Chapter 2 Understanding and Valuing Differences. A Rich Stew The modern workplace is much more than a melting pot in which contents are transformed into.

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Understanding andUnderstanding and

Valuing DifferencesValuing Differences

A Rich StewA Rich Stew The modern workplace is much more than a The modern workplace is much more than a

melting pot in which contents are transformed into melting pot in which contents are transformed into a uniform mass.a uniform mass.

It is more like a rich stew, with ingredients varying It is more like a rich stew, with ingredients varying in origin and properties, providing different flavors, in origin and properties, providing different flavors, nuances, and textures, and retaining their nuances, and textures, and retaining their character while contributing to the whole.character while contributing to the whole.

Many characteristics of these ingredients are Many characteristics of these ingredients are important, including race and ethnic origin, important, including race and ethnic origin, gender, age, abilities, sexual orientation, gender, age, abilities, sexual orientation, personality, attitudes, and much more.personality, attitudes, and much more.

A Rich Stew (Continued)A Rich Stew (Continued)

As the ingredients become more varied, they offer the As the ingredients become more varied, they offer the potential for an expanded, more exotic and exciting potential for an expanded, more exotic and exciting menu.menu.

Still, it is a challenge to blend the ingredients in ways Still, it is a challenge to blend the ingredients in ways that bring out their best properties.that bring out their best properties.

And, a stew that is a delight to one person may seem And, a stew that is a delight to one person may seem bland or bitter or simply unpalatable to another.bland or bitter or simply unpalatable to another.

In this chapter we explore the challenge of recognizing In this chapter we explore the challenge of recognizing and capturing the best qualities of available and capturing the best qualities of available ingredients -- valuing diversity -- while creating a ingredients -- valuing diversity -- while creating a successful stew -- managing diversity. successful stew -- managing diversity.

Some Individual DifferencesSome Individual Differencesin Organizationsin Organizations

IndividualDifferences

DemographicDiversity

Cross-CulturalDifferences

Perceptions

Attitudes

Personality

Managing DiversityManaging Diversity DiversityDiversity refers to the membership mix in organizations refers to the membership mix in organizations

in terms of gender, race, ethnic origin, and other in terms of gender, race, ethnic origin, and other characteristics.characteristics.

The Pillsbury Company defines diversity as “all the ways The Pillsbury Company defines diversity as “all the ways in which we differ.”in which we differ.”

Historically, many companies have focused on the Historically, many companies have focused on the potential problems created by a diverse workforce.potential problems created by a diverse workforce. It was felt there would be more misunderstandings and It was felt there would be more misunderstandings and

coordination problems as diversity increased.coordination problems as diversity increased. Very real prejudices against members of certain groups, such as Very real prejudices against members of certain groups, such as

blacks and women, could lead to conflict and mistrust.blacks and women, could lead to conflict and mistrust. Increasingly, organizations are learning to value diversity.Increasingly, organizations are learning to value diversity.

Valuing DiversityValuing Diversity

Diversity can provide a powerful competitive Diversity can provide a powerful competitive advantage.advantage.

A diverse workforce brings more perspectives and a A diverse workforce brings more perspectives and a wider range of knowledge to bear on problems, wider range of knowledge to bear on problems, increasing creativity and decision-making effectiveness.increasing creativity and decision-making effectiveness.

Diversity helps the firm understand and meet the needs Diversity helps the firm understand and meet the needs of diverse markets.of diverse markets.

Companies that become successful at managing a Companies that become successful at managing a diverse workforce also see their recruiting prospects diverse workforce also see their recruiting prospects enhanced.enhanced.

Active steps toward fostering diversity in the workplace Active steps toward fostering diversity in the workplace include training for tolerance, rewarding diversity include training for tolerance, rewarding diversity efforts, changing employee attitudes toward diversity, efforts, changing employee attitudes toward diversity, and developing supportive personnel policies.and developing supportive personnel policies.

Focus on Management:Focus on Management:Diversity Awareness at CelaneseDiversity Awareness at Celanese

Ernest Drew, the former CEO of Celanese, became an advocate Ernest Drew, the former CEO of Celanese, became an advocate of a more diverse workforce while attending a conference for of a more diverse workforce while attending a conference for Celanese’s top 125 officers, mostly white men, who were joined Celanese’s top 125 officers, mostly white men, who were joined by about 50 lower-level women and minorities.by about 50 lower-level women and minorities.

The group split into problem-solving teams, some mixed by race The group split into problem-solving teams, some mixed by race and sex and others all white and male, to address questions and sex and others all white and male, to address questions relating to Celanese’s corporate culture.relating to Celanese’s corporate culture.

When the teams presented their findings, one thing seemed When the teams presented their findings, one thing seemed clear to Drew. “It was so obvious that the diverse teams had clear to Drew. “It was so obvious that the diverse teams had the broader solutions. … For the first time, I realized that the broader solutions. … For the first time, I realized that diversity is a strength as it relates to problem solving.”diversity is a strength as it relates to problem solving.”

As a result, Drew made Celanese a pioneer in attracting, As a result, Drew made Celanese a pioneer in attracting, retaining, and promoting women and minorities.retaining, and promoting women and minorities.

The Best Companies for MinoritiesThe Best Companies for Minorities(From Figure 2-1)(From Figure 2-1)

CompanyCompany

# of # of MinoritieMinorities on s on BoardBoard

% % Minority Minority Officials & Officials & ManagersManagers

% % Minority Minority EmployeeEmployeess

CommentsComments

McDonald’s 2 of 16 36% 52.6% 11 of 50 highest paid employees are minorities. 35% of purchases from minority-owned firms.

Fannie Mae 5 of 17 33% 44% 11 of 50 highest paid employees are minorities. Company offers broad diversity training.

Denny’s 3 of 9 29% 47% 46% of franchises are minority owned. Highest proportion of employees undergoing diversity training.

Union Bank of California

3 of 12 39% 55%

Sempra Energy

4 of 14 29% 48%

Training for ToleranceTraining for Tolerance

Firms are adopting many approaches toward Firms are adopting many approaches toward training for tolerance.training for tolerance.

At Celanese, the top 26 officers are each At Celanese, the top 26 officers are each required to join two organizations in which required to join two organizations in which they are a minority.they are a minority.

Firms are also providing training to integrate Firms are also providing training to integrate sexual orientation into ongoing diversity sexual orientation into ongoing diversity efforts. efforts.

Many firms are “gender training” to promote Many firms are “gender training” to promote tolerance between the sexes.tolerance between the sexes.

Rewarding Diversity EffortsRewarding Diversity Efforts

Some firms are tying performance appraisal to Some firms are tying performance appraisal to their efforts to increase diversity.their efforts to increase diversity.

At Celanese, attainment of workforce diversity is At Celanese, attainment of workforce diversity is one of four sets of outcomes that are equally one of four sets of outcomes that are equally weighted in performance appraisals.weighted in performance appraisals.

Coca-Cola’s then chairman and CEO, Douglas Coca-Cola’s then chairman and CEO, Douglas Daft, announced in 2000 that he would tie his Daft, announced in 2000 that he would tie his own compensation and that of others throughout own compensation and that of others throughout the management ranks to diversity goals and the management ranks to diversity goals and would create an executive position for promoting would create an executive position for promoting minorities.minorities.

Changing Employee Attitudes Changing Employee Attitudes Toward DiversityToward Diversity

Companies are using a variety of innovative Companies are using a variety of innovative approaches to develop more positive employee approaches to develop more positive employee diversity-related attitudes and skills.diversity-related attitudes and skills.

US WEST Dex trains its employees via a three-US WEST Dex trains its employees via a three-day diversity awareness workshop.day diversity awareness workshop.

US WEST Dex also uses “resource groups,” US WEST Dex also uses “resource groups,” volunteer-driven meetings that address the volunteer-driven meetings that address the concerns of particular employees, such as concerns of particular employees, such as women, blacks, Hispanics, gays, and lesbians; women, blacks, Hispanics, gays, and lesbians; all employees are encouraged to attend. all employees are encouraged to attend.

Focus on Management: DiversityFocus on Management: DiversitySeminars at Rohm & Haas Texas Seminars at Rohm & Haas Texas

Inc.Inc. At Rohm & Haas cross-functional teams are part of total At Rohm & Haas cross-functional teams are part of total

quality efforts and were selected to take advantage of the quality efforts and were selected to take advantage of the variety of experiences and perspectives offered by diversity.variety of experiences and perspectives offered by diversity.

However, as positions opened up on other teams, employees However, as positions opened up on other teams, employees began to migrate to teams composed of members with whom began to migrate to teams composed of members with whom they felt they had more in common; African American they felt they had more in common; African American employees, for example, would apply for teams with more employees, for example, would apply for teams with more African American members.African American members.

Rohm & Haas launched five-hour awareness seminars that Rohm & Haas launched five-hour awareness seminars that stressed the benefits of diversity and focused on tension that stressed the benefits of diversity and focused on tension that any kind of difference creates.any kind of difference creates.

95% of employees participated, and the company credits the 95% of employees participated, and the company credits the seminars with getting its quality efforts back on track.seminars with getting its quality efforts back on track.

Developing Personnel PoliciesDeveloping Personnel PoliciesThat Support DiversityThat Support Diversity

AT&T, which has announced major job cuts every year AT&T, which has announced major job cuts every year since 1990, monitors workforce reduction by department since 1990, monitors workforce reduction by department and finds creative ways to keep valued workers, and finds creative ways to keep valued workers, regardless of their gender or color.regardless of their gender or color.

Workers may be retrained for work elsewhere in AT&T or Workers may be retrained for work elsewhere in AT&T or assigned to the in-house temporary agency and loaned assigned to the in-house temporary agency and loaned out to various departments until permanent jobs are out to various departments until permanent jobs are found for them.found for them.

AT&T also offers valued laid-off employees an “enhanced AT&T also offers valued laid-off employees an “enhanced leave of absence” in which the employee takes two years leave of absence” in which the employee takes two years off to go to school or travel, with full benefits and off to go to school or travel, with full benefits and assurance of reemployment at the same level and pay if assurance of reemployment at the same level and pay if a job in the company is available upon return.a job in the company is available upon return.

The Bottom Line: Developing aThe Bottom Line: Developing aDiversity ProgramDiversity Program

Obtain theSupport of TopManagement

Develop aDefinition of

What DiversityMeans in theOrganization

Identify SpecificObjectives for the

DiversityProgram

Develop theElements of theProgram That

SupportDiversity Goals

IdentifyMeasures ofthe DiversityProgram’s

Effectiveness

Educate AllEmployeesRegarding

theDiversityProgram

Implementthe

DiversityProgram

Evaluate theDiversity

Program andModify asNeeded

Foster aCulture

ThatSupports the

DiversityProgram

PersonalityPersonality

Understanding PersonalityUnderstanding Personality PersonalityPersonality is the organized and distinctive is the organized and distinctive

pattern of behavior that characterizes an pattern of behavior that characterizes an individual’s adaptation to a situation and individual’s adaptation to a situation and endures over time.endures over time.

The distinctive character of personality allows The distinctive character of personality allows us to tell people apart.us to tell people apart.

The enduring character of personality permits The enduring character of personality permits us to recognize people and to anticipate their us to recognize people and to anticipate their behaviors.behaviors.

Personality determines how people respond to Personality determines how people respond to new situations and interact with others, whether new situations and interact with others, whether they can work on their own, and much else.they can work on their own, and much else.

Aristotle’s ChallengeAristotle’s Challenge

Anyone can become angry -- that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, tothe right degree, at the right time, for theright purpose, and in the right way -- this is not easy.

ARISTOTLE, The Nichomachean Ethics

In The Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotlepresented a challenge to manage ouremotional life with intelligence. Our passions, when well exercised, havewisdom; they guide our thinking, ourvalues, our survival. The question is,how can we bring intelligence to ouremotions?

The Marshmallow TestThe Marshmallow Test Children at age 4 were given an IQ

test and the “Marshmallow Test.” With the Marshmallow Test, the child is given a marshmallow and told that if s/he can put off eating it until later, s/he can have two.

Twelve to fourteen years later, reaction to this moment of impulse was twice as powerful a predictor as IQ of how children did on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. It also predicted adjustment, popularity, confidence, and dependability.

Is IQ Enough?Is IQ Enough?

Most experts now agree that IQ scores are Most experts now agree that IQ scores are heavily influenced by a relatively narrow range heavily influenced by a relatively narrow range of linguistic and math skills.of linguistic and math skills.

So, IQ taps only a small part of the structure of So, IQ taps only a small part of the structure of intellect.intellect.

The skills tapped by IQ tests may be relevant The skills tapped by IQ tests may be relevant to classroom performance but less so as life’s to classroom performance but less so as life’s path diverges from academe.path diverges from academe.

This suggests the need to take a broader view This suggests the need to take a broader view of intelligence. of intelligence.

How Do People Describe AnHow Do People Describe An “Intelligent” Person? “Intelligent” Person?

Solves problems wellSolves problems well Displays interest in the world at largeDisplays interest in the world at large Accepts others for what they areAccepts others for what they are Admits mistakesAdmits mistakes Is goal orientedIs goal oriented Converses wellConverses well

Together, these suggest that people focus on Together, these suggest that people focus on the practical and worldly side of intelligence, the practical and worldly side of intelligence, rather than just on “academic” intelligence.rather than just on “academic” intelligence.

Some Forms of IntelligenceSome Forms of Intelligence(Howard Gardner -- Frames of (Howard Gardner -- Frames of

Mind)Mind) Logical-Logical-

mathematicalmathematical LinguisticLinguistic Bodily-kinestheticBodily-kinesthetic Visual-spatialVisual-spatial MusicalMusical InterpersonalInterpersonal IntrapersonalIntrapersonal NaturalistNaturalist

“IQ”

“EmotionalIntelligence”

Personal IntelligencesPersonal Intelligences

Interpersonal intelligenceInterpersonal intelligence is the is the ability to understand other people: ability to understand other people: what motivates them, how they work, what motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with them.how to work cooperatively with them.

Intrapersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence is the is the capacity to form an accurate model of capacity to form an accurate model of oneself and to be able to use that oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life.model to operate effectively in life.

What Is Emotional Intelligence?What Is Emotional Intelligence?

“Emotional intelligence is a phrase for a different way of being smart. It’s not the usual way of thinking about it -- academic smarts -- IQ -- it’s how you do in life, how you manage yourself, your feelings, how you get along with other people, whether you’re empathic, how well motivated you are.”

Daniel Goleman, author

Emotional Intelligence

Two “Brains”Two “Brains”

The amygdala -- The amygdala -- the “emotional the “emotional brain,” the source brain,” the source of emotional lifeof emotional life

The neocortex -- The neocortex -- the “thinking cap,” the “thinking cap,” source of planning, source of planning, learning, and learning, and memorymemory

The amygdala is deep within the mostelemental parts of the brain.

Questions Calling for EQQuestions Calling for EQ

Should you trust a coworker with a Should you trust a coworker with a confidence?confidence?

Is a friend on the verge of a nervous Is a friend on the verge of a nervous breakdown?breakdown?

How should you behave in an How should you behave in an escalating argument?escalating argument?

How should you respond to a racist How should you respond to a racist joke?joke?

Why Care About Emotional Why Care About Emotional Intelligence?Intelligence?

The emotional brain may “highjack” the rational The emotional brain may “highjack” the rational brain. Fear, rage, and jealousy may prevent us brain. Fear, rage, and jealousy may prevent us from rationally addressing problems.from rationally addressing problems.

EQ is especially important in higher-level jobs, EQ is especially important in higher-level jobs, including leadership roles. While technical skills including leadership roles. While technical skills may suffice in lower-level positions, the ability to may suffice in lower-level positions, the ability to deal with others becomes critical as we advance in deal with others becomes critical as we advance in organizations.organizations.

EQ is critical for working in groups.EQ is critical for working in groups. EQ is needed to effectively manage diversity.EQ is needed to effectively manage diversity. EQ helps us adapt to new situations.EQ helps us adapt to new situations.

Key Emotional Intelligence Key Emotional Intelligence AbilitiesAbilities

Self-AwarenessSelf-Awareness -- Recognizing an emotion as it -- Recognizing an emotion as it engulfs us;engulfs us;

Emotion ManagementEmotion Management -- Controlling reactions to -- Controlling reactions to emotion-laden events so that our response fits the emotion-laden events so that our response fits the situation;situation;

Self-MotivationSelf-Motivation -- Directing emotions in service of a -- Directing emotions in service of a desirable goal;desirable goal;

EmpathyEmpathy -- Recognizing emotions in others; -- Recognizing emotions in others; Relationship ManagementRelationship Management -- Managing the emotions -- Managing the emotions

in others.in others.

Some Consequences of EQSome Consequences of EQ

In business settings, EQ has been found to In business settings, EQ has been found to be related to:be related to:

leadership abilityleadership ability group performancegroup performance individual performanceindividual performance interpersonal/social exchangeinterpersonal/social exchange change management skillschange management skills ability to conduct performance appraisalsability to conduct performance appraisals

Multiple Intelligences at Saturn Multiple Intelligences at Saturn Corp.Corp.

At Saturn Corp., all 10,000 employees are At Saturn Corp., all 10,000 employees are required to take 92 hours of instruction required to take 92 hours of instruction each year.each year.

They first learn about the multiple They first learn about the multiple intelligences.intelligences.

They then select courses of their They then select courses of their choosing, such as safety or leadership.choosing, such as safety or leadership.

Instructors adapt multiple-intelligence Instructors adapt multiple-intelligence training to the programs. They might, for training to the programs. They might, for instance, use music to enhance technical instance, use music to enhance technical training courses.training courses.

Personality TheoriesPersonality Theories Some early personality theories saw Some early personality theories saw

behavior as being related to innate behavior as being related to innate traits, such as independence, traits, such as independence, sociability, and humility. These traits sociability, and humility. These traits were felt to be stable, enduring, and were felt to be stable, enduring, and interrelated. The unique combination interrelated. The unique combination of these traits was seen as a clue to of these traits was seen as a clue to personality.personality.

According to Sigmund Freud’s According to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theorypsychoanalytic theory, we are , we are motivated by drives or instincts. We motivated by drives or instincts. We may be unaware of these drives, and may be unaware of these drives, and they are largely outside our control.they are largely outside our control.

Personality Theories (Continued)Personality Theories (Continued) Humanistic-existential theoriesHumanistic-existential theories focus on the total focus on the total

personality of the individual rather than on the personality of the individual rather than on the separate behaviors that make up the personality. separate behaviors that make up the personality. They emphasize striving for awareness and fulfillment They emphasize striving for awareness and fulfillment of human potential.of human potential.

Learning theoriesLearning theories see personality as a set of see personality as a set of patterns of learned behaviors. That is, personalities patterns of learned behaviors. That is, personalities differ because people have different experiences in differ because people have different experiences in childhood and throughout life.childhood and throughout life.

Together, the approaches provide a variety of Together, the approaches provide a variety of potentially useful perspectives for examining and potentially useful perspectives for examining and predicting human behavior.predicting human behavior.

Some Key Personality Some Key Personality DimensionsDimensions

PERSONALITY

Risk-TakingPropensity

ProactivePersonality

Authoritarianism

Dogmatism

Locus ofControl

Tolerance forAmbiguity

Machiavellianism

Self-Monitoring

Type A andType B

The “Big 5”

Risk-Taking PropensityRisk-Taking Propensity People differ markedly in their People differ markedly in their risk-taking risk-taking

propensitypropensity.. Some are risk averse; they like to “play it Some are risk averse; they like to “play it

safe,” choosing alternatives that are likely to safe,” choosing alternatives that are likely to give a relatively low but certain return.give a relatively low but certain return.

Others -- risk seekers -- like to gamble. They Others -- risk seekers -- like to gamble. They prefer alternatives that may turn out very prefer alternatives that may turn out very well or very poorly.well or very poorly.

Risk seekers tend to make fast decisions Risk seekers tend to make fast decisions based on relatively little information.based on relatively little information.

Proactive PersonalityProactive Personality ProactivityProactivity is the extent to which people take is the extent to which people take

actions to influence their environments/actions to influence their environments/ Proactive individuals look for opportunities, Proactive individuals look for opportunities,

show initiative, take action, and persevere until show initiative, take action, and persevere until they are able to bring about change.they are able to bring about change.

Proactive individuals have been shown to Proactive individuals have been shown to engage in high levels of entrepreneurial engage in high levels of entrepreneurial activities and to have relatively high levels of activities and to have relatively high levels of job performance.job performance.

This is a trait that is highly valued by employers.This is a trait that is highly valued by employers.

AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism AuthoritarianAuthoritarian individuals believe that power and status individuals believe that power and status

should be clearly defined and that there should be a should be clearly defined and that there should be a hierarchy of authority.hierarchy of authority.

They feel that authority should be concentrated in the They feel that authority should be concentrated in the hands of a few leaders and that this authority should be hands of a few leaders and that this authority should be obeyed.obeyed.

Authoritarian leaders expect unquestioning obedience to Authoritarian leaders expect unquestioning obedience to their commands.their commands.

Authoritarian subordinates willingly give obedience.Authoritarian subordinates willingly give obedience. Authoritarian individuals are likely to be comfortable in Authoritarian individuals are likely to be comfortable in

organizations that emphasize rules and the chain of organizations that emphasize rules and the chain of command.command.

DogmatismDogmatism DogmaticDogmatic individuals are closed-minded.individuals are closed-minded. They have rigid belief systems and “doggedly” stick to They have rigid belief systems and “doggedly” stick to

their opinions, refusing to revise them in the face of their opinions, refusing to revise them in the face of conflicting evidence.conflicting evidence.

Dogmatic individuals make decisions quickly, based Dogmatic individuals make decisions quickly, based on relatively little information, and are confident in on relatively little information, and are confident in their decisions.their decisions.

They like to follow the rules and are unlikely to They like to follow the rules and are unlikely to consider novel alternatives.consider novel alternatives.

They may perform acceptably in well-defined, routine They may perform acceptably in well-defined, routine situations, but do poorly in situations requiring situations, but do poorly in situations requiring creativity.creativity.

Locus of ControlLocus of Control Locus of controlLocus of control is an indicator of an individual’s is an indicator of an individual’s

sense of control over the environment and external sense of control over the environment and external events.events. A person with an internal locus of control feels in control of A person with an internal locus of control feels in control of

his or her life.his or her life. A person with an external locus of control feels controlled by A person with an external locus of control feels controlled by

fate, chance, and circumstance. fate, chance, and circumstance. Internals are generally more highly motivated than Internals are generally more highly motivated than

externals.externals. Leaders who are internal tend to choose more Leaders who are internal tend to choose more

innovative strategies and to be more proactive and innovative strategies and to be more proactive and future oriented.future oriented.

Tolerance for AmbiguityTolerance for Ambiguity

Individuals with high Individuals with high tolerance for tolerance for ambiguityambiguity welcome uncertainty and change. welcome uncertainty and change.

Those with low tolerance for ambiguity see Those with low tolerance for ambiguity see such situations as threatening and such situations as threatening and uncomfortable.uncomfortable.

Since managers are increasingly facing Since managers are increasingly facing dynamic, unstructured situations, tolerance dynamic, unstructured situations, tolerance for ambiguity is clearly an important for ambiguity is clearly an important characteristic.characteristic.

MachiavellianismMachiavellianism Machiavellians:Machiavellians:

think any behavior is think any behavior is acceptable if it achieves acceptable if it achieves their goalstheir goals

try to manipulate otherstry to manipulate others are unemotional and are unemotional and

detacheddetached ““look out for Number One”look out for Number One” aren’t likely to be good aren’t likely to be good

team playersteam players are relatively likely to be are relatively likely to be

unethicalunethical

NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI

Web Wise: Machiavelli’s The Web Wise: Machiavelli’s The PrincePrince

The term The term Machiavellian Machiavellian comes from Niccolo comes from Niccolo Machiavelli, author of Machiavelli, author of The PrinceThe Prince. . Machiavelli wrote Machiavelli wrote The PrinceThe Prince as a practical as a practical guide for the ruling Medici family on how to guide for the ruling Medici family on how to deal with the problems a monarch faces in deal with the problems a monarch faces in staying in power.staying in power.

The main theme of the book is that princes The main theme of the book is that princes should retain absolute control of their should retain absolute control of their territories and should use any means territories and should use any means necessary to accomplish this end, including necessary to accomplish this end, including deceit.deceit.

The book has caused Machiavelli’s name to The book has caused Machiavelli’s name to become synonymous with self-serving, become synonymous with self-serving, manipulative, deceitful behavior.manipulative, deceitful behavior.

Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring Self-monitoringSelf-monitoring is a person’s ability to is a person’s ability to

adjust his or her behavior to external, adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.situational factors.

High self-monitors:High self-monitors: are very sensitive to external cues and are are very sensitive to external cues and are

“chameleon-like.”“chameleon-like.” can present striking contradictions between can present striking contradictions between

their public and private lives -- are capable of their public and private lives -- are capable of “disguise.”“disguise.”

are effective in “boundary role” situations and are effective in “boundary role” situations and other situations requiring multiple “faces.”other situations requiring multiple “faces.”

High self-monitors are more likely to High self-monitors are more likely to assume leadership roles than low self-assume leadership roles than low self-monitorsmonitors

Type A and Type BType A and Type B Type AType A individuals:individuals:

feel great time pressure and impatience.feel great time pressure and impatience. work aggressively, speak explosively, and find work aggressively, speak explosively, and find

themselves constantly struggling.themselves constantly struggling. Type BType B individuals show the opposite pattern -- individuals show the opposite pattern --

relaxed, steady-paced, and easygoing.relaxed, steady-paced, and easygoing. Type A individuals:Type A individuals:

are much more likely than Type B’s to experience are much more likely than Type B’s to experience high stress levels and associated symptoms, high stress levels and associated symptoms, including coronary heart disease. including coronary heart disease.

have trouble delegating responsibility to others, have trouble delegating responsibility to others, don’t work well in groups, and are impatient with don’t work well in groups, and are impatient with tasks requiring prolonged problem solving.tasks requiring prolonged problem solving.

Relatively few Type A’s rise to high levels in Relatively few Type A’s rise to high levels in organizations.organizations.

The “Big 5” ModelThe “Big 5” Model

ExtraversionExtraversion:: Sociable, talkative, assertive Sociable, talkative, assertive AgreeablenessAgreeableness:: Good-natured, cooperative, Good-natured, cooperative,

trustingtrusting ConscientiousnessConscientiousness:: Responsible, Responsible,

dependable, persistent, achievement orienteddependable, persistent, achievement oriented Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability:: Calm, enthusiastic, Calm, enthusiastic,

securesecure Openness to ExperienceOpenness to Experience:: Imaginative, Imaginative,

artistically sensitive, intellectualartistically sensitive, intellectual

The “Big 5” and PerformanceThe “Big 5” and Performance

Extraverts tend to take on leadership Extraverts tend to take on leadership roles.roles.

Agreeableness is especially significant in Agreeableness is especially significant in careers where teamwork or customer careers where teamwork or customer service is important.service is important.

Conscientious individuals have high Conscientious individuals have high levels of job performance.levels of job performance.

Openness to experience is related to Openness to experience is related to performance in training programs.performance in training programs.

Why Care About Globalization?Why Care About Globalization?

You are likely to spend part of your career in other You are likely to spend part of your career in other countries.countries.

According to Andrew Grove, with globalization “every According to Andrew Grove, with globalization “every employee will compete with every person in the world employee will compete with every person in the world who is capable of doing the same job. There are a lot of who is capable of doing the same job. There are a lot of them, and many of them are very hungry.”them, and many of them are very hungry.”

You may suddenly find yourself working for a foreign You may suddenly find yourself working for a foreign firm.firm.

Your firm -- and your job -- will increasingly depend on Your firm -- and your job -- will increasingly depend on international trade.international trade.

You will be managing a culturally diverse workforce even You will be managing a culturally diverse workforce even if you never leave the U.S.if you never leave the U.S.

Diversity on the New York Diversity on the New York YankeesYankees

During the 1998 season New York Yankees During the 1998 season New York Yankees pitching coach Mel Stottlemeyer did a pitching coach Mel Stottlemeyer did a masterful job of overseeing one of the masterful job of overseeing one of the most international pitching staffs in major most international pitching staffs in major league baseball.league baseball.

The staff included Graeme Lloyd from The staff included Graeme Lloyd from Australia, Orlando “El Duque” Hernandez Australia, Orlando “El Duque” Hernandez from Cuba, Hideki Irabu from Japan, and from Cuba, Hideki Irabu from Japan, and Ramiro Mendoza and Mariano Rivera from Ramiro Mendoza and Mariano Rivera from Panama.Panama.

They led the Yankees to 114 wins, the They led the Yankees to 114 wins, the most in American League history.most in American League history.

The Hofstede FrameworkThe Hofstede Framework

Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher who worked as a psychologist for who worked as a psychologist for IBM, studied 116,000 people working IBM, studied 116,000 people working in 64 countries.in 64 countries.

He identified five important He identified five important dimensions on which national dimensions on which national cultures differ.cultures differ.

The Hofstede FrameworkThe Hofstede Framework

NationalCulture

TimeOrientation

Individualism vs.Collectivism

PowerDistance

UncertaintyAvoidance

Quality VersusQuantity of Life

Individualism and CollectivismIndividualism and Collectivism IndividualismIndividualism refers to a loosely knit social framework refers to a loosely knit social framework

in which people are chiefly supposed to look after their in which people are chiefly supposed to look after their own interests and those of their immediate family. The own interests and those of their immediate family. The society offers individuals a great amount of freedom.society offers individuals a great amount of freedom.

CollectivismCollectivism refers to a tight social framework in refers to a tight social framework in which people expect other groups to which they belong which people expect other groups to which they belong to look after them and protect them in times of trouble. to look after them and protect them in times of trouble. In exchange for security, they offer loyalty. “The nail In exchange for security, they offer loyalty. “The nail that sticks out will be pounded down.”that sticks out will be pounded down.”

Individualistic countries include Australia, the U.S., Individualistic countries include Australia, the U.S., Great Britain, and the Netherlands. Collectivist Great Britain, and the Netherlands. Collectivist countries include Columbia, Pakistan, Venezuela, Peru, countries include Columbia, Pakistan, Venezuela, Peru, and Taiwan.and Taiwan.

Power DistancePower Distance Power DistancePower Distance is the degree to which a society is the degree to which a society

accepts the fact that power in institutions and accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.organizations is distributed unequally. A high-power-distance society accepts wide differences A high-power-distance society accepts wide differences

in power in organizations. Employees show great in power in organizations. Employees show great respect for authority, titles, status, and rank. Titles are respect for authority, titles, status, and rank. Titles are important in bargaining.important in bargaining.

A low-power-distance society plays down inequalities as A low-power-distance society plays down inequalities as much as possible.much as possible.

High-power-distance countries include the Philippines, High-power-distance countries include the Philippines, Mexico, and India. Low-power-distance countries include Mexico, and India. Low-power-distance countries include Denmark, Israel, and Ireland.Denmark, Israel, and Ireland.

Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance refers to the way societies refers to the way societies

deal with uncertainty.deal with uncertainty. In low-uncertainty-avoidance countries people are In low-uncertainty-avoidance countries people are

relatively comfortable with risks, and are more relatively comfortable with risks, and are more tolerant of behavior and opinions that differ from their tolerant of behavior and opinions that differ from their own.own.

In high-uncertainty-avoidance countries, there is a In high-uncertainty-avoidance countries, there is a high level of anxiety among the people.high level of anxiety among the people.

Formal rules and other mechanisms are created to Formal rules and other mechanisms are created to provide security and reduce risk.provide security and reduce risk.

There is less tolerance of deviant ideas and There is less tolerance of deviant ideas and behaviors.behaviors.

Members strive to believe in absolute truths. Members strive to believe in absolute truths. Low-uncertainty-avoidance countries include Switzerland Low-uncertainty-avoidance countries include Switzerland

& Denmark. High-uncertainty-avoidance countries & Denmark. High-uncertainty-avoidance countries include Japan & Greece.include Japan & Greece.

Quality Versus Quantity of LifeQuality Versus Quantity of Life

Some cultures emphasize the Some cultures emphasize the quantity of lifequantity of life and value assertiveness and the acquisition of and value assertiveness and the acquisition of money and natural things.money and natural things.

Some cultures emphasize the Some cultures emphasize the quality of lifequality of life and the importance of relationships, and show and the importance of relationships, and show sensitivity and concern for the welfare of sensitivity and concern for the welfare of others.others.

Japan and Austria score high on quantity of life. Japan and Austria score high on quantity of life. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland score Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland score high on quality of life.high on quality of life.

Time OrientationTime Orientation A A long-term orientationlong-term orientation is derived from values is derived from values

of thrift (saving) and persistence in achieving of thrift (saving) and persistence in achieving goals.goals.

A A short-term orientationshort-term orientation is derived from is derived from values that express a concern for maintaining values that express a concern for maintaining personal stability or happiness and living for the personal stability or happiness and living for the present.present.

Japan and Hong Kong have a long-term Japan and Hong Kong have a long-term orientation, while France and Indonesia have a orientation, while France and Indonesia have a short-term orientation.short-term orientation.

High-Context and Low-Context High-Context and Low-Context CulturesCultures

Another key factor is whether cultures are high or low Another key factor is whether cultures are high or low context.context.

In a In a high-contexthigh-context culture, such as most Asian, Hispanic, culture, such as most Asian, Hispanic, African, and Arab countries, the context in which African, and Arab countries, the context in which communication occurs is just as important as the words that communication occurs is just as important as the words that are actually spoken, and cultural clues are important in are actually spoken, and cultural clues are important in understanding what is being communicated. The context understanding what is being communicated. The context includes the social setting, use of phrasing, gestures, and includes the social setting, use of phrasing, gestures, and tone of voice, and the person’s history and status.tone of voice, and the person’s history and status.

In a In a low-contextlow-context culture, such as Germany and the U.S., the culture, such as Germany and the U.S., the words used by the speaker explicitly convey the speaker’s words used by the speaker explicitly convey the speaker’s message to the listener.message to the listener.

Context and Nonverbal Context and Nonverbal CommunicationsCommunications

Nonverbal communications are especially important in high-Nonverbal communications are especially important in high-context cultures. Most immigrants to the U.S. are now coming context cultures. Most immigrants to the U.S. are now coming from high-context cultures.from high-context cultures.

Nonverbal communications have dramatically different meanings Nonverbal communications have dramatically different meanings across cultures. For example:across cultures. For example: Nodding your head means “Yes” in most countries but “No” in Nodding your head means “Yes” in most countries but “No” in

Bulgaria and Greece.Bulgaria and Greece. The classic “OK” sign of thumb and forefinger forming a circle The classic “OK” sign of thumb and forefinger forming a circle

can imply “money” in Japan, means “worthless” in France, and can imply “money” in Japan, means “worthless” in France, and is considered an obscene gesture in Brazil, Germany, and is considered an obscene gesture in Brazil, Germany, and Russia.Russia.

In Saudi Arabia, to cross your legs in such a way as to display In Saudi Arabia, to cross your legs in such a way as to display the sole of your foot to your host is a grievous affront.the sole of your foot to your host is a grievous affront.

Americans expect eye contact in a conversation, but Hispanics Americans expect eye contact in a conversation, but Hispanics consider eye contact, especially with a superior, to be consider eye contact, especially with a superior, to be disrespectful.disrespectful.

The Bottom Line:The Bottom Line:Managing Cross-Cultural Managing Cross-Cultural

DifferencesDifferences

Develop anUnderstanding of

the Cultural Beliefsand Practices

of Others

Develop anUnderstanding of

the Cultural Beliefsand Practices

of Others

Maintain a Flexibleand Open-Minded

Attitude toManaging People

Maintain a Flexibleand Open-Minded

Attitude toManaging People

DemonstrateRespect for

Cross-CulturalDifferences in

Employees

DemonstrateRespect for

Cross-CulturalDifferences in

Employees

Be Sensitive to HowOthers May Have

DifferingInterpretations ofYour Statements

and Actions

Be Sensitive to HowOthers May Have

DifferingInterpretations ofYour Statements

and Actions

Discuss Misunderstandingsor Conflicts that Occur Due to

Cross-Cultural Differences in Order To Enhance Mutual

Understanding

Discuss Misunderstandingsor Conflicts that Occur Due to

Cross-Cultural Differences in Order To Enhance Mutual

Understanding

Maintaining Accurate PerceptionsMaintaining Accurate Perceptions We all live in our own world.We all live in our own world. It is a world created by our attempts to sift through, to It is a world created by our attempts to sift through, to

organize, and to interpret the tremendous number of organize, and to interpret the tremendous number of things we see, hear, feel, and otherwise constantly things we see, hear, feel, and otherwise constantly sense.sense.

It is different from all other worlds -- the unique It is different from all other worlds -- the unique product of a complex process.product of a complex process.

The “truth” in our world depends on whether The “truth” in our world depends on whether something is consistent with the rest of that world.something is consistent with the rest of that world.

The nature of our unique world helps determine how The nature of our unique world helps determine how we behave.we behave.

The Perceptual ProcessThe Perceptual Process

PerceptionPerception is the complex process by which is the complex process by which we select, organize, and interpret sensory we select, organize, and interpret sensory stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world.of the world.

The perceptual process involves several The perceptual process involves several steps, including sensation, selection, steps, including sensation, selection, organization, and translation.organization, and translation.

In the first step, sensation, many stimuli In the first step, sensation, many stimuli impact on our sensory filters, but only some impact on our sensory filters, but only some are sensed. Others are filtered out, perhaps are sensed. Others are filtered out, perhaps because they are at very low levels or are not because they are at very low levels or are not in a particular range.in a particular range.

The Perceptual ProcessThe Perceptual Process(Figure 2-2)(Figure 2-2)

Stimuli Sensation

PhysiologicalReaction to

Stimuli

Selection

ConsciousAwarenessof Stimuli

Organization

Placement ofSelected

Stimuli into aFrameworkfor Storage

Translation

Interpretationof Stimuli

Selecting StimuliSelecting Stimuli If our perceptions were not selective, If our perceptions were not selective,

we would be overwhelmed.we would be overwhelmed. Many factors affect selection, some Many factors affect selection, some

of which are potentially troublesome.of which are potentially troublesome. Perceptual readinessPerceptual readiness causes us to causes us to

see things we expect to see.see things we expect to see. Different people will select stimuli Different people will select stimuli

based on their needs and based on their needs and personalities.personalities.

Stimuli that contrast with the Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more surrounding environment are more likely to be selected.likely to be selected.

Repetition of a stimulus makes it Repetition of a stimulus makes it more likely to be perceived.more likely to be perceived.

Organizing StimuliOrganizing Stimuli

Once stimuli have been selected, they must be Once stimuli have been selected, they must be organized in a useful framework.organized in a useful framework.

Things we group together tend to be recalled Things we group together tend to be recalled together, and their meanings tend to influence together, and their meanings tend to influence one another.one another.

In general, we are likely to group things that are In general, we are likely to group things that are somehow similar.somehow similar.

We tend to organize things so closure occurs. We tend to organize things so closure occurs. That is, we “close up” or “fill in” missing parts to That is, we “close up” or “fill in” missing parts to create a meaningful whole.create a meaningful whole.

Interpreting StimuliInterpreting Stimuli We interpret stimuli at the translation step of the perceptual We interpret stimuli at the translation step of the perceptual

process.process. The way we interpret the stimuli we have selected and The way we interpret the stimuli we have selected and

organized depends on the situation, our characteristics, and organized depends on the situation, our characteristics, and the characteristics of the thing being perceived.the characteristics of the thing being perceived.

Many distortions of objective reality are possible at the Many distortions of objective reality are possible at the translation stage. Some of these, such as the Hering illusion, translation stage. Some of these, such as the Hering illusion, are simply due to quirks in the way our senses work.are simply due to quirks in the way our senses work.

Other distortions are more subtle but no less important. Other distortions are more subtle but no less important. These include stereotyping, Pygmalion effect, halo effect, These include stereotyping, Pygmalion effect, halo effect, projection, primacy/recency effects, and perceptual defense.projection, primacy/recency effects, and perceptual defense.

The Hering IllusionThe Hering Illusion(Figure 2-4)(Figure 2-4)

The “Hering Illusion” illustrates a quirk in the way our senses work. Two parallel lines appear curved because of the nature of their background.

StereotypingStereotyping Walter Lippmann coined the term Walter Lippmann coined the term stereotypingstereotyping in 1922, in 1922,

describing stereotypes as “pictures in people’s heads” that describing stereotypes as “pictures in people’s heads” that distorted their perceptions of others.distorted their perceptions of others.

The term is now often used to mean the forming of an opinion The term is now often used to mean the forming of an opinion of people based on group membership.of people based on group membership.

Stereotyping, if accurate, may be useful since it efficiently Stereotyping, if accurate, may be useful since it efficiently places information into categories. When we face new places information into categories. When we face new situations, stereotypes provide guidelines to help classify situations, stereotypes provide guidelines to help classify people.people.

Unfortunately, stereotyping may lead to a distorted view of Unfortunately, stereotyping may lead to a distorted view of the situation if stereotyping is based on false premises.the situation if stereotyping is based on false premises.

Stereotyping in work organizations may be harmful to minority Stereotyping in work organizations may be harmful to minority group members, older workers, and females.group members, older workers, and females.

Pygmalion EffectPygmalion Effect

Pygmalion and Galatea

Pygmalion effectPygmalion effect refers to creating refers to creating something in the image we have of it.something in the image we have of it.

It is a prime example of self-fulfilling It is a prime example of self-fulfilling prophecy.prophecy.

Teachers, managers, and others often Teachers, managers, and others often demonstrate this effect.demonstrate this effect.

For instance, teachers who were told that For instance, teachers who were told that certain students were especially intelligent certain students were especially intelligent (when, in fact, they were not) later perceived (when, in fact, they were not) later perceived those students to show signs of greater those students to show signs of greater intelligence and higher performance. As a intelligence and higher performance. As a result, they treated them differently. These result, they treated them differently. These “intelligent” students then showed gains in “intelligent” students then showed gains in intellectual capacity, while others did not.intellectual capacity, while others did not.

Halo EffectHalo Effect

Halo EffectHalo Effect refers to a process in which a judge refers to a process in which a judge uses a general impression that is favorable or uses a general impression that is favorable or unfavorable (a “horns effect”) to evaluate specific unfavorable (a “horns effect”) to evaluate specific traits.traits.

Sometimes one trait, such as a subordinate’s Sometimes one trait, such as a subordinate’s enthusiasm, forms the halo.enthusiasm, forms the halo.

So, if the boss feels the subordinate is enthusiastic, So, if the boss feels the subordinate is enthusiastic, he or she may also see the subordinate as loyal, he or she may also see the subordinate as loyal, efficient, courteous, and so on.efficient, courteous, and so on.

If we make evaluations on the basis of a halo and If we make evaluations on the basis of a halo and the traits aren’t really linked, the result is halo error. the traits aren’t really linked, the result is halo error.

Other Perceptual DistortionsOther Perceptual Distortions ProjectionProjection is the tendency to project our own characteristics is the tendency to project our own characteristics

on others. For instance, if we feel fearful, we may perceive on others. For instance, if we feel fearful, we may perceive others as fearful. People with traits such as stinginess or others as fearful. People with traits such as stinginess or obstinacy tend to rate others as relatively high on these traits.obstinacy tend to rate others as relatively high on these traits.

Primacy/Recency EffectsPrimacy/Recency Effects. . We give especially heavy weight We give especially heavy weight to stimuli we receive early (a to stimuli we receive early (a primacy effectprimacy effect) or recently (a ) or recently (a recency effectrecency effect). Intermediate stimuli receive less weight.). Intermediate stimuli receive less weight.

Perceptual DefensePerceptual Defense. . When we face information we find to be When we face information we find to be threatening or unacceptable, our perceptions try to defend us. threatening or unacceptable, our perceptions try to defend us. We may fail to perceive the troublesome stimuli, or we may We may fail to perceive the troublesome stimuli, or we may distort our perceptions of the stimuli to make them less distort our perceptions of the stimuli to make them less troublesome.troublesome.

Implicit TheoriesImplicit Theories Implicit theoriesImplicit theories are theories in people’s minds. are theories in people’s minds. For instance, we may believe that jobs offering more For instance, we may believe that jobs offering more

challenge also offer more authority. Or we may believe challenge also offer more authority. Or we may believe that leaders who let their subordinates participate more in that leaders who let their subordinates participate more in decision making also care more about their subordinates.decision making also care more about their subordinates.

These implicit theories may be correct or incorrect.These implicit theories may be correct or incorrect. Implicit theories may influence perceptions at the Implicit theories may influence perceptions at the

selection, organization, and translation stages.selection, organization, and translation stages. For instance, if we see evidence concerning one element For instance, if we see evidence concerning one element

of the theory, we are likely to perceive other elements of the theory, we are likely to perceive other elements also. also.

Causal AttributionCausal Attribution

Causal attributionCausal attribution is the process of forming is the process of forming perceptions about the causes underlying perceptions about the causes underlying others’ behaviors.others’ behaviors.

Causal attribution may be especially important Causal attribution may be especially important to determine whether the behaviors were the to determine whether the behaviors were the result of internal factors, such as the person’s result of internal factors, such as the person’s motives or traits, or of external factors, such as motives or traits, or of external factors, such as luck or the situation.luck or the situation.

Causal Attribution (Cont.)Causal Attribution (Cont.) According to According to attribution theoryattribution theory, we try to sort , we try to sort

out the causes of an individual’s behavior by out the causes of an individual’s behavior by considering three factors:considering three factors: Did others act the same way in the same situation?Did others act the same way in the same situation? Does this person always act this way in this situation?Does this person always act this way in this situation? Does this person act differently in other situations?Does this person act differently in other situations?

This process is prone to error. For instance, we This process is prone to error. For instance, we tend to attribute the behavior of others to internal tend to attribute the behavior of others to internal factors, even when this is not appropriate. Also, factors, even when this is not appropriate. Also, self-serving biasself-serving bias -- the tendency to take credit -- the tendency to take credit for successes and deny personal responsibility for for successes and deny personal responsibility for failures -- is often seen.failures -- is often seen.

Focus on Management:Focus on Management:Attribution Theory at Boots the Attribution Theory at Boots the

ChemistChemist Boots the Chemist, a British pharmaceutical firm, Boots the Chemist, a British pharmaceutical firm,

wanted a test to select potential sales assistants.wanted a test to select potential sales assistants. It developed a new questionnaire based on It developed a new questionnaire based on

attribution theory.attribution theory. It was predicted -- and shown in subsequent It was predicted -- and shown in subsequent

research -- that the most successful sales research -- that the most successful sales performers and those rated most highly for their performers and those rated most highly for their customer care would be more likely to attribute customer care would be more likely to attribute outcomes to controllable factors, such as their outcomes to controllable factors, such as their own effort or choice of sales strategies.own effort or choice of sales strategies.

The questionnaire is now used in the selection The questionnaire is now used in the selection process for sales assistants and to help identify process for sales assistants and to help identify developmental needs.developmental needs.

Reducing Perceptual ErrorsReducing Perceptual Errors People who are aware of their own characteristics People who are aware of their own characteristics

make fewer errors in perceiving others and are less make fewer errors in perceiving others and are less likely to see the world in black-and-white terms.likely to see the world in black-and-white terms.

People who are able to accept themselves as they People who are able to accept themselves as they are can see a wider range of characteristics in others are can see a wider range of characteristics in others and may be less prone to projection.and may be less prone to projection.

Simple knowledge of such tendencies as halo error, Simple knowledge of such tendencies as halo error, stereotyping, and self-serving bias may help to avoid stereotyping, and self-serving bias may help to avoid them.them.

It is important to make a conscious effort to attend to It is important to make a conscious effort to attend to relevant information and to test reality.relevant information and to test reality.

The Bottom Line:The Bottom Line:Increasing Perceptual AccuracyIncreasing Perceptual Accuracy

Talk to All PartiesInvolved in the

SituationIndividually --

Emphasize ObtainingObjective Information

Talk to All PartiesInvolved in the

SituationIndividually --

Emphasize ObtainingObjective Information

Maintain an Open-Minded Attitude

and Do Not Jumpto Conclusions

Prematurely

Maintain an Open-Minded Attitude

and Do Not Jumpto Conclusions

Prematurely

Be Aware of YourOwn Biases andAssumptions in

Trying toUnderstand the

Situation

Be Aware of YourOwn Biases andAssumptions in

Trying toUnderstand the

Situation

Develop anUnderstanding ofHow Others Viewthe Situation fromTheir Perspectives

Develop anUnderstanding ofHow Others Viewthe Situation fromTheir Perspectives

Formulate YourOverall View

of the Situation

Formulate YourOverall View

of the Situation

Meet with the PartiesInvolved as a Groupto Develop a Mutual

Understanding ofthe Issues at Hand

Meet with the PartiesInvolved as a Groupto Develop a Mutual

Understanding ofthe Issues at Hand

AttitudesAttitudes

AttitudesAttitudes are the beliefs, feelings, are the beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies held by a and behavioral tendencies held by a person about an object, event, or person about an object, event, or person (called the person (called the attitude objectattitude object).).

The Components of AttitudesThe Components of Attitudes

The The cognitive componentcognitive component of attitudes is our of attitudes is our cognitions, or beliefs about the facts pertaining cognitions, or beliefs about the facts pertaining to the attitude object. This is descriptive to the attitude object. This is descriptive information rather than liking or intentions.information rather than liking or intentions.

The The affective componentaffective component of attitudes is made of attitudes is made up of our feelings toward the attitude object. up of our feelings toward the attitude object. The affective component involves evaluation and The affective component involves evaluation and emotion.emotion.

The The behavioral tendency componentbehavioral tendency component of of attitudes is the way we intend to behave toward attitudes is the way we intend to behave toward the attitude object.the attitude object.

The Components of AttitudesThe Components of Attitudes(Figure 2-5)(Figure 2-5)

Cognitive

Affective

BehavioralTendency

Why Care About Attitudes?Why Care About Attitudes?

Attitudes may influence work behaviors, such Attitudes may influence work behaviors, such as turnover or absenteeism.as turnover or absenteeism.

Attitudes may influence things of direct Attitudes may influence things of direct concern to the employee, such as stress concern to the employee, such as stress levels, ability to sleep, and attitudes toward levels, ability to sleep, and attitudes toward other aspects of life.other aspects of life.

Attitudes are important for their own sake, Attitudes are important for their own sake, independent of their consequences. independent of their consequences. Employees spend half their waking lives at Employees spend half their waking lives at work. work.

Some Potential Relationships of Some Potential Relationships of Attitudes to Behaviors (Figure 2-6)Attitudes to Behaviors (Figure 2-6)

COGNITIVECOMPONENT

BEHAVIORAL

TENDENCYCOMPONENT

AFFECTIVECOMPONENT

WORK QUALITY

ABSENTEEISM

TURNOVER

ACCIDENTS

SABOTAGE

Attitudes Behaviors

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Job satisfactionJob satisfaction is the affective is the affective component of work-related attitudes.component of work-related attitudes.

Quite simply, it is how employees feel Quite simply, it is how employees feel about their jobs.about their jobs.

Managers may be concerned about Managers may be concerned about employees’ satisfaction with specific employees’ satisfaction with specific facets of the job, as well as about their facets of the job, as well as about their overall job satisfaction.overall job satisfaction.

Job Facet Satisfaction and Overall Job Facet Satisfaction and Overall Satisfaction (Figure 2-7)Satisfaction (Figure 2-7)

Overall JobSatisfaction

Overall JobSatisfaction

Satisfaction

With Promotions

Satisfaction

With Coworkers

Satisfaction

With PaySatisfactio

nWith

Supervision

Satisfaction

With Work Itself

Measuring Job SatisfactionMeasuring Job Satisfaction Measuring job satisfaction provides information Measuring job satisfaction provides information

concerning what is, and isn’t, being done concerning what is, and isn’t, being done correctly in the workplace.correctly in the workplace.

The most popular approach to measuring job The most popular approach to measuring job satisfaction is to use standardized scales. They satisfaction is to use standardized scales. They have been widely used and tested, and norm have been widely used and tested, and norm data are often available.data are often available.

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is the best-known The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is the best-known scale to measure facets of job satisfaction.scale to measure facets of job satisfaction.

It is often helpful to assess overall job satisfaction It is often helpful to assess overall job satisfaction as well.as well.

Measuring Job Satisfaction (Cont.)Measuring Job Satisfaction (Cont.) In addition to paper-and-pencil tests, satisfaction may In addition to paper-and-pencil tests, satisfaction may

be assessed by use of the critical incidents method, be assessed by use of the critical incidents method, interviews, or confrontation meetings.interviews, or confrontation meetings.

The The critical incidents methodcritical incidents method as applied to as applied to measuring job satisfaction asks employees to recall measuring job satisfaction asks employees to recall incidents that were particularly satisfying or incidents that were particularly satisfying or dissatisfying to them.dissatisfying to them.

InterviewsInterviews allow in-depth questioning about the nature allow in-depth questioning about the nature and causes of sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.and causes of sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Confrontation meetingsConfrontation meetings bring together groups of bring together groups of employees who are encouraged to openly express their employees who are encouraged to openly express their feelings about their jobs.feelings about their jobs.

Job Descriptive Index: Supervision Job Descriptive Index: Supervision Subscale Sample Items (Figure 2-8)Subscale Sample Items (Figure 2-8)

The following adjectives and phrases describe five aspects of a job: the work itself, supervision, pay, promotions, and coworkers. Carefully consider each adjective or phrase and indicate whether or not it is true of your job by circling:

Y for YES, this is true of my job.? for I cannot decide if this is true of my job.N for NO, this is not true of my job.

The Supervision on My Job

Asks my advice …………………… Y ? NHard to please …………………….. Y ? NImpolite …………………………….. Y ? NInfluential …………………………... Y ? NStubborn …………………………… Y ? NKnows job well ……………………. Y ? N

Determinants of Job SatisfactionDeterminants of Job Satisfaction There are two primary views of the determinants of job There are two primary views of the determinants of job

satisfaction -- situational and dispositional.satisfaction -- situational and dispositional. The The situational perspectivesituational perspective sees satisfaction as largely sees satisfaction as largely

due to things in the environment of the employee, such as due to things in the environment of the employee, such as the nature of the job, reward system and supervision. If the nature of the job, reward system and supervision. If this view is correct, it may be possible to influence this view is correct, it may be possible to influence satisfaction levels by changing such things.satisfaction levels by changing such things.

The The dispositional perspectivedispositional perspective sees satisfaction as due sees satisfaction as due to individual factors -- some people are simply more to individual factors -- some people are simply more satisfied in general than are others -- and thus as relatively satisfied in general than are others -- and thus as relatively stable and more difficult to change. If this view is valid, stable and more difficult to change. If this view is valid, varying the situation may have little impact on satisfaction.varying the situation may have little impact on satisfaction.

Situational Determinants of Situational Determinants of SatisfactionSatisfaction

Many work-related factors influence Many work-related factors influence job satisfaction (see Figure 2-9).job satisfaction (see Figure 2-9).

Among these, equitable rewards, work Among these, equitable rewards, work itself, and others in the organization itself, and others in the organization (such as the supervisor) are quite (such as the supervisor) are quite important.important.

We examine the specific roles of many We examine the specific roles of many of these factors in later chapters.of these factors in later chapters.

Dispositional Determinants of Dispositional Determinants of SatisfactionSatisfaction

A direct approach to examining the dispositional perspective A direct approach to examining the dispositional perspective is simply to measure the degree to which people seem to be is simply to measure the degree to which people seem to be generally positive or negative in their outlooks.generally positive or negative in their outlooks.

These are called These are called positive affectivitypositive affectivity and and negative negative affectivityaffectivity. Research consistently shows these measures to . Research consistently shows these measures to predict levels of job satisfaction.predict levels of job satisfaction.

The dispositional view is also supported by studies that The dispositional view is also supported by studies that follow people as they move across jobs through their lives; follow people as they move across jobs through their lives; one study found overall attitudes to be quite stable over a one study found overall attitudes to be quite stable over a period of nearly 50 years.period of nearly 50 years.

Another interesting approach to examining the dispositional Another interesting approach to examining the dispositional view looks at identical twins reared apart. One famous study view looks at identical twins reared apart. One famous study found identical twins reared apart to have considerable found identical twins reared apart to have considerable similarity in satisfaction levels despite different jobs.similarity in satisfaction levels despite different jobs.

Work-Related Influences on Work-Related Influences on SatisfactionSatisfaction

(From Figure 2-9)(From Figure 2-9)Work Factors Effects Work Itself Challenge Physical Demands Personal Interest

Mentally challenging work that the individual can successfully accomplish is satisfying. Tiring work is dissatisfying. Personally interesting work is satisfying.

Reward Structure Rewards that are equitable and that provie accurate feedback on performance are satisfying.

Working Conditions Physical Goal Attainment

Satisfaction depends on the match between working conditions and physical needs. Working conditions that permit goal attainment are satisfying.

Others in the Organization

Individuals will be satisfied with other in the organization who help them attain rewards, and with those who see things the same way they do.

Organization and Management

Individuals will be satisfied with organizations that have policies and procedures designed to help them attain rewards. They will be dissatisfied with conflicting and/or ambiguous roles.

Fringe Benefits Fringe benefits do not have a strong influence on job satisfaction for most employees.

The Bottom Line:The Bottom Line:Enhancing Employee Job Enhancing Employee Job

SatisfactionSatisfaction

Assess EmployeeSatisfaction with

Various Job Facets

Assess EmployeeSatisfaction with

Various Job Facets

Identify Job Facetswith Which

Employees areHighly Satisfied orHighly Dissatisfied

Identify Job Facetswith Which

Employees areHighly Satisfied orHighly Dissatisfied

Develop an Under-standing of the

Underlying Causes ofthe Employees’Satisfaction orDissatisfaction

Develop an Under-standing of the

Underlying Causes ofthe Employees’Satisfaction orDissatisfaction

Develop Strategiesfor Enhancing

Satisfaction with JobFacets for Which

Employees are NotCurrently Satisfied

Develop Strategiesfor Enhancing

Satisfaction with JobFacets for Which

Employees are NotCurrently Satisfied

Develop Strategiesfor Maintaining

Satisfaction withJob Facets for

Which EmployeesAre Now Satisfied

Develop Strategiesfor Maintaining

Satisfaction withJob Facets for

Which EmployeesAre Now Satisfied

Implement theStrategies

Implement theStrategies

Job InvolvementJob Involvement Job involvementJob involvement is the degree to which employees is the degree to which employees

really are involved with -- that is, “get into” -- their really are involved with -- that is, “get into” -- their jobs. Job involvement is high when the job is very jobs. Job involvement is high when the job is very important in the person’s life and central to the important in the person’s life and central to the person’s self-concept.person’s self-concept.

Statements reflecting high job involvement include:Statements reflecting high job involvement include: The most important things that happen to me involve my job.The most important things that happen to me involve my job. The major satisfaction of my life comes from my job.The major satisfaction of my life comes from my job. I live, eat, and breathe my job.I live, eat, and breathe my job.

Companies want their employees to be involved in Companies want their employees to be involved in their jobs, but overly high levels of job involvement their jobs, but overly high levels of job involvement may be undesirable.may be undesirable.

Work involvementWork involvement relates to work in general rather relates to work in general rather than the specific job.than the specific job.

Work Involvement Across Work Involvement Across CulturesCultures

Americans work longer hours and take less Americans work longer hours and take less leisure time off than peoples of other leisure time off than peoples of other advanced nations.advanced nations.

The average hours worked per year in 2001 The average hours worked per year in 2001 were:were: 1,877 in the United States1,877 in the United States 1,840 in Japan1,840 in Japan 1,708 in Great Britain1,708 in Great Britain 1,596 in France1,596 in France 1,480 in Germany1,480 in Germany

Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment

Organizational commitmentOrganizational commitment reflects reflects the degree to which the employee the degree to which the employee shows:shows: (1) a strong desire to remain as a (1) a strong desire to remain as a

member of the organizationmember of the organization (2) a willingness to exert high levels (2) a willingness to exert high levels

of effort on behalf of the organizationof effort on behalf of the organization (3) a belief in, and acceptance of, the (3) a belief in, and acceptance of, the

values and goals of the organization.values and goals of the organization.

Organizational Commitment (Cont.)Organizational Commitment (Cont.) Affective commitmentAffective commitment is an emotional attachment is an emotional attachment

characterized by strong affective ties to the characterized by strong affective ties to the organization and psychological identification with it. It organization and psychological identification with it. It flows from liking the firm, sharing its values, and caring flows from liking the firm, sharing its values, and caring about its fate. about its fate.

Continuance commitmentContinuance commitment results from consideration results from consideration of the benefits of organizational membership and the of the benefits of organizational membership and the perceived costs of leaving. It flows from the belief that perceived costs of leaving. It flows from the belief that one one needsneeds to stay with the firm since better to stay with the firm since better alternatives are lacking.alternatives are lacking.

High levels of organizational commitment, while High levels of organizational commitment, while generally desirable, may cause poor-performing generally desirable, may cause poor-performing employees to be reluctant to leave, may stifle dissent, employees to be reluctant to leave, may stifle dissent, and may even lead to illegal or unethical acts. and may even lead to illegal or unethical acts.

Real and Expressed AttitudesReal and Expressed Attitudes People’s expressed attitudes may differ dramatically from People’s expressed attitudes may differ dramatically from

their true attitudes.their true attitudes. People may hide or falsely report their true attitudes People may hide or falsely report their true attitudes

because they feel the attitudes may be unpopular or because they feel the attitudes may be unpopular or somehow lead to retribution.somehow lead to retribution.

Further, they may attempt to disguise their emotions, Further, they may attempt to disguise their emotions, since emotions reflect attitudes.since emotions reflect attitudes.

In many cases, employees are required to express certain In many cases, employees are required to express certain emotions as part of their work roles, such as employees emotions as part of their work roles, such as employees who are told they must smile. As such, these employees’ who are told they must smile. As such, these employees’ smiles say nothing about their true feelings.smiles say nothing about their true feelings.

Do Attitudes Cause Behaviors?Do Attitudes Cause Behaviors? Many researchers have found surprisingly weak links Many researchers have found surprisingly weak links

between attitudes and behaviors.between attitudes and behaviors. One reason for this is that people may have no choice but One reason for this is that people may have no choice but

to behave in certain ways. They may, for instance, stay to behave in certain ways. They may, for instance, stay on jobs they hate because they have no alternatives.on jobs they hate because they have no alternatives.

It is important to recognize that a person’s behavior It is important to recognize that a person’s behavior depends on many things beyond attitude, including depends on many things beyond attitude, including pressures exerted by others, the nature of the job market, pressures exerted by others, the nature of the job market, and personality characteristics.and personality characteristics.

On the other hand, research may underestimate the On the other hand, research may underestimate the strength of the linkage of attitudes to behaviors if people strength of the linkage of attitudes to behaviors if people don’t reveal their true attitudes or the measures of don’t reveal their true attitudes or the measures of attitudes or behaviors are poor.attitudes or behaviors are poor.

When Do Attitudes Best Predict When Do Attitudes Best Predict Behaviors?Behaviors?

In general, attitudes will best predict In general, attitudes will best predict behaviors when:behaviors when:

The attitude is specific to the behavior.The attitude is specific to the behavior. The attitude is potent.The attitude is potent. The attitude is salient (that is, more The attitude is salient (that is, more

noticeable or prominent in our attention).noticeable or prominent in our attention). The behavior is not constrained or subject The behavior is not constrained or subject

to other influences.to other influences.

Some Potential Consequences of Some Potential Consequences of Dissatisfaction (Figure 2-10)Dissatisfaction (Figure 2-10)

ContinuedDissatisfaction Frustration

Leave theSource of

Frustration

Try to MinimizeImpact of

Frustration

Strike Back atSource of

Frustration

Channel offFrustration

Displacement

AccusationNegativism

Informal GroupsStrikes

Sabotage

ApathyRationalizing

DaydreamingTardiness

AbsenteeismTurnover

Satisfaction and TurnoverSatisfaction and Turnover Costs of turnover include disruption of the work process, the Costs of turnover include disruption of the work process, the

loss of employees with valuable skills, knowledge, and loss of employees with valuable skills, knowledge, and experience, and low productivity of new employees during experience, and low productivity of new employees during the training period.the training period.

In some industries, turnover rates may exceed 100% In some industries, turnover rates may exceed 100% annually. Overall, voluntary turnover rates were 20.3% in annually. Overall, voluntary turnover rates were 20.3% in 2002.2002.

Research clearly shows that more satisfied workers are less Research clearly shows that more satisfied workers are less likely to leave the firm. A little over 15% of the variance in likely to leave the firm. A little over 15% of the variance in turnover is related to variance in satisfaction.turnover is related to variance in satisfaction.

The relationship of satisfaction to turnover is indirect and is The relationship of satisfaction to turnover is indirect and is influenced by many pressures and factors, such as wishes of influenced by many pressures and factors, such as wishes of family members, feelings about the community, aversion to family members, feelings about the community, aversion to change, and economic conditions.change, and economic conditions.

A Model of the Relationship of A Model of the Relationship of Satisfaction to Turnover (Figure 2-Satisfaction to Turnover (Figure 2-

11)11)Job

Satisfaction Thoughtsof Quitting

Quit/Stay

Age/Tenure

Probability ofFinding AnotherAcceptable Job

Intention toSearch forNew Job Intention to

Quit/Stay

Satisfaction and AbsenteeismSatisfaction and Absenteeism Absenteeism can be quite costly for companies. Typically, Absenteeism can be quite costly for companies. Typically,

companies continue to pay absent employees. Also, companies continue to pay absent employees. Also, absenteeism causes costly disruptions, such as the need to absenteeism causes costly disruptions, such as the need to reschedule work and reassign employees.reschedule work and reassign employees.

One estimate is that such disruptions cause productivity to One estimate is that such disruptions cause productivity to drop by as much as 2.5% for every 1% increase in drop by as much as 2.5% for every 1% increase in absenteeism.absenteeism.

An estimated 400 million person-days are lost annually to An estimated 400 million person-days are lost annually to absenteeism, at a cost of $25 billion.absenteeism, at a cost of $25 billion.

In 2002, overall absence rates were 4.12% and In 2002, overall absence rates were 4.12% and absenteeism cost firms an average of $789 per employee.absenteeism cost firms an average of $789 per employee.

Satisfaction and absenteeism are negatively related, Satisfaction and absenteeism are negatively related, though the association is not as strong as we might expect.though the association is not as strong as we might expect.

While job satisfaction may influence motivation to attend, While job satisfaction may influence motivation to attend, attendance also depends on pressure to attend and ability attendance also depends on pressure to attend and ability to attend.to attend.

A Model of the Relationship ofA Model of the Relationship ofSatisfaction to Attendance (Figure 2-Satisfaction to Attendance (Figure 2-

12)12)

JobSatisfaction

Motivationto Attend

Attendance

Ability toAttend

Pressure toAttend

Satisfaction and PerformanceSatisfaction and Performance While it seems reasonable to expect that satisfied While it seems reasonable to expect that satisfied

workers would be more productive, many studies show workers would be more productive, many studies show this is not the case, at least to any appreciable degree.this is not the case, at least to any appreciable degree.

Early studies of the satisfaction - performance Early studies of the satisfaction - performance relationship concluded that the relationship is so low relationship concluded that the relationship is so low as to be negligible; a major statistical summary of as to be negligible; a major statistical summary of previous research showed that only about 3% of the previous research showed that only about 3% of the variance in performance was associated with variance variance in performance was associated with variance in satisfaction.in satisfaction.

While the traditional view of this relationship viewed While the traditional view of this relationship viewed satisfaction as causing performance, it may be the satisfaction as causing performance, it may be the case that performance causes satisfaction.case that performance causes satisfaction.

Satisfaction and PerformanceSatisfaction and Performance(Continued)(Continued)

According to this view, performance levels affect the According to this view, performance levels affect the rewards people receive. If employees feel their rewards are rewards people receive. If employees feel their rewards are fair, they will be satisfied. If not, they will be dissatisfied.fair, they will be satisfied. If not, they will be dissatisfied.

If this model is correct, why aren’t satisfaction-performance If this model is correct, why aren’t satisfaction-performance relationships stronger? Quite simply, because some relationships stronger? Quite simply, because some companies don’t properly reward employees.companies don’t properly reward employees.

Most studies of the satisfaction - performance relationship Most studies of the satisfaction - performance relationship have used a narrow definition of performance, such as have used a narrow definition of performance, such as quantity of output.quantity of output.

Research shows that broader measures of performance -- Research shows that broader measures of performance -- such as organizational citizenship behaviors -- are more such as organizational citizenship behaviors -- are more directly caused by satisfaction. directly caused by satisfaction.

Two Views of the Satisfaction-Two Views of the Satisfaction-Performance Relationship (Figure Performance Relationship (Figure

2-13)2-13)

Satisfaction Effort Performance

(a) View 1: Satisfaction Causes Performance

(b) View 2: Performance Causes Satisfaction

Performance Effort Satisfaction

PerceivedEquitable Rewards

Satisfaction and Work ViolenceSatisfaction and Work Violence Workplace violence, including homicide, is increasing. Homicide is Workplace violence, including homicide, is increasing. Homicide is

now the number-3 work-related cause of death, and is the now the number-3 work-related cause of death, and is the leadingleading cause of death for women in the workplace.cause of death for women in the workplace.

An estimated 1.7 million workers are injured in nonfatal workplace An estimated 1.7 million workers are injured in nonfatal workplace assaults annually and more than 1,000 are murdered.assaults annually and more than 1,000 are murdered.

Dissatisfaction does play a role in this violence. Violence is Dissatisfaction does play a role in this violence. Violence is especially great in regimented settings, such as post offices, where especially great in regimented settings, such as post offices, where employees feel they have no control over their work.employees feel they have no control over their work.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have formally The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have formally declared workplace homicide an epidemic.declared workplace homicide an epidemic.

Some firms, such as IBM, are training managers to recognize Some firms, such as IBM, are training managers to recognize aggressive behavior and effectively deal with it through aggressive behavior and effectively deal with it through communication and conflict management.communication and conflict management.

Satisfaction and Nonwork LifeSatisfaction and Nonwork Life Some possible relationships of job satisfaction to Some possible relationships of job satisfaction to

satisfaction with nonwork life include:satisfaction with nonwork life include: Perhaps job satisfaction carries over to nonwork satisfaction Perhaps job satisfaction carries over to nonwork satisfaction

(a “spillover” view).(a “spillover” view). Perhaps employees who are satisfied at work devote so much Perhaps employees who are satisfied at work devote so much

time and energy at work that they ignore other aspects of time and energy at work that they ignore other aspects of their lives, resulting in low satisfaction with nonwork life.their lives, resulting in low satisfaction with nonwork life.

Perhaps employees compensate for dissatisfaction at work by Perhaps employees compensate for dissatisfaction at work by focusing more on home life and finding satisfaction there.focusing more on home life and finding satisfaction there.

Most research supports the spillover view that Most research supports the spillover view that satisfaction in one sphere of life seems to increase satisfaction in one sphere of life seems to increase satisfaction in other spheres.satisfaction in other spheres.

The Financial Impact of AttitudesThe Financial Impact of Attitudes

The area of The area of behavioral accountingbehavioral accounting is trying to is trying to assess the financial impact of attitudes.assess the financial impact of attitudes.

It does this by examining the costs of such It does this by examining the costs of such behaviors as turnover and absenteeism and the behaviors as turnover and absenteeism and the strength of their links to attitudes.strength of their links to attitudes.

One study used behavioral accounting to estimate One study used behavioral accounting to estimate the costs of absenteeism, turnover, and balancing the costs of absenteeism, turnover, and balancing shortages of 160 bank tellers.shortages of 160 bank tellers.

The study concluded that moderate The study concluded that moderate improvements in attitudes averaging perhaps 0.7 improvements in attitudes averaging perhaps 0.7 on a seven-point scale would yield the bank on a seven-point scale would yield the bank savings of $781,892, or $4,886.83 per employee.savings of $781,892, or $4,886.83 per employee.

The Role of MoodThe Role of Mood MoodMood is a transient mental state or attitude, perhaps is a transient mental state or attitude, perhaps

caused by something as fleeting as a sunny day, caused by something as fleeting as a sunny day, convenient parking spot, or good meal.convenient parking spot, or good meal.

Mood can affect job satisfaction as well as behaviors.Mood can affect job satisfaction as well as behaviors. People who are in a good mood do helpful things.People who are in a good mood do helpful things. Interestingly, bad mood Interestingly, bad mood alsoalso often leads to helping often leads to helping

behaviors; helping others makes us feel better about behaviors; helping others makes us feel better about ourselves.ourselves.

Helping softens a bad mood and sustains a good mood.Helping softens a bad mood and sustains a good mood. Important work behaviors such as prosocial behaviors Important work behaviors such as prosocial behaviors

may be heavily influenced by mood.may be heavily influenced by mood.

Do Behaviors Cause Attitudes?Do Behaviors Cause Attitudes?

Behaviors may cause attitudes by:Behaviors may cause attitudes by: Dissonance reduction. Dissonance reduction. Cognitive dissonanceCognitive dissonance is an is an

uncomfortable situation in which we have conflicting uncomfortable situation in which we have conflicting thoughts, such as “I don’t like my job, but I stay on it.” thoughts, such as “I don’t like my job, but I stay on it.” To reduce the dissonance, we may change one or both To reduce the dissonance, we may change one or both cognitions to make them consistent. So, we may change cognitions to make them consistent. So, we may change our attitudes to make them consistent with our our attitudes to make them consistent with our behaviors.behaviors.

Consequences of behavior. Behaviors may lead to Consequences of behavior. Behaviors may lead to consequences that affect attitudes. For example, consequences that affect attitudes. For example, performance may lead to a pay increase which may lead performance may lead to a pay increase which may lead to increased satisfaction with pay.to increased satisfaction with pay.

Do Behaviors Cause Attitudes? (Cont.)Do Behaviors Cause Attitudes? (Cont.) Self-AttributionSelf-Attribution. Behaving in a certain way can lead us . Behaving in a certain way can lead us

to make corresponding attributions about ourselves. For to make corresponding attributions about ourselves. For example, smiling (for no good reason) can apparently example, smiling (for no good reason) can apparently induce a good mood and increase willingness to laugh at induce a good mood and increase willingness to laugh at humorous material. Even though we’re playing a role, we humorous material. Even though we’re playing a role, we seem to internalize the attitudes and moods that maintain seem to internalize the attitudes and moods that maintain the role.the role.

IndoctrinationIndoctrination. Brainwashing and cult recruitment are . Brainwashing and cult recruitment are two forms of indoctrination that have proven to be two forms of indoctrination that have proven to be effective. In brainwashing, for instance, torture or threat effective. In brainwashing, for instance, torture or threat may be used to cause victims to yield to their oppressors’ may be used to cause victims to yield to their oppressors’ cause. As victims engage in the behavior and pressure is cause. As victims engage in the behavior and pressure is reduced, they come to infer that the behavior was reduced, they come to infer that the behavior was voluntary, and their attitudes change accordingly. voluntary, and their attitudes change accordingly.