assessment
Chapter 22: Asia and the PacificSection 1: Japan's Economic
RiseSection 2: China in RevolutionSection 3: A Divided KoreaSection
4: Southeast AsiaSection 5: South AsiaSection 6: The PacificChapter
22 Assessment
Chapter 23: AfricaSection 1: African IndependenceSection 2:
Africa TodaySection 3: Africa's ChallengeChapter 23 Assessment
Chapter 24: The Middle EastSection 1: Nationalism in the Middle
EastSection 2: War and Peace in the Middle EastSection 3:
Challenges Facing the Middle EastChapter 24 Assessment
Chapter 25: Latin AmericaSection 1: Latin American
ChallengesSection 2: Mexico and the CaribbeanSection 3: Central
AmericaSection 4: South AmericaChapter 25 Assessment
Chapter 26: The World in TransitionSection 1: The End of the
Cold WarSection 2: The Crumbling WallSection 3: Toward a European
UnionSection 4: National and Ethnic ConflictsSection 5: Global
InterdependenceChapter 26 Assessment
Primary Sources Library: Unit 6Standardized Test Practice: Unit
6
AppendixGlossaryIndexSpanish GlossaryAcknowledgments
FeaturesNational Geographic SocietySpecial ReportPicturing
History
The Spread of IdeasBridge to the Past: LiteratureTurning
PointImages of the TimesConnections to . .
.GeographyEconomicsScience and TechnologyThe Arts
Around the WorldFootnotes to HistoryPrimary Sources
LibraryStandardized Test PracticeSkillsSocial Studies
SkillsCritical Thinking SkillsStudy and Writing SkillsTechnology
Skills
MapsCharts, Graphs, and Diagrams
HelpInternet LinkPrevious DocumentSearch - DocumentSearch -
FullPage NavigatorExit